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{{infobox ytterbium}}
{{infobox ytterbium}}
'''Ytterbium''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ɨ|ˈ|t|ɜr|b|i|ə|m}} {{respell|i|TUR|bee-əm}}) is a [[chemical element]] with symbol '''Yb''' and [[atomic number]] 70. It is the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series, or last element in the f-block, which is the basis of the relative stability of the +2 [[oxidation state]]. However, like the other lanthanides, the most common oxidation state is +3, seen in its oxide, halides and other compounds. In an aqueous solution, like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules.
'''Ytterbium''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ɨ|ˈ|t|ɜr|b|i|ə|m}} {{respell|i|TUR|bee-əm}}) is a [[chemical element]] with symbol '''Yb''' and [[atomic number]] 70. It is the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series, or last element in the f-block, which is the basis of the relative stability of the +2 [[oxidation state]]. However, like the other lanthanides, the most common oxidation state is +3, seen in its oxide, halides and other compounds. In an aqueous solution, Hey, I've just received a free Minecraft Giftcode!
You can get one too!
>> minecraftcodes.me <<like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules.


In 1878, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated in the rare earth of "erbia" another independent component, which he called "ytterbia", for Ytterby, the Swedish village near where he found the new component of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium" (note that in total four elements were named after the village, the others being [[yttrium]], [[terbium]] and [[erbium]]). In 1907, the new earth "lutecia" was separated from ytterbia, from which the element "lutecium" (now [[lutetium]]) was extracted. A relatively pure sample of the metal was obtained only in 1953. In present, ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or [[active laser medium|active laser media]], and less often as a [[gamma ray]] source.
In 1878, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated in the rare earth of "erbia" another independent component, which he called "ytterbia", for Ytterby, the Swedish village near where he found the new component of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium" (note that in total four elements were named after the village, the others being [[yttrium]], [[terbium]] and [[erbium]]). In 1907, the new earth "lutecia" was separated from ytterbia, from which the element "lutecium" (now [[lutetium]]) was extracted. A relatively pure sample of the metal was obtained only in 1953. In present, ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or [[active laser medium|active laser media]], and less often as a [[gamma ray]] source.

Revision as of 15:00, 16 September 2012

Ytterbium, 70Yb
Ytterbium
Pronunciation/ɪˈtɜːrbiəm/ ​(ih-TUR-bee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white; with a pale yellow tint[1]
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Yb)
Ytterbium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
Yb
↓
No
thulium ← ytterbium → lutetium
Atomic number (Z)70
Groupf-block groups (no number)
Periodperiod 6
Block  f-block
Electron configuration[Xe] 4f14 6s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1097 K ​(824 °C, ​1515 °F)
Boiling point1469 K ​(1196 °C, ​2185 °F)
Density (at 20° C)6.967 g/cm3 [4]
when liquid (at m.p.)6.21 g/cm3
Heat of fusion7.66 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization129 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.74 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 736 813 910 1047 (1266) (1465)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states0,[5] +1,[6] +2, +3 (a basic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.1 (?)
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 603.4 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1174.8 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 2417 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 176 pm
Covalent radius187±8 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of ytterbium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structure ​face-centered cubic (fcc) (cF4)
Lattice constants
Face-centered cubic crystal structure for ytterbium
a = 548.46 pm (at 20 °C)[4]
Thermal expansion24.31×10−6/K (at 20 °C)[4]
Thermal conductivity38.5 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivityβ, poly: 0.250 µΩ⋅m (at r.t.)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility+249.0×10−6 cm3/mol (2928 K)[7]
Young's modulusβ form: 23.9 GPa
Shear modulusβ form: 9.9 GPa
Bulk modulusβ form: 30.5 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod1590 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratioβ form: 0.207
Vickers hardness205–250 MPa
Brinell hardness340–440 MPa
CAS Number7440-64-4
History
Namingafter Ytterby (Sweden), where it was mined
DiscoveryJean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1878)
First isolationCarl Auer von Welsbach (1906)
Isotopes of ytterbium
Main isotopes[8] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
166Yb synth 56.7 h ε 166Tm
168Yb 0.126% stable
169Yb synth 32.026 d ε 169Tm
170Yb 3.02% stable
171Yb 14.2% stable
172Yb 21.8% stable
173Yb 16.1% stable
174Yb 31.9% stable
175Yb synth 4.185 d β− 175Lu
176Yb 12.9% stable
177Yb synth 1.911 h β− 177Lu
 Category: Ytterbium
| references

Ytterbium (/[invalid input: 'icon'][invalid input: 'ɨ']ˈtɜːrbiəm/ i-TUR-bee-əm) is a chemical element with symbol Yb and atomic number 70. It is the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series, or last element in the f-block, which is the basis of the relative stability of the +2 oxidation state. However, like the other lanthanides, the most common oxidation state is +3, seen in its oxide, halides and other compounds. In an aqueous solution, Hey, I've just received a free Minecraft Giftcode! You can get one too!

>> minecraftcodes.me <<like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules.

In 1878, the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated in the rare earth of "erbia" another independent component, which he called "ytterbia", for Ytterby, the Swedish village near where he found the new component of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium" (note that in total four elements were named after the village, the others being yttrium, terbium and erbium). In 1907, the new earth "lutecia" was separated from ytterbia, from which the element "lutecium" (now lutetium) was extracted. A relatively pure sample of the metal was obtained only in 1953. In present, ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or active laser media, and less often as a gamma ray source.

Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes, which altogether are present at concentrations of 3 ppm. This element is mined in China, the United States, Brazil, and India in form of the minerals monazite, euxenite, and xenotime. The ytterbium concentration is low, because the element is found among many other rare earth elements; moreover, it is among the least abundant ones. Once extracted and prepared, ytterbium is somewhat hazardous as an eye and skin irritant. The metal is a fire and explosion hazard.

Characteristics

Physical properties

Ytterbium is a soft, malleable and ductile chemical element that displays a bright silvery luster when in its pure form. It is a rare earth element, and it is readily attacked and dissolved by the strong mineral acids. It reacts slowly with cold water and it oxidizes slowly in air.[9]

Ytterbium has three allotropes labeled by the Greek letters alpha, beta and gamma; their transformation temperatures are −13 °C and 795 °C. The beta allotrope exists at room temperature, and it has a face-centered cubic crystal structure. The high-temperature gamma allotrope has a body-centered cubic crystalline structure.[9]

Normally, the beta allotrope has a metallic electrical conductivity, but it becomes a semiconductor when exposed to a pressure of about 16,000 atmospheres (1.6 GPa). Its electrical resistivity increases ten times upon compression to 39,000 atmospheres (3.9 GPa), but then drops to about 10% of its room-temperature resistivity at about 40,000 atm (4.0 GPa).[9][10]

In contrast with the other rare-earth metals, which usually have antiferromagnetic and/or ferromagnetic properties at low temperatures, ytterbium is paramagnetic at any temperatures above 1.0 kelvin.[11]

With a melting point of 824 °C and a boiling point of 1196 °C, ytterbium has the smallest range of liquid temperature compared to all other metals.

Chemical properties

Ytterbium metal tarnishes slowly in air. Finely dispersed ytterbium readily oxidizes in air and under oxygen. Mixtures of powdered ytterbium with polytetrafluoroethylene or hexachloroethane burn with a luminous emerald-green flame.[12]

Ytterbium is quite electropositive, and it reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form ytterbium(III) hydroxide:

2 Yb (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Yb(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Ytterbium reacts with all the halogens:

2 Yb (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 YbF3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 YbCl3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 YbBr3 (s) [white]
2 Yb (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 YbI3 (s) [white]

The ytterbium(III) ion absorbs light in the near infrared range of wavelengths, but not in visible light, so the mineral ytterbia, Yb2O3, is white in color and the salts of ytterbium are also colorless. Ytterbium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions that contain the colorless Yb(III) ions, which exist as a [Yb(OH2)9]3+ complex:[13]

2 Yb (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Yb3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−
4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Chemical compounds

The chemical behavior of ytterbium is similar to that of the rest of the lanthanides. Most ytterbium compounds are found in the +3 oxidation state and its salts in this oxidation state are nearly colorless. Like europium, samarium, and thulium, the trihalogens of ytterbium can be reduced by hydrogen or by the addition of the metal to reduce to the dihalogens. The +2 oxidation state reacts in some ways similarly to the alkaline earth metal compounds; for example, Ytterbium(II) oxide (YbO) shows the same structure as calcium oxide (CaO).[14]

See also: Category:Ytterbium compounds

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of ytterbium

Natural ytterbium is composed of seven stable isotopes: 168Yb, 170Yb, 171Yb, 172Yb, 173Yb, 174Yb, and 176Yb, with 174Yb being the most abundant isotope, at 31.8% of the natural abundance). 27 radioisotopes have been observed, with the most stable ones being 169Yb with a half-life of 32.0 days, 175Yb with a half-life of 4.18 days, and 166Yb with a half-life of 56.7 hours. All of its remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than two hours and the majority of these have half-lives are less than 20 minutes. Ytterbium also has 12 meta states, with the most stable being 169mYb (t½ 46 seconds).[15][16]

The isotopes of ytterbium range in atomic weight from 147.9674 atomic mass unit (u) for 148Yb to 180.9562 u for 181Yb. The primary decay mode of ytterbium isotopes lighter than the most abundant stable isotope, 174Yb, is electron capture, and the primary decay mode for those heavier than 174Yb is beta decay. The primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes lighter than 174Yb are thulium isotopes, and the primary decay products of ytterbium isotopes with heavier than 174Yb are lutetium isotopes.[15][16] Interestingly, in modern quantum optics, the different isotopes of ytterbium follow either Bose-Einstein statistics or Fermi-Dirac statistics, leading to significant behavior in optical lattices.

History

Ytterbium was discovered by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in the year 1878. Marignac found a new component in the earth then known as erbia, and he named it ytterbia, for Ytterby, the Swedish village near where he found the new component of erbium. Marignac suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium".[10]

In 1907, the French chemist Georges Urbain separated Marignac's ytterbia into two components: neoytterbia and lutecia. Neoytterbia would later become known as the element ytterbium, and lutecia would later be known as the element lutetium. Carl Auer von Welsbach independently isolated these elements from ytterbia at about the same time, but he called them aldebaranium and cassiopeium.[10]

The chemical and physical properties of ytterbium could not be determined with any precision until 1953, when the first nearly pure ytterbium metal was produced by using ion-exchange processes.[10] The price of ytterbium was relatively stable between 1953 and 1998 at about US$1,000/kg.[17]

Occurrence

Euxenite

Ytterbium is found with other rare earth elements in several rare minerals. It is most often recovered commercially from monazite sand (0.03% ytterbium). The element is also found in euxenite and xenotime. The main mining areas are China, the United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka, and Australia; and reserves of ytterbium are estimated as one million tonnes. Ytterbium is normally difficult to separate from other rare earths, but ion-exchange and solvent extraction techniques developed in the mid- to late 20th century have simplified separation. Known compounds of ytterbium are rare and have not yet been well characterized. The abundance of ytterbium in the Earth's crust is about 3 mg/kg.[10]

The most important current (2008) sources of ytterbium are the ionic adsorption clays of southern China. The "High Yttrium" concentrate derived from some versions of these comprise about two thirds yttria by weight, and 3–4% ytterbia. As an even-numbered lanthanide, in accordance with the Oddo-Harkins rule, ytterbium is significantly more abundant than its immediate neighbors, thulium and lutetium, which occur in the same concentrate at levels of about 0.5% each. The world production of ytterbium is only about 50 tonnes per year, reflecting the fact that ytterbium has few commercial applications.[10] Microscopic traces of ytterbium are used as a dopant in the ytterbium YAG laser, or Yb:YAG laser, a solid-state laser in which ytterbium is the element that undergoes stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.

Production

Recovery of ytterbium from ores involves several processes which are common to most rare-earth elements: 1) processing, 2) separation of Yb from other rare earths, 3) preparation of the metal. If the starting ore is gadolinite, it is digested with hydrochloric or nitric acid which dissolves the rare-earth metals. The solution is treated with sodium oxalate or oxalic acid to precipitate rare earths as oxalates. For euxenite, ore is processed either by fusion with potassium bisulfate or with hydrofluoric acid. Monazite or xenotime are heated either with sulfuric acid or with caustic soda.

Ytterbium is separated from other rare earths either by ion exchange or by reduction with sodium amalgam. In the latter method, a buffered acidic solution of trivalent rare earths is treated with molten sodium-mercury alloy, which reduces and dissolves Yb3+. The alloy is treated with hydrochloric acid. The metal is extracted from the solution as oxalate and converted to oxide by heating. The oxide is reduced to metal by heating with lanthanum, aluminium, cerium or zirconium in high vacuum. The metal is purified by sublimation and collected over a condensed plate.[18]

Applications

Source of gamma rays

The 169Yb isotope has been used as a radiation source in portable X-ray machines. Like X-rays, the gamma rays emitted by the source pass through soft tissues of the body, but are blocked by bones and other dense materials. Thus, small 169Yb samples (which emit gamma rays) act like tiny X-ray machines useful for radiography of small objects. Experiments show that radiographs taken with a 169Yb source are roughly equivalent to those taken with X-rays having energies between 250 and 350 keV.[19]

Doping of stainless steel

Ytterbium can also be used as a dopant to help improve the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of stainless steel. Some ytterbium alloys have rarely been used in dentistry.[9][10]

Yb as dopant of active media

Yb is used as dopant in optical materials, usually in the form of ions in active laser media. Several powerful double-clad fiber lasers and disk lasers use Yb3+ ions as dopant at concentration of several atomic percent. Glasses (optical fibers), crystals and ceramics with Yb3+ are used.[20]

Ytterbium is often used as a doping material (as Yb3+) for high power and wavelength-tunable solid state lasers. Yb lasers commonly radiate in the 1.06–1.12 µm band being optically pumped at wavelength 900 nm–1 µm, dependently on the host and application. Small quantum defect makes Yb prospective dopant for efficient lasers and power scaling.[21]

The kinetic of excitations in Yb-doped materials is simple and can be described within the concept of effective cross-sections; for most Yb-doped laser materials (as for many other optically pumped gain media), the McCumber relation holds,[20][22][23] although the application to the Yb-doped composite materials was under discussion.[24][25]

Usually, low concentrations of Yb are used. At high concentrations, the Yb-doped materials show photodarkening[26] (glass fibers) or even a switch to broadband emission[27] (crystals and ceramics) instead of efficient laser action. This effect may be related with not only overheating, but also with conditions of charge compensation at high concentrations of Yb ions.[28]

Others

Ytterbium metal increases its electrical resistivity when subjected to high stresses. This property is used in stress gauges to monitor ground deformations from earthquakes and explosions.[29]

Due to the fact that lightwaves vibrate faster than microwaves, optical clocks can be more precise than caesium atomic clocks. The Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) is working on several such optical clocks. The model with one single ytterbium ion caught in an ion trap has very good accuracy. The optical clock based on it is exact to 17 digits after the decimal point.[30]

Currently, ytterbium is being investigated as a possible replacement for magnesium in high density pyrotechnic payloads for kinematic infrared decoy flares. As ytterbium(III) oxide has a significantly higher emissivity in the infrared range than magnesium oxide, a higher radiant intensity is obtained with ytterbium-based payloads in comparison to those commonly based on Magnesium/Teflon/Viton(MTV).[31]

Precautions

Although ytterbium is fairly stable chemically, it is stored in airtight containers and in an inert atmosphere to protect the metal from air and moisture. All compounds of ytterbium are treated as highly toxic, although initial studies appear to indicate that the danger is minimal. Ytterbium compounds are, however, known to cause irritation to the human skin and eyes, and some might be teratogenic.[32] Metallic ytterbium dust poses a fire and explosion hazard.[33]

References

  1. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  2. ^ "Standard Atomic Weights: Ytterbium". CIAAW. 2015.
  3. ^ Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
  4. ^ a b c Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
  5. ^ Yttrium and all lanthanides except Ce and Pm have been observed in the oxidation state 0 in bis(1,3,5-tri-t-butylbenzene) complexes, see Cloke, F. Geoffrey N. (1993). "Zero Oxidation State Compounds of Scandium, Yttrium, and the Lanthanides". Chem. Soc. Rev. 22: 17–24. doi:10.1039/CS9932200017. and Arnold, Polly L.; Petrukhina, Marina A.; Bochenkov, Vladimir E.; Shabatina, Tatyana I.; Zagorskii, Vyacheslav V.; Cloke (2003-12-15). "Arene complexation of Sm, Eu, Tm and Yb atoms: a variable temperature spectroscopic investigation". Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. 688 (1–2): 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2003.08.028.
  6. ^ La(I), Pr(I), Tb(I), Tm(I), and Yb(I) have been observed in MB8− clusters; see Li, Wan-Lu; Chen, Teng-Teng; Chen, Wei-Jia; Li, Jun; Wang, Lai-Sheng (2021). "Monovalent lanthanide(I) in borozene complexes". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 6467. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-26785-9. PMC 8578558. PMID 34753931.
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  9. ^ a b c d C. R. Hammond (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition. CRC press. ISBN 0-8493-0481-4.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g John Emsley (2003). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements. Oxford University Press. pp. 492–494. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
  11. ^ M. Jackson "Magnetism of Rare Earth" The IRM quarterly col. 10, No. 3, p. 1, 2000
  12. ^ Ernst-Christian Koch, Volker Weiser, Evelin Roth, Sebastian Knapp, Stefan Kelzenberg: Combustion of Ytterbium Metal. In: Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics. 37, 2012, S. 9–11, doi:10.1002/prep.201100141.
  13. ^ "Chemical reactions of Ytterbium". Webelements. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
  14. ^ Holleman, Arnold F. (1985). "Die Lanthanoide". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1265–1279. ISBN 3-11-007511-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  15. ^ a b Nucleonica (2007–2011). "Nucleonica: Universal Nuclide Chart". Nucleonica: Universal Nuclide Chart. Nucleonica. Retrieved July 22, 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  16. ^ a b Georges, Audi (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A. 729. Atomic Mass Data Center: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
  17. ^ James B. Hedrick. "Rare-Earth Metals" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
  18. ^ Patnaik, Pradyot (2003). Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds. McGraw-Hill. pp. 973–975. ISBN 0-07-049439-8. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
  19. ^ R. Halmshaw (1995). Industrial radiology: theory and practice. Springer. pp. 168–169. ISBN 0-412-62780-9.
  20. ^ a b D. Kouznetsov (2005). "Single-mode solid-state laser with short wide unstable cavity". JOSAB. 22 (8): 1605–1619. Bibcode:2005JOSAB..22.1605K. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.22.001605. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Grukh, Dmitrii A; Bogatyrev, V A; Sysolyatin, A A; Paramonov, Vladimir M; Kurkov, Andrei S; Dianov, Evgenii M (2004). "Broadband radiation source based on an ytterbium-doped fibre with fibre-length-distributed pumping". Quantum Electronics. 34 (3): 247. Bibcode:2004QuEle..34..247G. doi:10.1070/QE2004v034n03ABEH002621.
  22. ^ D. E. McCumber (1964). "Einstein relations connecting broadband emission and absorption spectra". Physical Review B. 136 (4A): 954–957. Bibcode:1964PhRv..136..954M. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A954.
  23. ^ P. C. Becker, N. A. Olson, J. R. Simpson. (1999). Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers: fundamentals and theory. Academic press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ D. Kouznetsov (2007). "Comment on Efficient diode-pumped Yb:Gd2SiO5 laser". Applied Physics Letters. 90 (6): 066101. Bibcode:2007ApPhL..90f6101K. doi:10.1063/1.2435309.
  25. ^ Guangjun Zhao (2007). "Response to Comment on Efficient diode-pumped Yb:Gd2SiO5 laser". Applied Physics Letters. 90 (6): 066103. Bibcode:2007ApPhL..90f6103Z. doi:10.1063/1.2435314. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ Joona J. Koponen (2006). "Measuring photodarkening from single-mode ytterbium doped silica fibers". Optics Express. 14 (24): 11539–11544. Bibcode:2006OExpr..1411539K. doi:10.1364/OE.14.011539. PMID 19529573. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ J.-F. Bisson (2007). "Switching of emissivity and photoconductivity in highly doped Yb3+:Y2O3 and Lu2O3 ceramics". Applied Physics Letters. 90 (20): 201901. Bibcode:2007ApPhL..90t1901B. doi:10.1063/1.2739318. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ N. V. Sochinskii (2007). "Effect of Yb concentration on the resistivity and lifetime of CdTe:Ge:Yb codoped crystals". Applied Physics Letters. 91 (20): 202112. Bibcode:2007ApPhL..91t2112S. doi:10.1063/1.2815644. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ C. K. Gupta, Nagaiyar Krishnamurthy (2004). Extractive metallurgy of rare earths. CRC Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-415-33340-7.
  30. ^ "New pendulum for the ytterbium clock". totheunknown.com. Retrieved 2012-03-09.
  31. ^ Ernst-Christian Koch, Arno Hahma: Metal-Fluorocarbon Pyrolants. XIV: High Density-High Performance Decoy Flare Compositions Based on Ytterbium/Polytetrafluoroethylene/Viton®. In: Zeitschrift fuer anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. 2012, S. n/a–n/a, doi:10.1002/zaac.201200036.
  32. ^ Gale, Tf (1975). "The embryotoxicity of ytterbium chloride in golden hamsters". Teratology. 11 (3): 289–95. doi:10.1002/tera.1420110308. ISSN 0040-3709. PMID 807987. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. ^ "Material safety data sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-06-06.

Further reading

  • Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1

External links

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