Sunnis

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Distribution of Muslim Faiths:
Green : Sunni areas; Red : Shiite areas; Blue : Ibadites (Oman)

The Sunni ( Arabic أهل السنه, DMG ahl as-sunna  'People of the Sunna') form the largest religious group in Islam . Their beliefs themselves are referred to as Sunniism or Sunnism . The name is derived from the Arabic word sunna ('custom, way of doing things, traditional norm, tradition'). The Sunnis see themselves as those who follow the sunnat an-nabī , the "Sunna of the Prophet" (sc. Mohammed ). In addition to ahl as-sunna , the expanded expression ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa ("people of the sunna and the community") is also often used in Arabic . When the Sunnis are confronted as a collective with the Shia , they are sometimes referred to as just as-Sunna ("the Sunna"). In the field of norms and dogmatics there are several courses among the Sunnis. However, there is no consensus among Muslim scholars on the question of which dogmatic schools of study belong to Sunniism. The Sunni doctrines are presented in various creeds , which, however, differ in details depending on the dogmatic orientation of the authors.

Today the Shiites are considered to be the most important opposing group to the Sunnis, however, in the Middle Ages, Sunni self-confidence developed not only in dissociation from the Shiites, but also from the Kharijites , Qadarites and Murji'ites . The Sunnis see themselves as "the saved sect" and the middle of the Muslims. Since the end of the 20th century there heftigte clashes between Ash'arite and the Salafists who are mutually exclusive from the Sunni Islam. The rivalry between the two groups was also visible on two Sunnitenkonferenzen in 2016: While in the Sunnitenkonferenz of Grozny which in August 2016 Takfir operated Salafists , including the IS organization , were excluded from the Sunni Islam, a few months later found in Kuwait a second Sunni conference was held at which Salafism was declared the only true form of Sunniism.

distribution

According to estimates by the Pew Research Center from 2009, 87–90% of all Muslims worldwide are Sunnis. Sunnis make up the majority of Muslims in most Islamic countries (see list of countries by Muslim population ), but a 2012 survey by the Pew Research Center showed that the Sunni identity is not equally pronounced among the Muslim population in all of these countries . In this survey, Muslims were asked to assign themselves to one of the following categories: “Sunni”, “Shiite” or “something else”. While around 90% percent of Muslims in Jordan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, Turkey and Egypt consider themselves to be Sunnis, in countries such as Kazakhstan (16%), Uzbekistan (18%), Mali (20%), Indonesia (26%) ) and Nigeria (38%), which are also considered to be countries with a Sunni majority, are significantly lower. Many of the Muslims questioned there refused to assign themselves to a special denominational group and said on their own when asked that they were “only Muslims”.

The only countries in which the Sunnis do not represent the largest Muslim population group statistically are Iraq , Iran , Oman , Lebanon , Azerbaijan and Bahrain . In Iraq, almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Twelve Shia , but there are also regions such as the Sunni Triangle in the north-west of the country where the Sunnis make up the majority of the population. In Iran, the Sunnis make up around 9% of the population. Most Sunnis belong to the Kurdish , Baluch and Turkmen ethnic groups and live in the north-western and south-eastern border regions of the country, although there are also Sunnis among the Persians and Arabs . In Bahrain around 75% of the population is Shiite, but political life has been dominated by a few tribal Sunni families since the 18th century .

According to REMID, there are around 2.64 million Sunnis living in Germany . According to the Bertelsmann Foundation's 2017 Religion Monitor , which is based on surveys of Muslims, the proportion of Sunnis among Muslims in Germany is 61%. With a total of 4.4 to 4.7 million Muslims in Germany, this gives a total of 2.684 to 2.867 million Sunnis. According to the Religion Monitor, the proportion of Sunnis among Muslims in Austria is 64% (in absolute figures: approx. 320,000), in Switzerland it is 51% (in absolute figures: 172,380). In the United Kingdom the proportion of Sunnis is 75% (equivalent to 2.25 million) and in France it is 52% (equivalent to 2.756 million).

Courses

Geographical distribution of the four Sunni and other Islamic subjects

In the field of norms

In the field of norms theory ( Fiqh ), four teaching directions are generally recognized as Sunni today, namely those of the Hanafis , the Malikites , the Shafiites and the Hanbalites . Differences between these disciplines are not only evident in legal issues, but also on a ritual level, for example in ritual prayer and purity regulations .

However, this number of four has by no means always been fixed. For example, ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī (d. 1037) reckoned in addition to these four groups also the followers of al-Auzāʿī (gets. 774), Sufyān ath-Thaurī (d. 778), Ibn Abī Lailā (d. 765 ) and Abū Thaur (d. 854) and the Zahirites to the Sunnis. The system of four Sunni schools of instruction in Fiqh can be traced back to the late 12th century. During this time, the Andalusian traveler Ibn Jubair reports of "four Sunni imams" in the Haram of Mecca who led their own prayer groups there.

In the area of ​​doctrine

The doctrine of the three groups

There is no agreement among Muslim scholars on the question of which dogmatic tendencies are to be assigned to the Sunnis. Since the early modern era, the idea is nachweisber that belong to three groups the Sunnis: 1. by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari named (died 935th) Ash'arite , second after Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (died 941st) named Māturīdites and 3. a differently named third group, which is traditionalist-oriented and which rejects the rational speculation of the Kalām advocated by the Māturīdites and Ashʿarites . The Syrian scholar ʿAbd al-Bāqī Ibn Faqīh Fussa (d. 1661) calls this third traditionalist group the Hanbalites. His compatriot Muhammad ibn Ahmad as-Saffārīnī (d. 1774) , who lived a century later, uses the name Atharīya for them , which is derived from the Arabic word for traditional traditions ( āṯār ); however, he also means the followers of Ahmad ibn Hanbal .

The late Ottoman thinker İsmail Hakkı İzmirli (d. 1946), who also represented the doctrine of the three groups of Sunniism , called the traditionalist group Salafīya , but also used Atharīya as an alternative name. In the Māturīdīya he gives Nasafīya as a possible alternative name.

Another name that is used for the traditionalist-oriented group is "People of Hadith " ( ahl al-ḥadīṯ ). It is used, for example, in the final document of the Grozny Conference. However, only those “people of the Hadith” who practice tafwīḍ are ascribed to being Sunni , ie who refrain from interpreting the ambiguous statements of the Koran.

Narrow definitions

There were also Muslim scholars who wanted to limit the Sunni term to the Ash Aarites and Māturīdites alone. For example, Murtadā az-Zabīdī (d. 1790) wrote in his commentary on al-Ghazālī's Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn : “If (sc. The term) ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa is used, then the Ashʿarites and Māturīdites meant. ”This position was also adopted by the Egyptian Fatwa Office in July 2013 . During the Ottoman period, many efforts were made to establish extensive harmony between the teachings of the Ashʿarīya and the Māturīdīya. Finally, there were also scholars who regarded the Ashʿarites alone as Sunnis. For example, the Moroccan Sufi Ahmad ibn ʿAdschība (d. 1809) declared in his commentary on Fātiha : "As far as the Sunnis are concerned, it is the Ash Aarites and those who follow them in their correct beliefs."

Conversely, there were also scholars who excluded the Ashʿarites from Sunniism. The Andalusian scholar Ibn Hazm (d. 1064) said that Abū l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī belonged to the Murji'a , namely those who were particularly distant from the Sunnis in terms of faith.

Sunnis in general and in a specific sense

The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taimīya (d. 1328) distinguished in his work Minhāǧ as-sunna between Sunnis in the general sense ( ahl as-unna al-ʿāmma ) and Sunnis in the special sense ( ahl as-sunna al-ḫāṣṣa ). Sunnis in the general sense are all Muslims who recognize the caliphate of the three caliphs (sc. Abū Bakr , ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb and ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān ). In his view, this includes all Islamic groups except the Shiite Rāfidites . Sunni in the special sense are only the "people of the hadith" ( ahl al-ḥadīṯ ).

İsmail Hakkı İzmirli, who took over the distinction between a wider and narrower circle of Sunnis from Ibn Taimīya, said that the Kullābīya and the Aschʿarīya were the Sunnis in the general sense, while the Salafīya represented the Sunnis in the special sense. Of the Māturīdīya he only says that they are closer to the Salafīya than the Ashʿarīya because it is a group that excels more strongly in Fiqh than in Kalām . The Saudi scholar Muhammad Ibn al-ʿUthaimīn (d. 2001), who, like Ibn Taimīya, differentiated between Sunnis in general and special sense, also excluded the Ashʿarites from the circle of Sunnis in the special sense and took the view that only the pious ancestors ( as-salaf aṣ-ṣāliḥ ), who have agreed on the Sunnah and adhere to it, belonged to this circle.

The classification of Sufism

There is broad agreement that the Sufis are also part of Sunniism. This view can already be found in the Shafiite scholar ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī (d. 1037). In his heresiographic work al-Farq baina l-firaq, he divided the Sunnis into eight different categories ( aṣnāf ) of people: 1. the theologians and Kalām scholars, 2. the Fiqh scholars, 3. the traditional and hadith Scholars, 4. the adab and language scholars , 5. the Koran scholars, 6. the Sufi ascetics ( az-zuhhād aṣ-ṣūfīya ), 7. those who practice ribāt and jihad against the enemies of Islam, 8. the general crowd. According to this classification, the Sufis are one of a total of eight groups within Sunniism, defined according to their religious specialization.

The Tunisian scholar Muhammad ibn al-Qāsim al-Bakkī (d. 1510) also included the Sufis in Sunniism. He divided the Sunnis into the following three groups according to their knowledge ( istiqrāʾ ):

  1. the people of hadith ( ahl al-ḥadīṯ ): Their principles are based on the hearing-based evidence, namely the book , the sunnah and the idschma .
  2. the people of theory and the intellectual trade ( ahl an-naẓar wa-ṣ-ṣināʿa al-fikrīya ): These include the Ashʿarites and the Hanafis, the latter of whom regard Abū Mansūr al-Māturīdī as their master. They agree in the rational principles on all questions where there is no hearing-based evidence, in the hearing-based principles in everything that reason conceives as possible, and in the rational as well as the hearing-based principles in all other questions. They also agree on all dogmatic questions, except for the question of creation ( takwīn ) and the question of Taqlīd .
  3. the people of feeling and revelation ( ahl al-wiǧdān wa-l-kašf ): These are the Sufis . Its principles correspond in the initial stage to the principles of the other two groups, but in the final stage they rely on revelation ( kašf ) and inspiration ( ilhām ).

Similarly, Murtadā az-Zabīdī explained elsewhere in his commentary on the Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn that the Sunnis consisted of four groups ( firaq ), namely the hadith scholars ( muḥaddiṯūn ), the Sufis, the Ashʿarites and the Māturīdites .

However, there were also Muslim scholars who wanted to exclude the Sufis from Sunniism. The Yemeni scholar ʿAbbās ibn Mansūr as-Saksakī (d. 1284) stated in his doxographic work al-Burhān fī maʿrifat ʿaqāʾid ahl al-adyān (“The evidence of knowledge of the beliefs of the followers of different religions”) about the Sufis: “They assign themselves to the Sunnis, but they do not belong to them, because their beliefs, actions and doctrines contradict them. ”What distinguishes the Sufis according to as-Saksakī from Sunnis is their orientation to the hidden inner sense of the Koran and Sunna. In this, in his opinion, they resemble the Batinites . According to the final document of the Grozny Conference, only those Sufis who are “people of pure Sufism” ( ahl at-taṣauwuf aṣ-ṣāfī ) in the knowledge, ethics and purification of the interior , according to the method as described by al -Junaid and the "Imams of Guidance " ( aʾimma al-hudā ) who followed his path.

The classification of the Muʿtazila

The Muʿtazilites are usually not counted as Sunni. Ibn Hazm, for example, contrasted them with the Sunnis as a separate group in his heresiographic work al-Faṣl fi-l-milal wa-l-ahwā wa-n-niḥal . Also in many medieval texts from the Islamic East, the Ahl as-Sunna are differentiated from the Muʿtazilites. In 2010 the Jordanian fatwa office issued a fatwa ruling that the Muʿtazilites, like the Kharijites, represent a doctrine that is contrary to Sunniism. On the other hand, Ibn Taimīya held a different opinion in this regard. He said that the Muʿtazilites belong to the Sunnis in the general sense because they recognize the caliphate of the first three caliphs. This view was also held by various modern scholars who orientate themselves on the teachings of Ibn Taimīya, such as the aforementioned Muhammad Ibn al-ʿUthaimīn. In Indonesia, the Muhammadiyah scholar Djarnawi Hadikusuma (d. 1993) spoke out in favor of including the Muʿtazilites in Sunniism.

Concept history

Sunnah

The Arabic term Sunna, after which the Sunnis are named, is very old and already rooted in pre-Islamic usage. It has been used to describe the "custom" that the majority of people follow. The term acquired greater political significance in the period after the murder of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān . Mālik al-Ashtar, a well-known follower of ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib, is said to have cheered his followers during the Battle of Siffin by saying that ʿAlī's opponent Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān was killing the Sunnah. In the award after the battle it was agreed that "the righteous sunna, the unifying, not the divisive" ( as-sunna al-ʿādila al-ǧāmiʿa ġair al-mufarriqa ) should be consulted in order to resolve the conflict. When the term sunna was understood as the short form for the "Sunna of the Prophet" ( sunnat an-nabī ) is still an unresolved question. During the Umayyad period, several political movements, including Shiite and Harijite, who revolted against the emerging state, fought in the name of "the Book of God and the Sunnah of His Prophet" ( kitāb Allaah wa-sunnat nabīyihī ).

During the Second Civil War (680-92) the Sunna term received an anti-Shiite orientation. Thus it is narrated from Masrūq ibn al-Ajdaʿ (d. 683), who worked as a mufti in Kufa , that he considered it to be part of the Sunnah to love the first two caliphs, Abū Bakr and ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb, and to love their priority to know. A student of Masrūq, the scholar asch-Shaʿbī (d. Between 721 and 729), who at first sided with the Shiites of Kufa during the civil war, but then turned away from them in disgust from their fanaticism and finally in the service of Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik , popularized this concept of sunna . Ash-Sha'bī is also narrated that he took offense at the hatred of the Kaisānites for ʿĀʾiša bint Abī Bakr and condemned it as a violation of the Sunnah of the Prophet.

The fact that the term Sunna is used as a group name for the Sunnis instead of the longer expressions ahl as-sunna or ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa is a relatively recent phenomenon. It was possibly Ibn Taimīya who first used this short form. Later, she was of the pan-Islamic thinker Rashid Rida in his published memoir 1928/29 al-Sunnah wa-š-au ši'a al-Wahhabiya wa-r-rafida: Ḥaqā'iq dīnīya ta'rīḫīya iǧtima'īya iṣlaḥīya ( "Sunna and Shia, or Wahhabis and Rāfiditen : religious-historical, social and reform-related facts ”) popularized. In modern Arabic discourse, however, the word sunna is usually only used as a group name for the Sunnis when the Sunnis as a denominational group are to be contrasted with the Shiites. The word pair Sunnah-Schia is also often used in Western scientific literature on the Sunni-Shiite antithesis.

Ahl as-Sunnah

One of the earliest documents for the name ahl as-sunna comes from the Basrian scholar Muhammad Ibn Sīrīn (d. 728). He is quoted in Ṣaḥīḥ by Muslim ibn al-Hajjādsch with the statement: “In the past, no one asked about the isnaad . But when fitna broke out, they said: 'Name us your informants'. One then looked at them: if they were people of the Sunna ( ahl as-sunna ), one adopted their hadith . But if they were people of innovation ( ahl al-bidaʿ ), one did not take over their hadeeth. "GHA Juynboll suspects that the word Fitna in this statement does not mean the first civil war (656-661) after the murder of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān , but also the second civil war (680–692), in which the Islamic community split up into four parties ( ʿAbdallāh ibn az-Zubair , the Umayyads , the Shiites under al-Muchtār ibn Abī ʿUbaid and the Kharijites). In this situation the term ahl sunna denoted those who stayed away from the heretical teachings of the various warring parties.

The expression ahl as-sunna has always been a laudatory term. Abū Hanīfa (d. 767), who sympathized with the Murji'a , insisted that they were "people of righteousness and people of sunna" ( ahl al-ʿadl wa-ahl as-sunna ). According to Josef van Ess , the expression didn't mean much more than “honorable and orthodox people”. In Hanafi circles, the terms ahl as-sunna and ahl al-ʿadl ("people of justice") remained interchangeable for a long time. For example, the Hanafit Abū l-Qāsim as-Samarqandī (d. 953), who wrote an official catechism for the Samanids , sometimes used one and sometimes the other name for his own group.

The singular to ahl as-sunna was ṣāḥib sunna ("follower of the sunna"). This expression, for example, ʿAbdallāh ibn al-Mubārak (d. 797) used for a person who stayed away from Shiite, Karijite, Qadarite and Murjiite teachings. In addition, the Nisba adjective sunnī was also used for the individual person . It is said that the Kufic Koran scholar Abū Bakr ibn ʿAiyāsch (d. 809) was once asked who was a sunnī . He is said to have replied: "He who, when the heresies are mentioned, is not enthusiastic about anything." The Andalusian scholar Ibn Hazm (d. 1064) later taught that those who profess the religion of Islam are as a whole divide into four groups: ahl as-sunna , Muʿtazilites, Murjiites, Shiites and Kharijites. The Muʿtazilites have taken the place of the Qadarites.

In the 9th century the term ahl as-sunna began to be expanded with positive additions. Abū l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī liked to use phrases like ahl as-sunna wa-l-istiqāma ("people of sunna and uprightness"), ahl as-sunna wa-l-ḥadīṯ ("people of the sunna and of the Hadith ”) or ahl al-ḥaqq wa-s-sunna (“ People of Truth and Sunna ”).

Ahl as-Sunna wa-l-Jamāʿa

When and where the phrase ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa first appeared is not entirely clear. The Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mūn (r. 813–33) criticized in his first Mihna edict a group of people who “brought themselves into connection with the Sunna” ( nasabū anfusa-hum ilā s-sunna ) and claimed that they are the "people of truth, religion and community" ( ahl al-ḥaqq wa-d-dīn wa-l-ǧamāʿa ). Sunnah and ǧamāʿa are already brought into connection here. As a pair, the two terms already appear in book titles in the 9th century. It is reported that the Ahmad-ibn-Hanbal disciple Harb ibn Ismāʿīl al-Sīrdschānī (d. 893) created a pamphlet with the title as-Sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa , to which the Muʿtazilit Abū l-Qāsim al-Balchī later wrote a refutation. Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbā'ī (d. 916) reports in his Kitāb al-Maqālāt that Ahmad ibn Hanbal awarded his disciples the predicate sunnī ǧamāʿī ("Jamāʿite Sunni"). This suggests that the Hanbalites were the first to use the phrase ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa as a self-designation.

But also the Karrāmīya founded by Muhammad ibn Karrām (d. 859) appealed to Sunnah and community. In praise of the founder of the school, she narrated a hadith according to which the Prophet Mohammed had foretold that at the end of time a man named Muhammad ibn Karrām would appear who would revive the Sunnah and the community ( as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa ) and a hijra of Khorasan to Jerusalem, just as he himself performed a hijra from Mecca to Medina. According to the testimony of the Transoxan scholar Abū l-Yusr al-Bazdawī (d. 1099), the Kullābites, i.e. the followers of the Basrian scholar Ibn Kullāb (d. 855), also said of themselves that they belonged to the ahl as-sunna wal- ǧamāʿa belonged to.

Abū l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī hardly used the term ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa , but preferred to use other compositions. Later Ashharites such as al-Isfarā'īnī (d. 1027) and ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī (d. 1078) also adopted the phrase ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa and used it in their works as a name for the lessons of their own school. According to al-Bazdawī, all followers of al-Ashʿarī said in his day that they belonged to the ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāa . By this time the expression had already become the self-designation of the Hanafi Māturīdites in Transoxania , often used by Abū l-Laith as-Samarqandī (d. 983), Abū Shakūr as-Sālimī (d. 1086) and al-Bazdawī himself. They used the term to delimit "opponents of all stripes", including the Hanafis in the west, who were followers of the Muʿtazila. Al-Bazdawī also distinguished the ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa from the ahl al-ḥadīṯ because, in his opinion, they represented different teachings with regard to the Koran.

According to Shams ad-Dīn al-Maqdisī (end of the 10th century), the expression ahl as-sunna wal-ʿamāʿa was a laudatory term in its time, which was on a similar level as the expression ahl al-ʿadl wa-t-tauḥīd ( "People of Justice and the Creed of Unity"), which was used for the Muʿtazilites, or general terms such as Mu'minūn ("Believer") or aṣḥāb al-hudā ("People of Guidance") for Muslims who were considered to be orthodox. Since the expression ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa was also always associated with a claim to orthodoxy, it is also translated in some scientific publications with terms such as “the orthodox” or “the orthodoxy ”.

As to what exactly the term ǧamāʿa in the phrase ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa means, there are different opinions among Muslim scholars. In the Sunni creed of at-Tahāwī (d. 933), ǧamāʿa is contrasted several times with the Arabic term furqa ("division, sectarianism"). Thus at-Tahāwī explains that one regards ǧamāʿa as true and right ( ḥaqq wa-ṣawāb ), whereas furqa is regarded as aberration and punishment ( zaiġ wa-ʿaḏāb ). Ibn Taimīya meant that ǧamāʿa as an antithesis to furqa has the meaning of iǧtimāʿ (" coming together, togetherness, agreement"). He also made a connection to the principle of Idschmāschm , which is the third source of law for the Sunnis after the book (= Koran ) and the Sunna. The Ottoman scholar Muslih ad-Dīn al-Qastallānī (d. 1495) was of the opinion that the ǧamāʿa in this expression meant the “path of the companions of the Prophets ” ( ṭarīqat aṣ-ṣaḥāba ). The modern Indonesian theologian Nurcholish Madjid (d. 2005) interpreted ǧamāʿa as an inclusiveist concept: It means a community that is open to pluralism and dialogue and does not emphasize too much differences between Muslims.

Doctrines

The doctrines of the Sunnis are recorded in various creeds , which summarize the most important points in the form of a list like a catechism . The individual teaching points differ depending on the author's affiliation to a certain teaching tradition. The most important creeds that explicitly claim to represent the teachings of the Sunnis ( ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa or similar) include:

  • the text traced back to Ahmad ibn Hanbal , in which he defines "what the quality of the believer of the Sunnis" ( ṣifat al-muʾmin min ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ) is. The text is passed down in two versions in the work Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila of the Hanbali Qādī Ibn Abī Yaʿlā (d. 1131). The first version comes from a treatise on the Sunna by Ahmad ibn Hanbal's disciple Muhammad ibn Habib al-Andarani, the second is traced back to Ahmad's disciple Muhammad ibn Yunus as-Sarachsi.
  • the two creeds of Abū l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī in his works Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn and Kitāb al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . The former is identified as the teaching of ahl al-ḥadīṯ wa-s-sunna , the latter as the teaching of ahl al-ḥaqq wa-s-sunna .
  • the confession of the Egyptian Hanafi at-Tahāwī (d. 933), also known under the title Bayān as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ("Presentation of Sunnah and Community"). It was widely commented on from the 13th century onwards.
  • the "Qādiritic Creed" ( al-iʿtiqād al-Qādirī ), which is mentioned in the world chronicle al-Muntaẓam by Ibn al- Jschauzī and is traced back to the Abbasid caliph al-Qādir (d. 1031). The caliph al-Qā'im is supposed to read this text, which is shown at the end as the “teaching of the Sunnis” ( qaul ahl as-sunna wal-ǧamāʿa ), in the year 433 of the Hijra (= 1041/42 AD) before a Have read a meeting of ascetics and scholars in the caliph's palace.
  • the creed of al-Ghazālīs (d. 1111) in the second book of his religious encyclopedia Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . It is headed "The Sunni Creed in the Two Phrases of the Shahāda " ( ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna fī kalimatai aš-šahāda ) and deals first with the doctrine of God and then the other doctrinal points.
  • the māturīditic confession ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ("The support of the confession of the people of the Sunnah and the community") by Abū l-Barakāt an-Nasafī (d. 1310). It was edited in 1843 by William Cureton under the title "Pillar of the Creed of the Sunnites".
  • the confessional al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya by Ibn Taimīya (1263-1328), which later received an important meaning especially among the Wahhabis and the Ahl-i Hadīth . It was translated into French by Henri Laoust , into English by Merlin Swartz and into German by Clemens Wein.
  • the ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa of the Wahhabi scholar Muhammad ibn Sālih al-ʿUthaimīn (1925-2001). It was first published in the 1980s.

There are also short texts that explain the most important differences in teaching between the various dogmatic directions. This includes, for example, the Risāla fī l-iḫtilāf baina al-Ašāʿira wa-l-Māturīdīya fī iṯnatai ʿašara masʾala ("Treatise on the difference of opinion between Ashʿarites and Māturīdites in twelve points") by the Ottoman scholar Ibn Kamā (1534).

Several of the mentioned Sunni creeds define the faith as six-part: It consists of the belief in 1. God, 2. his angels, 3. his books, 4. his messengers, 5. the last day or the resurrection after death and 6 the predestination of good and bad. The systematics of this list, which is based on the Gabriel Hadith in its version traced back to marUmar ibn al-Chattāb , is used as the basis for the following presentation of the Sunni doctrines.

God

The oneness of God

At the center of the Sunni creed is the Tawheed , the belief in the oneness of God. God is a single ( fard ) God, besides whom there is no other god. He is single ( munfarid ), has no partner ( šarīk ), no partner ( nidd ), no counterpart ( maṯīl ) and no adversary ( ḍidd ). He has not taken a mate or children, has neither conceived nor is he conceived.

God created everything, the years and times, day and night, light and darkness, the heavens and the earth, all kinds of creatures that are on it, the land and the sea, and everything living, dead and solid. Before he created all of this, he was completely alone with nothing with him. In contrast to his creation, God has a timeless nature. It is beginningless ( azalī ) because it has existed for all eternity and is preceded by nothing, and it is endless ( abadī ) because it continues to exist without interruption for all eternity. He is the first and the last, as it says in the Koran (Sura 57: 3). God did not bring creation to life because he needed it, but to demonstrate his power and as the realization of his previous will and his primordial speech. God is creator, but has no need. He does not need food or food, does not feel lonely, and does not keep company with anyone.

Its transcendence

An important principle of the Sunni doctrine of God is the acquittal ( tanzīh ) of God from all qualities of the created. With this principle, which emphasizes the transcendence of God, Sunni Islam keeps the middle between the resemblance ( tašbīh ) of God with creation on the one hand and the complete emptying ( taʿṭīl ) of God of qualities on the other. God is neither a formed body nor a finite or assessable substance. Nor can it be measured or divided like substances. Rather, as the Qur'an says (Sura 42:11), there is nothing like it.

God has neither boundaries nor ends, corners, limbs or organs and, like created things, cannot be grasped by directions. There are no realms that contain it, nor earth or heavens that surround it. God is not inherent in any thing, just as there is no thing in him. God is above everything else, including heaven, but at the same time he is close to every existing thing. It is even closer to humans than one's own carotid artery. However, its proximity is not similar to the proximity of bodies. What is said in the Qur'an and Sunna about God's nearness does not contradict what is said of his height, because he is high in his nearness and close in his height.

God is not like human beings either, but eludes all conceptions ( auhām ) and all understanding ( afhām ). He is alive ( ḥaiy ) but does not die; he is awake ( qaiyūm ) but does not sleep, as neither sleep nor slumber affects him. The Sunnis confess that God has two hands, two eyes and a face, as it is in the Koran, but without asking how ( bi-lā kaif ). God is angry and content, but not like any of his creatures. The years and times don't make him old. You cannot change him because he created them himself.

Against the background of the efforts to absolve God of all anthropomorphism , the Qur'anic statements that “God sat on the throne” ( istawā ʿalā l-ʿarš ; Sura 7:54; 20: 5) receive a lot in the Sunni creeds Attention. The creed of al-Qādir emphasizes that God set himself up on the throne ( ʿarš ) “not in the manner of the rest of the creatures” and that he created this throne, although he did not need it. Al-Ghazālī's knowledge of the faith states that “ sitting down ” is free from contact ( mumāssa ; sc. With the throne), from lingering ( istiqrār ) and indwelling ( ḥulūl ). It is not the throne that carries God, but the throne and its bearers through the grace of his power. According to al-Ashʿari, the Sunnis confess that God is on his throne, but without asking how. Even if God does not need the throne and that which is below, because he spatially occupies everything, including that which is above him, throne and stool ( kursī ) are a reality.

Its names and attributes

The Sunnis confess that the names of God cannot be said to be anything other than God, as Muʿtazilites and Kharijites claim. Rather, they teach that there are correlating attributes ( ṣifāt ) which exist in him for the names of God mentioned in the Koran : God is alive through life ( ḥayāh ), knowing through knowledge ( ʿilm ), mighty through power ( ʿqudra ), willing by will ( irāda ), hearing by hearing ( samʿ ), seeing by sight ( baṣar ) and speaking by speech ( kalām ). The attributes are not identical to God, nor are they anything different from him. Only those attributes are ascribed to God which he ascribed to himself (sc. In the Koran ) or which his prophet ascribed to him. And every attribute that he or his prophet has ascribed to him is a real attribute, not an attribute in the figurative sense .

God's attributes, however, do not resemble the attributes of creatures, just as his essence ( ḏāt ) does not resemble the beings of creatures. Rather, God differs from his creation through his attributes. Sunnis therefore claim no similarity between God's attributes and the characteristics of his creatures, because none of them have the same name ( samī ) and he cannot be compared with anyone. Whoever attributes a human quality to God becomes an unbeliever.

His power ( qudra )

Everything that is not God he created with his power ( qudra ). God is mighty ( qādir ), mighty ( ǧabbār ) and compelling ( qahhār ). He has strength ( ʿizza ), rule ( sulṭān ), supreme power ( mulk ) and kingship ( malakūt ). The Sunnis also maintain that God has power ( qūwa ).

God's power extends to everything, and there is nothing that makes him incapable. He is above all adversaries ( aḍdād ) and opponents ( andād ). There is no one who rejects or changes his decision or overcomes his command. Nobody is equal to him ( kafw ).

His knowledge ( ʿilm )

God knows all that can be known. His knowledge includes everything from the limits of the earth to the highest heavens. It is so accurate that he does not miss the weight of an atom on earth or in the sky, and he also knows about the crawling of the black ant on the hard rock in the dark night. He knows the secret and the hidden and is informed about all ideas, emotions and secret thoughts of people. He also knows about all their circumstances, their livelihoods and the hour at which they died. He knows what has been, what will be and what what will not be if it had been.

God's knowledge is the primal knowledge that has been one of his attributes for all eternity. It is not an acquired ( ġair mustafād ) knowledge, nor is it one that arises in its essence through inherence or change. God also created creatures through his knowledge, and everything that happens happens according to his knowledge.

His will ( mašīʾa )

The Sunnis teach that there is no good or bad on earth except what God wants, and that things are done according to God's will. What God wants happens and what he doesn't want doesn't happen. Neither a fleeting glance nor a fleeting thought fall out of his will.

Even people only have a will if God wants this for them. Whatever God wants for them happens. And what He doesn't want doesn't happen. Man also has no power to obey God except through God's will. However, God has not commanded the bad and takes no pleasure in him, even if he is willing in regard to it.

God does what he wants, but he is never unjust ( ẓālim ). Out of goodness ( faḍlan ) he leads the right way and protects whom he wants, and out of righteousness ( eradlan ) he leads astray, leaves him in the lurch and tests whom he wants. So all are subject to his will, between goodness and righteousness. Even if the things that happen in time happen exactly as God established and willed them before all eternity, the will remains in its essence as an attribute.

His hearing ( samʿ ) and seeing ( baṣr )

The Sunnis hold on to hearing and seeing and do not deny it to God as the Muʿtazilites do. God hears and sees, not missing anything audible, even if it is hidden, and nothing visible, even if it is extremely small. Distance does not prevent him from hearing, and darkness does not prevent him from seeing. He sees without a pupil or eyelids, and he hears without auditory canals or ears.

His speech ( kalām )

God's speech has a special meaning among the attributes of God . With her God commands, forbids, promises and threats. The creation word kun (“be!”) Also belongs to God's speech . If God wants something, he says to him: "Be", and it is. God's speech itself, on the other hand, is beginningless and precedes everything else. But the Koran also belongs to God's speech . According to the creed of the caliph al-Qādir, whoever says that the speech of God is created in some way is an unbeliever whose blood may be shed after being asked to practice a deaf .

The speech of God consists in his essence and does not resemble the speech of the creatures. God is a speaker, but not through a created organ like the organ of creatures. It was controversial among the Sunnis whether the speech of God is audible. While al-Ashʿari answered in the affirmative, al-Māturīdī meant that the speech of God is not audible, but only what points to it. According to al-Ghazālī, the speech of God is not a sound, nor does it arise from the expulsion of air or various types of articulation . Moses heard God's speech in this silent and inarticulate form in the Burning Bush. An-Nasafī, on the other hand, emphasizes that speaking of God is in contrast to silence.

Dissent about God's attributes of activity

One of the most important differences between Ashʿarīya and Māturīdīya concerns the so-called activity attributes ( ṣifāt al-fiʿl ) of God, which in particular include his creation ( takwīn ). According to the Ashʿaritic doctrine, these activity attributes are attributes that only appeared in time ( ṣifāt ḥādiṯa ), for the Māturīdīya, however, attributes without beginning ( sifāt azalīya ). At-Tahāwī shared the latter view. He explains that God did not receive any additional attributes through the creation of things: he did not receive the name al-Chāliq ("Creator") through creation, the name al-Bārī ("Creator") through creation of the creatures. He also had the character of lordship without ruled and the character of the resuscitation of the dead even before the act of resuscitation.

The attribute of wisdom ( ḥikma ), through which God is wise ( ḥakīm ), is also classified differently . While the Matūridītes consider God's wisdom to be an attribute with no beginning, the Ashʿarites differentiate between wisdom in the sense of knowledge ( ʿilm ) and wisdom in connection with the provisions of religious law ( aḥkām ). While they consider the former to be a beginningless attribute, they consider the latter to be an attribute created in time.

Angels and other spirit beings

Mohammed accompanied by the four archangels Gabriel , Michael , Isrāfīl and ʿIzrā'īl . Turkish Siyer-i-Nebi work , 1595

The Sunnis also believe in angels. God hid the angels from people so that they usually do not see them. Only sometimes does he reveal them to some of them. The archangel Gabriel appeared to the prophet one time in his real form with 600 wings that filled the horizon, the other time when he was surrounded by his companions in the form of a white-clad traveler.

The angels have duties that God has entrusted them with. The angel Gabriel has the task of bringing God's revelation to the prophets he has chosen. The angel Michael is used over the rain and the flora. The angel Isrāfīl is charged with blowing the trumpet on the thunder and on the resurrection. Furthermore, the angels include the noble scribal angels, whom God has appointed to oversee people, and the angel of death , who is charged with taking hold of the souls (literally spirits) of the world inhabitants.

Contrary to what the Muʿtazilites and Jahmites teach, the Sunnis believe that Satan whispers to man, gives him doubts and beats him, as it says in the Koran ( Sura 2: 275 ). Humans, jinns , angels and satans, however, are all created by God through his power and are subject to his will. Even if humans, jinns, angels and satans came together to move or stop an atom in the world , they would not be able to do so without his will.

The books of God, the Koran

The Sunnis also believe in the books of God that were revealed to messengers of God. These include the Koran , the Torah , the Gospel and the Psalms .

According to the Sunni view, the Koran is God's speech. According to the Sunni creed of at-Tahāwī, anyone who hears it and takes it for human speech is an unbeliever . The Qur'an was brought down as God's speech of the "trustworthy spirit" ( ar-rūḥ al-amīn ; Sura 26: 193) and was taught to Muhammad . God sent him down as an inspiration ( waḥy ) on his Messenger. The path of God's speech to the community of Muslims is a multi-stage process: God pronounced it, the angel Gabriel heard it and Mohammed repeated it, Mohammed repeated it to his companions, and these repeated them to the Ummah .

According to the Sunni view, the Koran is uncreated as God's speech. The doctrine of the composition of the Koran is rejected by the Sunnis. Anyone who takes this teaching is an unbeliever. The Koran is recited with the tongues, written down in books, memorized in the heart, and yet it always remains the uncreated speech of God, which exists in his essence because it is indivisible and is not split up by being transferred into the heart on the pages. At-Tahāwī specifies that the Qur'an is not created like human speech. Rather, it went out from God in an unexplained way as a word ( qaul ). Ibn Taimīya explains that the Koran started out from God and will also return to him (sc. At the end of time).

The prophets of God

The prophets and their message

Confessing to the prophets of God is also part of the Sunni faith. The first of the prophets is Adam . The original contract ( mīṯāq ) that God concluded with him and his descendants according to sura 7: 172-3 is a reality according to Sunni belief. God took Abraham as a friend ( ḫalīl ) and addressed Moses directly. The last of the prophets is Mohammed from the Quraish tribe . The Sunnis do not differentiate between the messengers of God (sc. By rejecting some of them), but consider everything to be true, what they have brought.

God called the prophets and visibly manifested their truthfulness through obvious miracles. The prophets conveyed God's command and prohibition, his promise and threat, and it is incumbent on people to believe what they have brought to be true. God has commanded man to act of obedience ( ṭāʿa ) and forbidden opposition ( maʿṣiya ). God's right to act of obedience is an obligation for man not only through the intellect ( bi-muǧarrad al-ʿaql ), but also through the fact that he has made it an obligation through the oral transmission of his prophets.

The meaning of Muhammad

Depiction of Muhammad's Ascension, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul, 18th century

Mohammed from the tribe of the Quraish is not only the seal of the prophets ( ḫātam al-Anbiyā, ), but God has placed him above all other prophets and made him Lord of men ( saiyid al-bašar ). He is God's chosen servant ( ʿabd ), envoy , the imam of the godly ( imām al-atqiyāʾ ) and the lover of the Lord of the Worlds ( ḥabīb rabb al-ʿālamīn ). He is sent with truth ( ḥaqq ), guidance ( hudā ) and light ( nūr ). God sent him with his message to Arabs and non-Arabs as well as to the general public of the jinn and people and with his Sharia repealed the previous religious laws , apart from what he had confirmed. Part of the Sunni way is to follow the traditions ( āṯār ) of Muhammad internally and externally. They prefer his guidance over anyone else's guidance.

Muhammad's affiliation with the messengers of God is proven by miracles ( muʿǧizāt ) such as the splitting of the moon. The most obvious miracle, however, is the Koran with its inimitable quality . Any claim to prophethood according to him is error and imagination. Another important teaching point is belief in Muhammad's ascension ( miʿrāǧ ). This means that the Prophet went on a nocturnal journey during which his person was transported to heaven while awake and from there to heights, "which God has chosen". There God gave him what he had chosen for it and gave him his revelation. God has also blessed him in his life in the hereafter and in this world.

The Companions and Family of Muhammad

Sunnis should love the companions of the Messenger of God and say only good things about them. And let them hate those who hate the companions of the prophets. Therefore they renounce the Rāfidites , who hate and revile the companions of the Prophets. According to the Sunni view, loving the companions of the prophets is religion and belief , and hating them is unbelief . Do not overdo it in your love for any of them, nor do you break away from any of them. The Sunni believer should praise the companions of the prophets all as God and his Messenger praised them. He should adhere to their excellence and refrain from judging what has been at issue between them.

The Sunnis do not believe that every companion of the Prophet was protected ( maʿṣūm ) from sins great and small . However, the extent of the disapproved act of individual Companions is tiny compared to the merits of the whole group in the area of faith, jihad , Hijrah , help ( Nusra ), useful knowledge and pious work. That is why the Sunnis are convinced that the Prophet's Companions are the best of all creatures after the Prophet himself, and that the Muslim Ummah is the best of all religious communities.

Calligraphically designed medallions with the names of Allah , Mohammed and the rightly guided caliphs Abū Bakr , ʿUmar , ʿUthmān and ʿAlī decorate the interior of many Ottoman mosques such as the Hagia Sophia here

There are differences between the Prophet's Companions. The best of them was Abū Bakr , then ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb , then ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, and finally ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib . The Sunnis profess that these four were the rightly guided caliphs ( al-ḫulafāʾ ar-rāšidūn ). They also affirm that, according to the Messenger of God, Abū Bakr was the first to have the caliphate because he had priority over the entire Ummah. He was the Imam after the Messenger of God, through whom God strengthened religion and to whom he bestowed victory over the apostates . The Muslims have given him the imamate, just as the Messenger of God had given him the direction of prayer before. The doctrine that ʿUthman is preferable to ʿAlī, however, only gained acceptance among the Sunnis in the course of time. Those who killed ʿUthmān did so illegally and insidiously.

In addition to the four rightly guided caliphs, the six companions of the Prophet Talha ibn ʿUbaidallāh , Az-Zubair ibn al-ʿAuwām , Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqās , Abū ʿUbaida ibn al-Jarrāh , ʿAbd ar-Rahmān ibn ʿ Auf, and Saʿdunnites Zahid . Together with the rightly guided caliphs, they are the ten companions who were promised paradise . With the exception of Abū ʿUbaida they were on Mount Hirā ' with the Prophet . Ibn Taimīya also means that the Sunnis put the muhādjirūn in front of the Ansār .

The Sunnis also love the family ( Ahl al-bait ) of the Messenger of God and are loyal to them. These include in particular his wives, who are referred to as "mothers of believers" ( ummuhāt al-muʾminīn ). They should also be Muhammad's wives in the hereafter. According to the Caliph al-Qādir's creed, it is a duty to ask for mercy on them. The highest rank among the wives of Muhammad has Hadidja bint Chuwailid , the mother of most of his children and the first person to believe in him and to support him in his cause. This is followed by ʿĀ'isha bint Abī Bakr . Anyone who reviles them should have no part in Islam. Only good things can be said about Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyan . He who says good about the companions of the Messenger of God, his wives, who are clean from all blemishes, and his holy offspring, are free from hypocrisy .

Eschatology

What happened in the grave

After their death, according to Sunni doctrine, people are questioned in their graves by Munkar and Nakīr . Munkar and Nakīr are two formidable and formidable figures who make the person sit upright in his grave with mind and body and then question him about the oneness of God and the sentry of Muhammad. They ask him: “Who is your master? What is your religion? Who is your prophet? ”They are the two examiners of the grave and the questioning by them is the first examination ( fitna ) of man after death. The believer will answer in this test: “God is my Lord, Islam is my religion and Mohammed is my prophet.” The doubter, on the other hand, will answer: “Oh dear, I don't know. I heard people say something, and that's how I said it. ”He is then hit with an iron club so that he utters a loud scream that can be heard by everyone except people. If people heard him, they would lose consciousness. Munkar and Nakīr also interview children, as well as people who have disappeared, drowned or been eaten by predators.

After this test, the person experiences either comfort ( naʿīm ) or torment ( ʿaḏāb ) in his grave until the day of resurrection. The grave is therefore either like a paradise garden or like a pit in hell for humans. The grave torment ( ʿaḏāb al-qabr ) belongs to those who deserve it. However, deceased Muslims benefit from the supplication that is said for them and the sadaqa that is offered in their name.

The signs of the hour

Another point of belief is the signs of the hour ( ašrāṭ as-sāʿa ) that precede the day of resurrection. This includes the emergence of Dajal , the rising of the sun in the west, the emergence of the earth animal from its den and the exodus of Gog and Magog . Jesus, the son of Mary, will descend from heaven and kill Dajal.

The day of resurrection

On the day of the resurrection , the resurrection ( baʿṯ ) and the retribution of the deeds take place. First, the bodies of all humans, animals and jinns are put back together and revived. The spirits are brought back into the bodies, the people rise from their graves, barefoot, naked and uncircumcised. The sun approaches them and they break out in a sweat.

A scale is set up to weigh people's deeds. The Libra has two scales and a tongue and is as big as several layers of heaven and earth. The weights will be as heavy as atoms and mustard seeds in order to realize the accuracy of God's justice. The leaves with good deeds ( asanāt ) are thrown into the scales of light in a beautiful form and weigh down the scales by the grace ( faḍl ) of God, the leaves with bad deeds ( saiyiʾāt ) are thrown into the scales in an ugly form Thrown darkness and reduce the weight of the scales through the righteousness ( ʿadl ) of God.

In reckoning ( isāb ) people are divided into three groups, those who are cut off by him, those who are treated mildly by him, and the so-called “close ones” ( muqarrabūn ) who go to paradise without reckoning. God asks the prophets about the delivery of the message, the unbelievers about the denial of the messengers, those who have introduced a bidʿa about the Sunnah, and the general public of Muslims about their works. God is alone with the believer in accounting so that he may make him confess his sins. Among the unbelievers, good and bad deeds are not weighed against each other because they have no good deeds. Only their bad deeds are added up and communicated to them, and they are made to confess them.

After the settlement, the Sirāt Bridge is passed. It is stretched over hell , sharper than a sword and thinner than a hair. On it the unbelievers slip with their feet through the judgment of God and fall into hell. The believers, on the other hand, stand with their feet firmly on her and are led by the grace of God into the "house of rest" ( dār al-qarār ). For the children of the polytheists , God will light a fire and invite them to dive into it.

Behind the Sirāt Bridge is the basin ( ḥauḍ ) that God gave the Prophet as an aid to his Ummah. Believers drink from it after crossing the Sirāt Bridge and before entering Paradise. Whoever has drunk from it is never thirsty again. The basin is a month's journey wide, its water is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey. Water from the paradise river al-Kauthar pours into this basin. Around it are pitchers of water as numerous as the stars in the sky. Those who have passed the Sirāt Bridge and have been cleansed and refined will eventually enter the Paradise Garden .

The vision of God in the hereafter

The teachings of the Sunnis also include the vision of God ( ruʾyat Allāh ) in the hereafter, which has similarities with the visio beatifica in the Christian tradition. With this doctrine, the Sunnis set themselves apart from the Muʿtazilites , the Zaidites and the philosophers , who consider the vision of God to be intellectually impossible.

However, there are different views among Sunni scholars about the timing and type of the divine show. Al-Ashʿari means that God will be seen on the day of the resurrection, whereby only the believers see him, whereas the unbelievers do not, because they are kept away from God. At-Tahāwī, on the other hand, was of the opinion that the vision of God was a reality for the inmates of Paradise. Ibn Taimīya doubles the vision of God: people see God while they are still in the places of the resurrection, and then after entering paradise, if God wills.

As for the way of looking at God, al-Ashʿari and Ibn Taimiyah emphasized its visual character. Al-Ashʿari meant that God is seen with the eyes, just as one sees the moon on a full moon night. Ibn Taimīya adds that the vision of God is as one sees the sun on a cloudless day. In the ʿAqīda at-Tahāwīs, however, the transcendence of God is emphasized: the vision can neither be understood nor described, because none of the creatures is like God. In al-Ghazālī's creed, it is said that the pious see the essence of God in the hereafter without substance or accident . According to the creed of an-Nasafī, God is seen neither in one place nor in any direction or distance. There is also no connection between rays.

Release of the monotheists from hell and intercession

According to Ibn Taimīya's creed, the Umma of Muhammad is the first religious community to enter paradise, so other religious communities also have the opportunity to enter paradise, because God, through the grace of his mercy, leads whole peoples ( aqwām ) out of hellfire. Ahmad ibn Hanbal and al-Ghazālī declare in their creeds that the monotheists ( al-muwaḥḥidūn ) will be taken out of hell after being punished. Al-Ghazālī adds that by the grace ( faḍl ) of God no monotheist remains in hell for all eternity.

According to the creed of at-Tahāwī, however, this only applies to the serious sinners from Muhammad's Umma: They are in hell, but not forever if they were monotheists at the time of death. What happens to them is up to God: if he wants, he forgives them through his grace ( faḍl ), and if he wants, he punishes them in his righteousness ( ʿadl ) and then fetches them through his mercy ( raḥma ) and through them Intercede out of hell those who obey him and let them enter the garden of paradise.

The intercession ( šafāʿa ) of the Messenger of God and its effect on those of his Ummah who have committed serious sins is a fixed point of teaching of the Sunni faith. The prophet saved the intercession especially for them. According to al-Ghazālī, the Sunni believer as a whole has to believe in the intercession of the prophets, then the scholars , then the martyrs , and then the other believers in accordance with their dignity and rank with God. Those of the believers who have no advocate will be taken out of hell by the grace of God.

The predestination

The extent of predestination

According to Sunni doctrine, everything that happens happens through the counsel ( qadāʾ ) and predestination ( qadar ) of God or his determination ( taqdīr ). Predestination includes the predestination of good and bad, sweet and bitter. God has given the creatures their measure ( qadar ) and determined their time of death. He makes his creatures sick and heals them, lets them die and makes them alive, while the creatures themselves have no power over it. God lets die without fear and brings to life without effort. The one who dies dies on the date appointed for him, even if he is killed.

God has written the things predestined for the creatures on the well-kept tablet ( al-lauḥ al-maḥfūẓ ). The pen she wrote down is the first thing God created. God commanded him to write down what will be until the day of resurrection. The quill is already dry and the scrolls are rolled up. Everything that was written on it in ancient times is immutable.

God is righteous in his counsels ( aqḍiya ), but his righteousness cannot be judged according to the analogy of the righteousness of people, because unjust action for people is only conceivable with regard to someone else's property, but God does not come across someone else's property anywhere could behave unfairly towards him. The principle of predestination is God's secret about his creatures. No archangel or prophet is informed of this. Reflecting on predestination leads to perdition and is a step towards rebellion against God because He has hidden the knowledge about it from people.

The actions of people

Belief in predestination includes belief that God, through his primordial eternal knowledge, also knows what creatures will do. He knows both about their acts of obedience ( ṭāʿāt ) and about their insubordination ( maʿāṣī ). Nobody can escape God's knowledge or do something that God knows he will not do. What people will do has been known to God since ancient times. He wrote that it was going to happen. None of this was hidden from him before he created it.

According to Sunni doctrine, human actions are also created by God alone. People act, but God is the creator of their actions. What God makes man do right he cannot possibly do wrong, and what he makes man do wrong he cannot possibly do right. God creates both the good and the bad deeds of people while they are unable to create. The acts of the unbeliever and the adulterer are also created by God. Man merely appropriates his actions.

With this doctrine of appropriation , the Sunnis differ on the one hand from the Muʿtazilites, who teach that people bring about their own actions out of free will, and on the other hand the Jabrites , which give man the ability to act ( qudra ) and free will ( iḫtiyār ). According to the Sunni view, true Islam keeps the middle between the acceptance of compulsion ( ǧabr ) and the ascription of one's own Qadar when describing human behavior . Man has the capacity and the will to act, but it is God who creates their capacity and their will. People only have will if God wants this for them.

According to Sunni doctrine, nobody can do anything before he actually does it. The ability to act ( istiṭāʿa ) only occurs with the act itself, in contrast to the doctrine of the Muaztazilites and Karrāmites , according to which the ability to act precedes the action, because otherwise, according to their opinion, there is the imposition of something that can not be fulfilled. In the creed of at-Tahāwī, however, a differentiation is made: the ability to act, on which the act depends, such as success ( taufīq ), for which the creature is not responsible, comes only with the act. The ability to act, which affects such things as health, strength, ability and intactness of the means, is already there beforehand. At-Tahāwī also postulates a complete correspondence between divine obligation and human agency: “God has only imposed on people what they can achieve. And people can only do what he has imposed on them. That is the meaning of the hauqala ”. The Ashʿarites, on the other hand, assume that God can impose something on man as a duty that he is unable to do. This doctrine of taklīf mā lā yutāq is one of the most important doctrinal differences between Ashʿarīya and Māturīdīya.

The blessed and the damned

Everyone is made easy for what they were created for. Blessed is he who is saved by the counsel of God ( qaḍāʾ Allāh ), condemned is he who is condemned by the counsel of God. God created paradise and hell above all else; then he created the people who are worthy of them. He has designated some out of generosity ( faḍlan ) for paradise, the others out of justice ( ʿadlan ) for hell. God has always known the number of those who go to paradise and the number of those who go to hell. This number is neither increased nor decreased. When God creates the body of the embryo, he sends an angel to it who will write down his livelihood ( rizq ), his hour of death, his deeds and whether he is a damned ( saqī ) or a blessed ( saʿīd ).

The Sunni believer does not doubt his belief. However, man neither knows how he is recorded by God (sc. Whether as a believer or unbeliever), nor how it ends with him. God is also the converter of the heart ( muqallib al-qulūb ). Therefore, it is fitting to say, "A believer, God willing " or "I hope I am a believer". Such an expression does not make a person to a doubt, because he only means that his fate and his end are hidden from him. Nor do the Sunnis grant Paradise or Hell to any of the people who pray to the Kaaba because of a good deed or a sin they have committed.

More lessons

The essence of belief

There are great differences among the Sunnis when it comes to defining beliefs . According to Ashʿarite and Hanbali authors, it consists of word ( qaul ) and deed ( ʿamal ). The Creed of the Caliph Qādir specified that the word "tongue" ( bi-l-Lisan ) and the act "with the members" ( bi-l-ǧawāriḥ ) is to perform, and adds a third element, the Niya added. According to at-Tahāwī, on the other hand, belief is “confirmation with the tongue” ( al-iqrār bi-l-lisān ) and “holding true with the heart” ( at-taṣdīq bi-l-ǧanān ), the act and the Nīya are not among them.

According to Ashʿari and Hanbali doctrine, belief can increase and decrease. It increases through obedience ( ṭāʿa ) and decreases through resistance ( maʿṣiya ). According to Hanbali doctrine, belief also has different parts and ramifications. The highest part is the confession: “There is no god but Allaah”, the lowest is the removal of an obstacle from the road. Everything with which man approaches God belongs to faith. That is why faith is never at an end. According to the Hanafi point of view, on the other hand, the belief is not compound and the believers are in principle all the same. Inequality does exist, however, with regard to the fear of God ( šašya wa-tuqan ), the warding off of desire ( muḫālafat al-hawā ) and the obedience to the priority ( mulāzamat al-aulā ). Nor is it that sin does not harm the believer. The noblest believer before God is the one who obeys him the most and obeys the Koran most strongly.

The community of Muslims

The Sunnis do not oppose the Muslim community ( ǧamāʿat al-muslimīn ), but practice the religion through good advice ( naṣīḥa ) for them and through worship together with others. Although they consider Muschabbiha, i.e. those who resemble God with his creation, Muʿtazilites , Jahmites , Jabrites and Qadarites, to be astray, they call all those who share their qibla Muslims and believers as long as they acknowledge what the Prophet has brought and consider everything he has said and communicated to be true.

Nor do the Sunnis declare any of those who share their qibla to disbelieve because of a sin they commit such as zinā , theft, and similar grave sins . Rather, they believe that by the faith they possess, even if they commit grave sins, they are believers. With this teaching, the Sunnis differ from the Kharijites who practice such takfīr . The Sunni believer, on the other hand, leaves the judgment of the sinner to God and waits over the things that are hidden from him until God decides. The brotherhood of faith ( al-uḫūwa al-īmānīya ) with sinners is therefore not terminated, but remains in existence. Unlike the Muʿtazilites, the Sunnis also do not deny the wrongdoer ( fāsiq ) the belief. According to the Hanbali view, however, his belief is imperfect. The Sunnis also find it good to say the funeral prayer for anyone who has died of the qibla, both pious and sinful, and recognize inheritance relationships with them.

According to Ash aari and Hanafi, sinners only become unbelievers when they declare the offense in question to be permissible. The view of the Hanbalites is more rigid in this regard. They believe that whoever neglects the prescribed prayer for no reason will become an unbeliever, even if he does not deny the duty to pray. He remains an unbeliever until he repents and catches up with the prayer. And if he dies without repentance, the funeral prayer should not be said for him.

Imamat and Jihad

According to the Sunni view, Muslims need an imam who is responsible for the implementation of the legal provisions, the execution of the hadd sentences and the provision of the armies. The imam must not be a person who is hidden and expected, as the imamites teach, but must be visible. To become an imam, a person must be free, masculine, sexually mature, sane, courageous, and descended from the Quraysh . But he doesn't have to be godly or sinless or the best person of his time.

The imam is not deposed because of viciousness ( fisq ). The Sunnis are of the opinion that one may pray for the imams for well-being and not go to battle against them with the sword, further that one may not fight in Fitna , but should look after the house in the case of Fitna. Even if the imams or those in power are unjust, it is not considered good to take action against them. One must not give up obedience to them either, but should consider obedience to them as part of the duty of obedience to God, as long as they do not impose an opposition ( maʿṣiya ). In addition to welfare, one should also ask forgiveness for them . Anyone who advocates taking the field against the Imams when they see a deviation from the right path will be declared astray.

The Sunnis think it is good to pray on the festival, on Friday and in community behind every Imam or with every Amīr , be he pious ( birr ) or sinful ( fāǧir ), as well as ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿUmar behind al-Hajjaj ibn Yūsuf has prayed. The Sunnis also reaffirm the duty to jihad against the sellers , from the time God sent his prophet to the last multitudes to fight the jihad , and beyond. Jihad is to be carried out with both the pious and the sinful rulers. Nothing invalidates or overrides it.

Scholars, friends of God and magicians

The scholars of the ancestors ( salaf ), both those who preceded them and those who came after them, the people of tradition, fiqh and discernment ( naẓar ), may only be mentioned in good terms. Whoever speaks badly of them is not on the right track. The Idschmāʿ of the pious ancestors ( as-salaf aṣ-ṣāliḥ ) is the third of the three bases for the Sunnis after the Koran and Sunna, on which they base their religion and knowledge and according to which they refer to the words and deeds of people to have religion, judge.

The Sunnis profess that God can mark the righteous ( aṣ-ṣāliḥūn ) by miraculous signs ( āyāt ) which He shows on them. They believe in the miracles of grace ( karāmāt ) narrated by trustworthy persons about the friends of God ( auliyāʾ Allāh ), as well as in the extraordinary things ( ḫawāriq al-daāda ) and revelations ( mukāšafāt ) that God does through them. These miracles exist until the day of resurrection. With the belief that friends of God can perform miracles of grace, the Sunnis differ from the Muʿtazilites, who consider such miracles of grace to be impossible. However, the Sunnis do not place any of the friends of God on a higher level than one of the prophets, because a prophet is better than all friends of God put together.

The Sunnis do not believe in a fortune teller ( kāhin ) or a clairvoyant ( ʿarrāf ). But they believe that there are wizards in the world; the magician is, in their opinion, an unbeliever and sorcery is something inner-worldly. According to an-Nasafī's creed, sorcery and the evil eye are a reality. In addition, the Sunnis believe in the dream face ( ruʾyā ) during sleep. You consider a lot of what is seen in the dream to be correct and confess that there is an interpretation for it.

Ethical principles

Several Sunni creeds also contain lists of ethical principles that Sunnis adhere to. They practice the religion by avoiding grave sins, zinā , lying ( qaul az-zūr ), jealousy , pride ( faḫr ), arrogance ( kibar ), humiliating people ( izrāʾ ʿalā n-nās ), and complacency ( ʿuǧb ). They forbid conceit ( ḫuyalāʾ ), injustice and presumption ( istiṭāla ) towards other people, command steadfastness ( ṣabr ) in times of need, thanks in happiness and contentment ( riḍāʾ ) in the passing of doom and call for character traits ( makārim al-aḫlāq ) and good works. They also command piety towards parents ( birr al-wālidain ), solidarity with relatives ( ṣilat al-arḥām ), good neighborliness ( ḥusn al-ǧiwār ), benevolence towards orphans, needy people and travelers and kindness towards slaves . The Sunnis path also includes modesty ( tawāḍuʿ ), humility ( istikāna ), decency ( ḥusn al--uluq ), generous giving ( bal al-maʿrūf ), avoidance of harm ( kaff al-aḏā ), defamation ( ġība ) and defamation ( namīma ) and the testing of food and drink (sc. with regard to their permissibility).

The Sunnis believe it is good, from anyone to a Bid'a , keep calling and with the recitation of the Koran and writing down the traditions ( ATAR ) and the Fiqh , For the things in which they occupy different opinions are based they rely on the Book of God, the Sunnah of their Prophet, the consensus of Muslims and what corresponds with it.

The Sunnis disapprove of the quarrel and dispute about religion, the quarrel about predestination and the discussion of what the people of the Jadal argue about, relying on the reliable narrations and the news that credible people passed on from one another to the Prophet and they don't ask “How?” and “Why?” because this is a novelty . Nor do they argue about the Koran. When it comes to things of which they have no certain knowledge, they say, "God knows best" ( Allāhu alam ).

Special features in standards theory

Two points that unite the Sunnis in the field of normative doctrine and distinguish them from the Imamite Shiites are their approval of the Mash ʿalā al-chuffain and their prohibition of the Mutʿa . The Mash ʿalā al-chuffain, the "putting on the shoes" instead of washing before prayer, is, according to her, a Sunna and permissible both during a permanent stay and when traveling. Ahmad ibn Hanbal also names the shortening of prayer on the journey as a special feature of the Sunnis.

Self-image of the Sunnis

As the "saved sect"

A well-known hadith , to be interpreted as Vaticinium ex eventu , says that the Muslim Umma will split into 73 sects, only one of which will be saved. There is a notion among the Sunnis that they are this "saved sect" ( firqa nāǧiya ). This explains, for example, 'Abd al-qahir al-Baghdādī (d. 1037) at the beginning of his häresiographischen station al-Farq baina l-firaq ( "The difference between the sects") that 20 rāfiditische , 20 Kharijite , 20 qadaritische , 3 murdschiitische , 3 naddschāritische, 3 karrāmitische and beyond Bakrīya, Dirārīya and Dschahmīya give. These are the 72 erring sects. The 73rd sect that is the "saved sect" are the Sunnis ( ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ). According to al-Baghdādī, they are composed of two groups, namely the followers of the Ra'y and the followers of the Hadith. However, they both agreed in the fundamentals of religion ( uṣūl ad-dīn ). The only differences are the derivations ( furūʿ ) from the norms regarding the question of what is allowed and what is forbidden . However, these differences are not so great that they consider each other to have strayed from the right path.

As the middle of the Muslims

Later Sunni scholars also present the Sunnis as the middle Muslim community. The idea already appears to some extent in the Ashʿarite ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī, who emphasizes on several dogmatic questions that the Sunnis hold a position that lies in the middle between the positions of the other Islamic groups. One example is the question of predestination ( Qadar ), in which, in his opinion, with the Kasb theory, you keep exactly the middle between the two extreme positions of the Jabrīya and the Qadarīya .

The Hanbali scholar Ibn Taimīya (d. 1328), who was otherwise known for his uncompromising attitude, also adhered to this view. He said that the Sunnis represented "the middle among the sects of the Umma " ( al-wasaṭ fī firaq al-umma ), just as the Islamic Umma is the middle between the other religious communities. He illustrates this with the following examples:

  • Regarding the attributes of God, the Sunnis stand in the middle between the Jahmīya , which God completely empties of attributes, and the Muschabbiha, which make God similar to creation,
  • in the deeds of God they stand in the middle between the Qadarīya and the Jabrīya ,
  • on the issue of threat of God ( wa'īd Allah ) they are in the middle between the murji'ah and Wa'īdīya, a subgroup of qadariyah,
  • When it comes to the question of belief and religion, they stand in the middle between Harūrīya (= Kharijites) and Muʿtazila on the one hand and Murji'a and Jahmīya on the other,
  • and with regard to the companions of the Prophets , they stand in the middle between the Rāfidites and Harijites .

The Hanafi scholar ʿAlī al-Qārī (d. 1606) continued this idea later. In his anti-Shiite writing, Shamm al-al-ʿawāriḍ fī ḏamm ar-rawāfiḍ , he quotes a tradition according to which ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib is said to have said: “Two kinds of people perish on me: the overly lover and the overly hater. “On this he notes that the exaggerated lover is the Rāfidit and the exaggerated hater is the Kharijit. The Sunni, on the other hand, loves ʿAlī in high esteem and is thus in the balanced middle ( al-wasaṭ allaḏī huwa al-qisṭ ). This relates al-Qari to the Qur'anic sura 2: 143, in which it is said that God made the Muslims a community standing in the middle ( umma wasaṭ ). Since the Sunnis stay away from the exaggeration described in the traditional ʿAlī saying, al-Qārī believes that they are also the actual " party of ʿAlīs " ( šīʿat ʿAlī ).

As the essential bearers of Islamic science and culture

ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Baghdādī also portrays the Sunnis in his work al-Farq baina l-firaq as the actual bearers of Islamic science and culture. Of all the sciences, knowledge and efforts that Muslims are proud of, explains al -Baghdādī, the Sunnis would have the majority. From this one can see that all the credit for science goes to them. In the last chapter of his book, al-Baghdādī also relates this to building activity in Islamic countries. He thinks that the Sunnis, with their mosques , madrasas , palaces, ribāten, factories and hospitals have achieved an unattainable position because none of the non-Sunnis have performed such services.

A similar image of the Sunnis as carriers of science and culture was drawn up in the final document of the 2016 Sunni Conference in Grozny. There it says:

“Where the methodology of Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jamāʿa was active and decisive, extremist tendencies were put in their place [...], which at the same time allowed them to devote themselves to building civilization. Thus, among the scholars of Islam, brilliant minds emerged who made decisive contributions to the development of algebra and calculation methods, trigonometry , mechanics, geometry, algorithms , research into specific gravity, medicine, eye surgery , psychology, oncology , epidemiology , embryology , herbal medicine, pharmacy, Biology, research on gravity, astronomy, environmental research, acoustics, optics and many other areas of knowledge. All of these are undeniably fruits of the methodology of Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jamāʿa. "

- Final document of the 2016 Grozny Sunni Conference

State institutions with a Sunni orientation

Logo of the Azhar

One of the most important Sunni Islamic teaching institutions worldwide is the Azhar in Egypt. Article 32b, para. 7 of the Egyptian Azhar Law of 1961 stipulates that the Azhar follows “the path of the Sunnis” ( manhaǧ ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ), “with which the Ummah has agreed, in the foundations of religion and applications of Fiqh , with its four disciplines . ”Member of the Council of Great Scholars ( haiʾat kibār al-ʿulamāʾ ) of this authority, which elects the Sheikh of the Azhar and from which the candidates for this office are also recruited, can only become those who stick to this path in their science and conduct. Other Sunni teaching institutions that enjoy great international recognition are the University of Ez-Zitouna in Tunisia and the University of al-Qarawīyīn in Morocco. They are also mentioned along with the Azhar in the final document of the Grozny Sunnis conference.

The Sunni orientation is also particularly clear at the “Office for Islamic Progress of Malaysia” ( Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia , abbreviated JAKIM), which was founded in 1997 and performs various Islam-related tasks in Malaysia: It serves as the secretariat for the National Council for Islamic Religious Affairs (MKI), supports the formulation and standardization of Islamic law, coordinates Islamic education, organizes scientific conferences, disseminates the fatwas of the muftis, has authority over the major mosques of Malaysia and prepares the Friday sermons. According to the profile that JAKIM publishes on its own website, the “service for religion, nation and state based on Sunni teaching” ( berkhidmat untuk agama, bangsa dan negara berdasarkan akidah Ahli Sunnah Wal Jamaah ) is one of the five common values ​​that the authority seeks to fulfill its tasks. The state has also given the authority the task of dealing with deviant creeds that threaten national security.

Another body that claims to speak on behalf of Sunni Islam is the Council of Supreme Religious Scholars in Saudi Arabia, founded in 1971, with its Standing Committee on Scientific Investigation and Fatwa Issuance . In the past, the committee has expressed itself several times in fatwas on the membership of certain Islamic groups as Sunni. In 1986 it published a fatwa in which it excluded the ahbāsh community from Sunniism . The Islamic World League , which is also financed by Saudi Arabia , does not present itself as a Sunni organization, but the affiliated Islamic Fiqh Academy in Mecca made it clear in a resolution from 1987 that it regards Sunniism as the original doctrine, " which represents the pure and correct Islamic thought at the time of the ambassador and the rightly guided caliphate ”and on which the Islamic community must agree.

Logo of the Turkish Diyanet Authority

It is generally accepted that the Turkish Presidium for Religious Affairs ( Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı ), following the religious policy of the Ottoman Empire, provides a Sunni interpretation of Islam. In 1961, the Diyanet distributed a pamphlet to its muftis, in which they asked them to report to the authorities anyone who spreads anti-Sunni ideology or Shiite or Alevi propaganda. Plans by the National Unity Committee in the 1960s to convert the Diyanet authority into a non-denominational institution that also integrated the Alevis failed due to resistance from conservative Sunni clergy inside and outside the Diyanet authority. However, the Sunni rhetoric has weakened somewhat over time. Since the 1990s, the Diyanet authority has presented itself as an institution that stands above the denominations ( mezhepler üstü ). The compulsory religious education organized by the authority in Turkish schools is based exclusively on the Sunni understanding of Islam.

Sunni organizations and associations

Logo of the Nahdatul Ulama, the largest Sunni mass organization in the world

The largest Sunni mass organization worldwide is the Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) in Indonesia with over 40 million members. Since 1984 it has explicitly mentioned in its statutes that it follows Sunni teaching. According to the understanding of the NU, this means 1. in jurisprudence to adhere to the principles laid down by the four Madhhab founders, 2. in the theology of the teaching of Abū l-Hasan al-Aschʿari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi to follow and 3. to implement the principles of al-Junaid and al-Ghazālī in Sufik . In response to the terror of the IS organization , the Nahdlatul Ulama organized the International Summit of Moderate Islamic Leaders (ISOMIL) in Jakarta in May 2016 , which was attended by 400 scholars from 30 countries. At the end of the conference, the central board of the NU presented a 16-point declaration, in which the organization reaffirmed its moderate understanding of traditional Sunni Islam. Point 10 of the declaration states that religious extremism and terrorism among Muslims have contributed directly to the spread of Islamophobia in the non-Muslim world. In point 16, the organization declares that it will strive to consolidate the global Sunni community in order to achieve a world in which Islam and Muslims are truly positive and contribute to the prosperity of all humanity.

In Indonesia, the term Ahlussunnah wal Jamaah , which is often abbreviated as ASWAJA, is used primarily for traditionalist groups that advocate the Madhhab order and are in opposition to modernist groups. The Muhammadiyah organization, which has a modernist orientation, does not present itself reversed in its official statements as a Sunni organization, even if they considered the Sunnah as a second source of law after the Koran. But after other Muslim organizations had accused the Muhammadiyah of standing outside of Sunniism because of their rejection of the Taqlīd , the Muhammadiyah scholar Djarnawi Hadikusuma (d. 1993) wrote a treatise in which he affirmed the affiliation of his organization to Sunniism. Another Indonesian mass organization with an explicitly Sunni orientation is the Pembela Islam Front , which is fighting for the introduction of Sharia law in Indonesia. In contrast to the moderate NU, however, it has a militant orientation.

One organization in West Africa that explicitly presents itself as Sunni is the Association des Musulmans Sunnites en Côte d'Ivoire (AMSCI - "Society of Sunni Muslims of the Ivory Coast "). It was founded in 1976 under the name Association des musulmans orthodoxes de Côte d'Ivoire (AMOCI) and did not take on its current name until 1997. Their orientation is moderately Salafist. It has been federally organized since 2007, has its own youth and women's organizations and its own organization for Sunni imams, the Conseil des Imams Sunnites (CODIS). After she founded the Conseil National Islamique (CNI - "National Islamic Council") with other Islamic organizations in 1993 , she left it again in 2005 and is now rivaling it.

Of the four Muslim associations and umbrella organizations in Germany that are united in the Coordination Council of Muslims in Germany (KRM), the Association of Islamic Cultural Centers (VIKZ) in particular emphasizes its Sunni identity. He has a mystical orientation and follows the teachings of Süleyman Hilmi Tunahan . On its own website, the VIKZ states that it belongs to the "Sunni-Hanefi orientation of Islam" and emphasizes that Suleyman Hilmi Tunahan and his students were also "members of Sunni Islam".

"Ahl as-Sunna" as the self-designation of modern Islamic movements

Since the 19th century, various Islamic movements have emerged that claim the Ahl-as-Sunna term for themselves in order to express their claim to " legitimacy , authenticity and a sense of specialty". The appropriation of the title as a religious identity marker also serves to demarcate rival movements as “different” or deviating or to accuse them of introducing illegal innovations . With the new groups, which call themselves Ahl as-sunna, a distinction can be made between Sufic movements and Salafist movements that are opposed to Sufism.

Sufi movements

One of the most important Sufi movements that use the term Ahl-e Sunnat wa Jama'at as a self-designation is the Barelwī movement from South Asia , which was founded by Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi (1856–1921). She is close to the Qādirīya order , regards the Prophet Mohammed as a supernatural being and cultivates practices of worshiping saints. This is in stark contrast to the Deobandi movement, which rejects such practices. In 1925, scholars of the Barelwī movement founded the All-India Sunni Conference (AISC) in response to the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind in which the Deobandi scholars had come together . It held a total of three national conferences (1925, 1935 and 1946). At the 1946 conference in Benares, at which the organization advocated the founding of Pakistan, 500 Sufi sheikhs, 7,000 ʿUlamā ' and 2,000 other “Sunnis” took part.

The chairman of the Daʿwat-e Islami, who bears the title Amir-e Ahl-e sunnat ("Commander of the Sunnis")

Although the Deobandis also lay claim to the designation "Sunni", the Barelwis managed to occupy them in South Asia largely as a self-designation for their own movement. In 1981 scholars of the Barelwī movement founded the Daʿwat-e Islami ("Islamic Daʿwa ") as a separate missionary movement to compete with the Tablighi Jamaat , which is close to the Deobandi movement . It is based in Karachi and is now active in more than 60 countries. Alongside Karachi, Dubai and Durban have become central hubs for the movement's activities. The chairman is Ilyas Attar Qadiri (born 1950), who lives in Dubai. He bears the title of Amir-e Ahl-e sunnat ("Commander of the Sunnis").

In 1992, Salim Qadiri, the district leader of the Daʿwat-e Islami of Saidabad near Karachi, founded the radical Sunni Tehreek ("Sunni Movement") to allow Deobandi and Ahl-i Hadīth groups to take over the mosques and madrasa schools of the Barelwis prevent. Activists of the movement carried out numerous attacks on Deobandi functionaries until in April 2006 the leadership of the Sunni Tehreek in Karachi was itself the victim of an attack. Barelwis and Deobandis compete not only in Pakistan, but also in the United Kingdom and South Africa, and are repeatedly involved in conflicts. Here the Barelwis claim to be the only saved sect of the 73 Islamic sects as Ahl al-Sunna.

Another much more recent Sufi movement that uses the term Ahl as-Sunna as a self-designation is the paramilitary group Ahlu Sunna Wa l-Jamaʿa (ASWJ) in Somalia , which is fighting against the Shabaab militia. A first organization with this name was founded in 1992 by General Mohammed Farah Aidid . It was supposed to bring together Muslim clergymen who supported him in the fight against the Islamization of the country. Most of the ASWJ followers belonged to the Qādirīya order. After Aidid's death, the ASWJ group reorganized and ran its own Islamic courts. The ASWJ followed a legitimist line and called for cooperation with the government and avoiding Fitna. The confrontation with the Shabaab militia began in December 2008 when Shabaab fighters destroyed the graves of Sufi sheikhs who were worshiped by the local population in Galguduud . The ASWJ then formed their own militia, which was able to push back the Shabaab fighters. In March 2010, the ASWJ militia reached an agreement with the Somali interim government that secured a number of positions in the cabinet and state apparatus. Today the ASWJ and its leader Sheikh Mohamed Shakir Ali Hassan play an important political role in the autonomous Somali state of Galmudug .

Salafist movements

Movements with a Salafist orientation, which use the term Ahl as-Sunna as a self-designation, can be found primarily in West Africa . One of the earliest movements of this kind is the Ahl as-Sunna of Burkina Faso , which already gained many followers among traders and government officials there in the 1960s. They got more and more into a rivalry with the Muslims of the Communauté Musulmane , which was connected to the ruling house of the Mossi . In April 1973 there was a serious outbreak of violence because an Ahl al-Sunna preacher claimed in his sermon in Ouagadougou that only the Muslims in his community were true Muslims, while the other Muslims were destined for Hell, and in doing so, too referred to the hadith of 72 sects. Muslims of the Musulmane Community then attacked the preacher's mosque. Further clashes between the two groups followed in Bobo-Dioulasso Although Muslims of the Communauté the Ahl al-Sunnah to discredit the government and tried to prevent the organization of official registration, this could their movement finally in December 1973 as Mouvement Sunnite to register . The government's efforts to establish friendly relations with Saudi Arabia also played an important role in the official approval of the Mouvement Sunnite . In the 1980s Mouvement Sunnite was able to build madrasa schools, mosques and libraries with financial support from Arab countries (especially Saudi Arabia and Kuwait) . Internal conflicts and the younger generation's growing dissatisfaction with the organization's intellectual extremism led to the Mouvement Sunnite's decline in the early 1990s.

Another Ahl-Sunna movement with a Salafist orientation emerged in Ghana around the preacher al-Hajj Umar Ibrahim, who studied at the Islamic University of Medina (IUM) and had a large number of followers between 1969 and 1972 after his return from Saudi Arabia could gather around. He turned especially against the Sufi practices Tijaniyyah -Ordens and faith in Baraka . Secular Muslims were also drawn to his sermons. With the support of the Ghana Islamic Research and Reformation Center (GIRRC), in which secular Muslims dominated, al-Hajj Umar founded a madrasa in 1972/72 in Nima, a district of Accra , which also attracted many students from Benin and Togo . In the early 1980s, the Ahl-as-Sunna movement reached its peak and outnumbered the Tijaniya in Ghana, after which the number of its followers declined again due to internal disputes. In 1996 al-Hajj Umar was appointed National Chief Imam of the Ahl as-Sunnah. After falling out with the secular Muslims, he brought GIRCC under his control in 1997 and renamed it Ahl-as-Sunna wa-Jama'a (ASWAJ). While the followers of al-Hajj Umar call themselves Ahl as-Sunnah , other Muslims regard them as Wahhabis .

The Ahl as-Sunna in Senegal are also an anti-Sufi movement. It is aimed not only against the Tijaniyyah, but also against the Mouride -Orden. The other Senegalese refer to these anti-Sufi Muslims as Ibadou , after the Jamatou Ibadou Rahmane (JIR), one of the germ cells of the “Sunni movement” in Senegal. It was founded in Thiès in 1978 by dissidents from the Union culturelle musulmane (UCM). In the course of the 1990s this “Sunni Islam” spread very quickly among the youth of Dakar . The Ibadou Muslims see themselves as the only true Ahl as-Sunna , while the Sufi Muslims who do loud Dhikr exercises see themselves as "people of Satan" ( ahl šaiṭān ).

Jafar Mahmūd Ādam (1960–2007), the leader of the Ahl-as-sunna network in Nigeria

Another Salafist network in West Africa, which uses Ahl as-Sunna as a self - designation, emerged in Nigeria in the 1990s as a result of a split from the Nigerian Izala movement. Some Izala activists from Kano who had studied at the IUM and who saw Jafar Mahmūd Ādam (1960-2007) as their leader, gave up their obedience to the Izala leadership and founded their own group, which they called Ahl as-Sunna . The ideological point of reference for them was the writings of Muhammad Nāsir ad-Dīn al-Albānī , ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn Bāz and Muhammad ibn al-ʿUthaimīn . Like the Yan Izala, the Ahl al-Sunnah rejected un-Islamic innovations , but they did not agree with the way the Yan Izala acted against the Sufis and declared them to be unbelievers. By choosing the name Ahl as-Sunna , they tried to put their identity on a more universal basis. They did not want to be an organization, but rather to follow "a method that goes back to the Messenger of God". The religious activities of the Ahl as-Sunna mainly concentrated on Daʿwa and intellectual disputes with other Salafist groups. They also participated in Hisba activities in northern Nigeria in the early 2000s and supported the introduction of Sharia law .

Boko Haram later emerged from a regional cell of the Ahl-as-Sunna network in Maiduguri , which was under the leadership of Muhammad Yūsuf . This cell broke away from Jafar Mahmud dam in 2002 and renamed itself ahl al-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa wa-l-hiǧra ("people of the sunna, the community and the hijra "). With the addition of Hijra ("emigration"), the group expressed that they viewed Nigeria as a pagan state from which Muslims would have to emigrate like Mohammed 622 from Mecca. After the death of Muhammad Yūsuf in 2009, the group renamed itself again in the course of a strategic realignment and took the name ahl as-sunna li-d-daʿwa wa-l-ǧihād ʿalā manhaǧ al-salaf (“People of the Sunna for Daʿwa and jihad according to the method of the ancestors ”). The group thus shifted its ideological accent from hijra to jihad and expressed its new jihadist - Salafist orientation. At the same time, Boko Haram, with its ahl as-sunna as part of its name, continues to claim sovereignty over what is to be regarded as sunna.

The rivalry between Ashʿarīya and Salafīya and the 2016 Sunni conferences

Since the second half of the 20th century there have been fierce clashes within the Sunni camp between Ash Aarites on the one hand and Salafists / Wahhabis on the other, who exclude each other from Sunniism. In Indonesia, the Ashʿarite scholar Sirajuddin Abbas (d. 1980) wrote several books in the 1960s in which he explicitly excluded the Ahl as-salaf from Sunniism. Among other things, he argued that there was no Salafī madhhab in the first 300 years of Islam. From this he concluded that those who urged other Muslims to obey the Salafi madhhab were promoting a madhhab that did not even exist. In his view, only the Ashʿarites were real Sunnis. Abbas' books served as the theological basis for anti-Salafist campaigns in Aceh in 2014 . During these campaigns, various Salafist schools in Aceh were closed by the provincial government.

Apparently because of doubts about whether the Salafīya belong to Sunniism, the Standing Committee on Scientific Investigation and Fatwa Issuance issued a fatwa in which it made clear that it does consider the Salafists to be Sunnis. Like some Ashʿarites, the Salafists believe that their teaching is the only true form of Sunniism. That is why they deny the Ash Aarites and Māturīdites that they belong to Sunniism. An example is the Saudi scholar Muhammad Ibn al-ʿUthaimīn , who in his 2001 commentary on ʿAqīda Wāsiṭīya by Ibn Taimīya expressed the opinion that Ashʿarites and Māturīdites would not count among the Sunnis because their doctrine of attributes contradicts the teaching of the Prophet and his companions. For this reason, the view of the three groups that belong to Sunniism should also be rejected. Sunnis are only those who are salaf in terms of belief. Whoever followed the path of the Prophet and his companions until the Day of Resurrection was a Salafi. The Salafist Kuwaiti scholar Faisal ibn Quzāz al-Jāsim published an 800-page book in 2006 to prove that the Ashʿarites were at odds with the Sunnis' path.

The allegation by some Wahhabis that the Ashʿarites were outside Sunniism was also the subject of a fatwa by the Egyptian Fatwa Office in July 2013. In its fatwa, the office rejected this charge, affirming that the Ashʿarites are still the "multitude of scholars " ( ǧumhūr al-ʿulamāʾ ), and emphasized that it was they who in the past had repulsed the "pseudo arguments of the atheists " ( šubuhāt al-malāḥida ). Anyone who declares them to be unbelieving or who doubts their orthodoxy should be feared for their religion. The fatwa office made it clear in a fatwa on the same day that, according to its understanding, the Ahl al-Sunna wa-l-Jamāʿa only refers to those Muslims who are Ash Aarites or Māturīdites in the doctrine of the faith.

Ahmed el-Tayeb , the Grand Imam of the Azhar, was one of the most important participants in the Sunni Conference in Grozny, but later distanced himself from its final declaration

The rivalry between Ashʿarīya and Salafīya became visible again at the two Sunni conferences in 2016, which were directed against the terror of the IS organization. The first conference entitled “Who are the Ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jamāʿa?” Took place in August 2016 under the patronage of Ramzan Akhmatovich Kadyrov in the Chechen capital Grozny. Numerous religious personalities from Egypt, India, Syria, Yemen and the Russian Federation took part in it, including Ahmed el-Tayeb , the Grand Imam of the Azhar, and Sheikh Aboobacker Ahmed , the Grand Mufti of India, who was the Barelwi- Movement heard. According to its organizers, the conference should “mark a blessed turning point in efforts to correct the grave and dangerous distortion of religion by those extremists who seek to usurp the venerable name of Ahl al-Sunna wa-al-Jamāʿa, him exclusively to coin itself and to exclude its true representatives from it. ”In the final declaration the Salafists operating takfīr and the IS organization were excluded from Sunni Islam. In response to this, various prominent Salafīya figures held a counter-conference in Kuwait in November 2016 under the title "The Correct Meaning of Sunnihood " ( al-Mafhūm aṣ-ṣaḥīḥ li-ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa ) in which they also distanced themselves from extremist groups, but at the same time insisted that Salafism was not only part of Sunniism, but represented Sunniism itself. The conference was chaired by Ahmad ibn Murābit, Grand Mufti of Mauritania. A few days later, Ahmed el-Tayeb publicly distanced himself from the final declaration of the Grozny Conference, reiterating that he had not participated in it and stressed that he naturally viewed the Salafists as Sunnis.

In Algeria, in the spring of 2018, the scholar Muhammad ʿAlī Farkūs, who belongs to the Malchalist undercurrent of Salafism, caused a sensation with a fatwa in which he not only spoke of the Sufis and Ashʿarites, but also the Tablighis and the Muslim Brotherhood as well as the followers of IS and al -Excluded Qaeda from Sunniism . Abderrezak Guessoum, the president of the Association of Algerian Muslim Scholars , criticized the text for its attacks against the Sufis and Ashʿarites as a “serious slip-up” and called on the Algerian religious scholars and exegetes to denounce such declarations as “a real danger to national unity”. His deputy Ammar Talbi accused Farkūs of evoking Fitna among the Muslims, returning to a split from the distant past and reviving “artificial slogans” ( šiʿārāt muṣṭaniʿa ). In this context he also pointed out that the expression ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa did not even exist at the time of God's Messenger.

literature

Arabic sources (chronological)
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  36. For example with Mohammad Heidari-Abkenar: The ideological and political confrontation Shia-Sunna: using the example of the city of Rey from the 10th - 12th centuries AD. Inaugural dissertation Cologne 1992 and Ofra Bengo and Meir Litvak: The Sunna and Shi'a in history. Division and ecumenism in the Muslim Middle East. 1st ed. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011.
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  44. So with Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila . 1952, Vol. II, p. 40.
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  50. Cf. Yāqūt ar-Rūmī : Muʿǧam al-Buldān Ed. F. Desert field. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1866-1870. Vol. III, pp. 213f. Digitization and van Ess: One and the other . 2011, p. 332.
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  63. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda aṭ-Ṭaḥāwīya . 1995, p. 31. - Engl. Transl. Watt: Islamic creeds: a selection . 1994, p. 56.
  64. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 128. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 99.
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  96. Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Al-Muntaẓam fī sulūk al-mulūk wa-l-umam . 1992, Vol. XV, p. 280. - Dt. Transl. Mez 198f.
  97. a b c d e f g Ibn al-Ǧauzī: Al-Muntaẓam fī sulūk al-mulūk wa-l-umam . 1992, Vol. XV, p. 280. - Dt. Translated from Mez 199.
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  102. a b c d e f g h al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 107. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 76.
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  107. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 12. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  108. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 76.
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  111. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 8. - Engl. Transl. Watt p. 48.
  112. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  113. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 107 - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. pp. 74f.
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  116. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 107 - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994. pp. 74f.
  117. a b c d e f al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 107 - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 75.
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  119. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 27. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  120. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 291. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 57.
  121. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  122. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 294. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 59.
  123. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 27. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  124. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  125. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 290f. - German Translation 1931, p. 56f.
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  135. al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . P. 12. - Engl. Transl. 55.
  136. a b c d e f g h al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 296. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 60.
  137. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 76.
  138. a b c aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 20. - Engl. Transl. Watt 52.
  139. a b c d e f g aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 12. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  140. al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . P. 10. - Engl. Transl. 51.
  141. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 89. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 86.
  142. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 18.
  143. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 16. - Engl. Transl. Watt 51.
  144. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 20. - Engl. Transl. Watt 52.
  145. a b c d e f al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 77.
  146. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  147. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 128. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 98.
  148. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 16f.
  149. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 15. - Engl. Transl. Watt 50.
  150. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 29. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  151. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 119. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 96.
  152. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 29. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  153. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 110. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 79.
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  155. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 120. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 96.
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  159. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 29. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  160. al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . S. 11. - Engl. Transl. 53.
  161. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 117. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 95.
  162. al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . S. 11. - Engl. Transl. 53.
  163. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 29f. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  164. Ibn Abī Yaʿlā: Ṭabaqāt al-Ḥanābila . 1952. Vol. I, p. 294.
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  168. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 29f. - Engl. Transl. Watt 55.
  169. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 25. - Engl. Transl. Watt 54.
  170. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 95. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 87.
  171. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 25.
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  173. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 25. - Engl. Transl. Watt 54.
  174. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 31. - Engl. Transl. Watt 56.
  175. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 28.
  176. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 295. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 60.
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  178. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 25f.
  179. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 97. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 87.
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  181. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 109f. - Engl. Transl. Watt. 1994, p. 78.
  182. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 98f. - German Übers. Wein p. 88.
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  184. al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . P. 12. - Engl. Transl. 55.
  185. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 16. - Engl. Transl. Watt 50.
  186. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 109. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 78.
  187. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 100. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 89.
  188. Cf. van Ess: Theology and Society . 1997, Vol. IV, pp. 411-415.
  189. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 12.
  190. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 292. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 58.
  191. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 13. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  192. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 91. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 86.
  193. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 292. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 58.
  194. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 91. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 86.
  195. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, pp. 13-15. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49f.
  196. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 12.
  197. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 100. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 89.
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  201. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 22f. - Engl. Transl. Watt 53.
  202. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 293. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 58f.
  203. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 16. - Engl. Transl. Watt 50.
  204. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 110. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 78.
  205. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11, 27. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49, 55.
  206. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 10. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  207. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 9. - Engl. Transl. Watt 48.
  208. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 105. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 90.
  209. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 18. - Engl. Transl. Watt 51.
  210. al-Ġazālī: Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm ad-dīn . 2005, p. 108. - Engl. Übers. Watt. 1994, p. 76.
  211. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 17. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  212. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 105. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 90.
  213. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 291. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 57.
  214. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 16. - Engl. Transl. Watt 51.
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  216. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  217. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 19.
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  219. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 105. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 90.
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  221. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 108. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 91f.
  222. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 26. - Engl. Transl. Watt 54.
  223. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 19f.
  224. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 32. - Engl. Transl. Watt 56.
  225. Ibn Taimīya: al-ʿAqīda al-Wāsiṭīya . 1999, p. 108. - Dt. Übers. Wein p. 92.
  226. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 11. - Engl. Transl. Watt 49.
  227. al-Ašʿarī: Kitāb Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn . P. 291. - Ger. Translation 1931, p. 57.
  228. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 19.
  229. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 26. - Engl. Transl. Watt 54.
  230. aṭ-Ṭaḥāwī: al-ʿAqīda . 1995, p. 27. - Engl. Transl. Watt 54.
  231. an-Nasafī: ʿUmdat ʿAqīdat ahl as-sunna wa-l-ǧamāʿa . 1843, p. 21.
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