History of the Jews in Styria

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Jewish existence has been handed down in what is now Styria since 1147 . As traders, these Jews played an important role in the growth and development of Styrian cities. Apart from the Jewish community in Graz , which nowadays makes up the largest collection of Jews in Styria, there were still numerous, albeit smaller, communities, such as in Judenburg and Bruck an der Mur . There were also Jews in Fürstenfeld , Hartberg , Murau , Bad Radkersburg , Bad Schwanberg and Voitsberg . If you look at the historic Duchy of Styria, there were also Jewish communities in Marburg , Pettau , Cilli , Friedau and Neunkirchen - places that are no longer in today's federal state. The Jews made a contribution to the cultural and economic development in Styria that should not be underestimated, until they were expelled in 1497 and ultimately a flourishing community life was destroyed in the Shoah . There is a gentle resurgence in the church these days.

Middle Ages, from settlement to expulsion

First mentions of the Jews

The first documentary mention comes from the year 1147, one speaks of a "villa ad judeos", a Jewish village near Straßengel , in the north of Graz. It originated when Jewish merchants and traders settled there because of the favorable location on trade routes and thus formed a village.

Churches and their history

Beginnings of the community in Graz

In 1261 the Graz Judengasse is mentioned. The first mention of a Jew in Graz comes from a document from 1302. A dean confirmed that the Bishop of Seckau was guilty of a Graz Jew, for which the bishop had vouched.

Graz remained mostly the most important Jewish community in Styria. So there was an influx of Jews from a Jewish village to Graz in 1160. Subsequently, a Jewish residential area was built south of today's main square . A synagogue was also built between the current buildings at Herrengasse 26 (Thonethof) and Frauengasse 3 (“Zur Schiefen Laterne” inn) and stood there until the 15th century. Today the parish church is located on the former synagogue. The oldest Jewish tombstone from 1304 testifies that Graz had a functioning community with its own cemetery. The cemetery was also used by Jews from the surrounding cities and, according to Jewish custom, was outside the residential area and the city wall, either in the area of Jakominiplatz or Joanneumring.

In the 14th century, the money business was an important source of income for the Jews as well as for the Graz residents, because credit transactions were carried out by the Graz nobles (including the Stubenberg family ) with the support and help of the Jews in Graz and the surrounding areas. For example, it is reported that the Villach toll for 1,040 silver marks was pledged between the Bishop of Bamberg Wulfing von Stubenberg and Jews from Graz and Judenburg. Nevertheless, the business remained concentrated on a regional level, only a few managed to get into supraregional business. One of them was the businessman Eisak, who also owned a house in Wiener Neustadt and had a son named Herschl.

The community in Judenburg

Coat of arms of the city of Judenburg. You can see a Jew with a Jew hat .

Although it was smaller, the Judenburg Jewish community also had a synagogue not far from Liechtenstein- / Kirchgasse and its own cemetery, which was south of the city near Weyer Castle . Judenburg was also probably founded by Jewish merchants, as they established a trading post there. The earliest evidence for Jews in Judenburg is an entry in a form book from 1290. The first Jew known by name, Süssman, appears in a document from 1305, in which he canceled the debts of the Seckau monastery . Interestingly, a judge named "Ortlein Cholb" is reported in the document - whether he was a city judge or a Jewish judge (a selected person from the community who took care of legal matters) is unknown. 1306 appear as believers of Wulfing von Stubenberg, the bishop of Bamberg, a Jew named Süsslein (perhaps the same Süssman) and his brother Avigdor.
Important business people came from Judenburg, they granted important sums of loans and were often visited by nobles. Häslein von Friesach , who worked in Judenburg from 1351 to 1359 , was one of the most important . With his important business activity, he received a privilege for himself and his family from the Liechtenstein family after he moved to Murau , which is owned by the Liechtensteiners . He was allowed to settle down, practice his religion and was under the protection of the noble family. But Häslein came back to Judenburg and in 1357 received a special privilege from the Styrian governor. He was allowed to settle in any princely city and otherwise the content of the privilege coincided with that of the Liechtensteiners. Such privileges testify to the importance of these Jews to the rulers. But his situation changed when Duke Rudolf IV. Canceled most of the debts in 1359 and weakened Häslein economically. The Duke did this because the privilege was no longer valid, but Häslein still relocated to Friesach without permission.

Another important businessman was a certain Höschel, who was active in the first half of the 14th century. He owned a property in Vienna and had a son, Nachman, who later grew in economic importance.

The community in Murau

Also Murau had a community during the economic boom, mainly because of the good trade routes. The city was very successful with cattle and salt trade and sheep breeding for felt. Often nobles took out loans from Jews. The Jewish quarter was probably in the southwest corner of Raffaltplatz, where the brewery buildings are today. The Jews left Murau as early as 1432, more than 60 years before the expulsion of all Jews in Styria by Maximilian I. Whether there was a synagogue or even a cemetery is unknown.

The parish in Hartberg

There has been evidence of Jews in Hartberg since 1411 . The community was big enough to have a synagogue, but too small relative to other communities for a Jewish judge or a cemetery. So "Josepf der Jud" and "Pernhart der Pewerl" turn to the Jewish judge "Erhart den Trapp" in Graz and an unknown Hartberg Jew accompanied the body of another Jew, probably also from Hartberg, to the cemetery in Graz. Accuracies about the synagogue are controversial, the only sources of details being legends and stories of local people. These say that the "Jewish temple" had a striking, tower-like chapel. After research, the location of the building could be traced back to the old inner quarter of the city, but it was demolished in 1871. The chronicler Johannes Simmler provides a description of the synagogue:

“The square superstructure rested on a massive vault that is still preserved, into which a staircase with 14 high stone steps led straight up from the arched portal. The floor was made of stone paving. The north and east walls had six small niches at chest height, different in size and partly square, partly with rounded ends. Next to the mouth of the stairs was a large niche that offered space for a table. The same walls had square, barred windows, two to the north, one to the east, and above each a wooden, gilded angel hovered. The vault rose in eight heavy ribs to the keystone, on which four colors (crimson, pink, yellow, blue) and chiseled strange shapes were recognizable, which some took for Hebrew letters, others for Greek. "

Probably after the Jews moved out, as was often the case, the building was assigned to other functions and so changed somewhat in appearance, while the features that lead to the identification of the synagogue survive and are thus preserved. The end of the community was no later than 1497, the year of the expulsion.

Jews in Voitsberg

In Voitsberg , west of Graz, there is evidence of Jewish families living from 1358 onwards, the number of which reached around 20 in the first half of the 15th century. The only known sources of income of these families were mostly the money trade with the residents and farmers of the surrounding region. In 1497 they too were affected by the expulsion order for all Jews in Styria.

The community in Neunkirchen

Although it is located in what is now Lower Austria , the city of Neunkirchen was part of Styria in the Middle Ages. When exactly the first Jewish families came to Neunkirchen is unknown, it was probably again traders who settled in Neunkirchen via the long-distance traffic route over the Simmering . The first record of Jews in Neunkirchen is contained in the service book of the Formbach monastery . The mention dates from 1343 and mentions four Jewish families, their names were Azrahel, Efferlin, Judlin and Merchel.

A synagogue was built in Neunkirchen in the second half of the 14th century. The community seemed to exist continuously from 1380 to 1482, as records from Jewish judges are documented during this time. The synagogue and the Jewish quarter can be located from a donation from Maximilian I to the Jerome Brotherhood in 1504 . Because the sovereign allowed the brotherhood to build a church instead of the synagogue, and the Simoni church was built there.

In this area, around the synagogue, various Jewish meetinghouses are also mentioned. A document from 1493 is used to delimit the Jewish quarter more precisely. Accordingly, Judengasse was located at the market mill, i.e. today's Mühlgasse. In 1481 Jewish families moved from Marburg and Radkersburg .

The Neunkirchen synagogue was built like a typical synagogue from the Middle Ages. You had to go down a few steps to get to the church, which was made of stone. It was oriented to the southeast, which corresponds to an orientation towards Jerusalem . It probably had a bima and a torah shrine . There was also a mikveh , a ritual bath. The southern arm of the Schwarza, which flows past the synagogue less than five meters away, was probably used for the ritual bath.

In 1496 the Jews of Neunkirchen had to leave the city. All Neunkirchen Jews are likely to have left the city by 1500 at the latest, because in 1504 Abbot Rumpler von Formbach complained that his income was higher when the Jews were still in Neunkirchen.

The community in Marburg

The community in Marburg in Lower Styria (today part of Slovenia ), attested by numerous personalities and buildings, testifies to an important Jewish community in the region. The first mention of it is from 1270, it was a document that confirmed the purchase of vineyards by Jews. In 1333 there was evidence of a Jewish judge in Marburg and in 1367 a cemetery and in 1429 a synagogue were mentioned for the first time, which was the religious and cultural center of the community. After the expulsion of the Jews in 1501, it was converted into an All Saints Chapel. The first known Rabbi of Marburg, Abraham, was already working here years before his death (1379), so there was probably a church before that. The synagogue was a simple building and it was also briefly the seat of the high rabbinate for Styria, Carinthia and Carniola . Next to the synagogue stood the rabbi's house and a Talmud school . On the eastern side there was a garden with the cemetery and at the fountain below the synagogue, next to the Drava , the ritual ablutions took place.

In Marburg, too, most of the Jews earned their living from the money business, for which vineyards were a common pledge. Some were also in the wine trade. Isserl was a businessman who lived in Marburg until his death at the beginning of the second half of the 14th century. What set him apart from the other Jewish moneylenders were his debtors and the sum of his loans, because he lent to a number of important nobles such as the taverns of Osterwitz , the nobles of Wallsee and Auffenstein and the counts of Gorizia . When he died, his grandson Musch took over the business and made it to even more important nobles like the Counts of Cilli . It was of such importance to the nobles that it was granted a privilege by Count Meinhard VII of Gorizia . Because of this privilege, Musch moved to Gorizia , although all of his property was confiscated because of the unauthorized departure. For his return he received a promise from the dukes Albrecht III. and Leopold III. that he would get his fortune back if he went back to Marburg.

The former synagogue in Marburg

The relatively large Jewish community also contributed to the fact that Marburg developed into a trading and financial center of the region, because it was thanks to the Jewish merchants that the city had important economic and trade relations. During the reign of Maximilian I , the pressure on the Jews increased and after their legally ordered expulsion from Carinthia, the Jewish families from Styria also had to leave their residential areas in 1497, which was a severe blow to Marburg's economy.

Today the former synagogue of Maribor is used for cultural purposes, events such as concerts, exhibitions, literary evenings and round table discussions are held.

Jews in Cilli

In 1340, shortly before the Sannegger was raised to the rank of count (von Cilli) , a Jew named Schäblein or Scheblein can be traced for the first time in Cilli . He had two sons, Mush and Chatschim, who were moneylenders. They helped the Cillians to expand their rule, especially by redeeming forfeited property pledges from the debtors of Mush and Chatschim, who were mostly aristocrats. After their death, the importance of the Jews in Cilli declined significantly, so that around 1400 Count Hermann II had all Jews expelled from his territory.

Growing hostility to Jews and displacement

The presence of the Jews was mostly seen as undesirable by the population. Before there were riots against Jews or expulsions, Jews were usually accused of sacrificing the host or committing ritual murders . In 1312 there was an alleged desecration of the host by Jews from Fürstenfeld , whereupon Jews in Styria and Carinthia fell victim to persecution. In his chronicle, Johann von Diessenhofen mentions persecutions throughout Austria as well as those in Styria, the Vienna annals mention riots from 1397. As a result of the pogroms, fires broke out in the cities of Graz, Radkersburg and Pettau .

The stalls of the city of Graz brought Duke Friedrich V to expel the Jews of Graz in 1437/38, whereupon the Duke confiscated and sold property and dissolved the Jewish residential area. In addition, a ban on Jews was moved to Graz, which lasted until 1447. Then there was a second influx of Jews and their existence in Graz continued until all Jews from Styria were expelled by Maximilian I in 1497 for perpetual time. Maximilian I justified this as follows:

"Judaism has shown grave dishonor to the Holy Sacrament too many times, and that it also tortured, killed, exterminated young Christian children, took their blood and used it for their stubborn, perishable nature (...) So that from now on such evil no longer happens, [We have ] our Jewishness from our country Steyr is on leave for ever. "

Nonetheless, the real reasons for hostility towards Jews were not religious, but mostly economic. The cities were hostile to the Jews, since the Jews were subordinate to the sovereigns and therefore the taxes did not go to the city but to the liege lords and therefore were a competition to be considered in trade. The sovereigns took out loans from Jews, but nevertheless or precisely because of this they were enemies. The driving force behind the hostility was, as in all of Austria, the estates . There were several state parliaments before the expulsion . On August 28, 1495, a Styrian Landtag met in Graz, which primarily dealt with the expulsion of Jews, and on September 7, 1495, the agreement reached, expulsion of all Jews from Styria, Wiener Neustadt and Neunkirchen was determined and sealed. In the main contract, January 6, 1496 was set as the date. It is assumed that the sovereign needed money from the Styrian estates to repel the invading Ottomans and that these, as a kind of consideration, demanded the expulsion of the Jews from Styria.

The estates undertook to compensate for the loss of the annual Jewish tax and to finally settle the claims for the mercenaries in the war, to make payments to Maximilian in installments. But these payments proved very difficult to collect. In addition, in the middle of October 1496, letters were sent out in the name of Maximilian to all subjects who had debts with Jews or had to negotiate something with them in order to settle them. The king ordered all Jews to leave the country with their belongings by January 6, 1497. Until then, the subjects should bring their disputes with the Jews and the solution of their pledges to the commission appointed for this. It turned out that the settlement and payment of Jewish debts was going to be a lengthy affair that could by no means be done in a few months. One reason for this was that only Jews registered at the specified time, but Christians did not appear, so new dates had to be announced.

As early as November 1496, King Maximilian realized that the settlement of the Jewish debts could not be completed in time, and at the same time an epidemic broke out in Styria, which prevented the commission from meeting in Graz. The commissions were therefore instructed to suspend their activities until April 24th and only then to take their decisions on the recognition of mortgage notes submitted. Maximilian also tried to secure the safe conduct of the Jews from Styria and even ordered the cities not to drive out Jews during the winter months and even to shelter them if they had no shelter.

So it is certain that the departure of the Jews continued beyond April 1497, but it cannot be determined exactly when the last Jews left their homes in the country. The expulsion meant the end of flourishing Jewish communities in Styrian cities and the end of medieval Judaism in Styria. From 1509 only the princely towns of Güns , Eisenstadt and Marchegg were permitted places of residence for Jews.

Modern times

Path to equality

The ban on Jews in Styria lasted after the expulsion in 1497 until the middle of the 19th century. Even in the last quarter of the 18th century, concessions under the Josephine tolerance patents were refused by the Styrian state estates for Styria. With a passport requirement, Emperor Joseph II only managed to create a short stay opportunity for residents and foreigners of “Christian or other religions” in 1783. The court decree allowed to go to markets and stay there for 24 hours.

After the revolution of 1848 , the imperial patent of March 4, 1849, a theoretical equality and granting of civil rights for all citizens regardless of their religion, however, these concessions were repealed by executive laws on December 31, 1851, and 1860 the ban on property ownership for Jews was confirmed. Nevertheless, the first immigration of Jews from southern Burgenland took place , as they were officially only "in transit".

The Jews who settled in Styria over the next few decades often settled in Graz. That is why most of the history of the Jews in Styria consists of the history of the Jews in Graz.

In 1862 the wine merchant Moritz Fürst submitted an application for permanent residence in Graz, which was approved, after which at least economically well-off Jews were allowed to stay. In the same year Max Schischa asked for permission to hold church services and applied for permission to work as a slaughterer and listed twelve Jewish families present in the city in his application. He was approved to work as a slaughterer in July and was later allowed to hold church services. A community slowly established itself, because as early as 1865 20 to 30 Jewish families were granted permanent residence rights.

In the following two decades, more than 1200 Jews, mainly from Burgenland areas , settled in Graz, one reason for this was probably the rapid industrialization and the resulting economic boom in the city.

On September 22nd, 1863, the Israelite Corporation was established. She organized the community facilities such as the cemetery and rooms. In 1865 a synagogue with more than two hundred seats was opened in Zimmerplatzgasse in the “Whithalms Coliseum”. In addition, a cemetery was laid out in what is now the Wetzelsdorf district , and a Jewish private school was established in 1864.

The constitutional law of 1867 brought the equality of all citizens of other religious denominations and thus also the constitutional equality of the Austrian Jews. In 1869 the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde Graz was founded.

The synagogue in Graz around 1900

Blossoming of church life

Jews in Graz from 1870
year Number of Jews
1870 about 250
1880 approx. 1,210
1910 1,971
1923 approx. 2,456
1934 approx. 1,720
1938 approx. 2,500
1939 300
1940 0

In 1870 the property at Grieskai 58 (on which the seat of the Jewish community is still located today) was bought to build a synagogue. In 1890 the construction of the large synagogue in neo-Romanesque - Byzantine style, based on the model of the synagogue in Dresden , began with the design of the architect Maximilian Katscher. The inauguration took place on Yom Kippur on September 14, 1892. On this occasion, delegates from the Protestant Church were also present, while no one came from the Catholic Church. The celebratory sermon was given by the first rabbi Samuel Mühsam (1827–1907), who was called from Postelberg in 1877 .

At the same time, an official building was also built on the property, which also housed a Jewish school.

As the community grew steadily, the Jewish cemetery was expanded around 1901, and after David Herzog was appointed regional rabbi around 1907, a ceremonial hall was built on the cemetery by the Graz city architect Alexander Zerkowitz (1860–1927). This year the community reached its previous high of 1,971 members, which made up about 1.3 percent of the total population in Graz.

Towards the end of the First World War , anti-Semitic moods became apparent in Graz, because during the Russian offensive of 1915, around 2,000 Jewish refugees from Galicia and Bukovina fled to seek protection in Graz. They were more traditional, more religious and not, like most Jews in Graz, assimilated. They spoke Yiddish and wore clothes that made them recognizable as Jews ( pajes , zizes , caftan, etc.). Because of their appearance, they were often denigrated as "Eastern Jews" and made stereotypical Jews for anti-Semites. The Orthodox Jews built a wooden synagogue on Gabelsberger Strasse.

time of the nationalsocialism

Even before the Wehrmacht marched into Graz, anti-Semitic attitudes and attacks skyrocketed. On February 14, 1938, the shop windows of Jewish owners were destroyed. When the Nazis came to power on March 11th, the endless attacks against the community began.

On March 13, 1938, the board of directors of the community, Chief Rabbi David Herzog and wealthy Jewish businessmen were arrested and subjected to brutal interrogations in prison before they were brought to Dachau . Finally, the “ Nuremberg Laws ” were also officially applied in the “ Ostmark ”. The “ de-Judaization ” or “Aryanization” of the city began in the second half of 1938.

Bit by bit, the Jewish residents were eliminated from public and professional life and more and more bans were issued. Jews were not allowed to visit certain baths, Jewish children were no longer allowed to go to school and associations were dissolved. The poor living conditions made many Jews decide to emigrate; by November 4, 1938, 417 Graz Jews had managed to flee to Palestine .

During the “ Reichskristallnacht ” on November 9, 1938, the synagogue was set on fire and demolished by SA men, the ceremonial hall was blown up, countless gravestones were damaged and more than 300 Jews from Graz were deported to the Dachau concentration camp . The Jews who were still present were deported to Vienna and housed in collective apartments in a confined space. As recently as 1940, Graz solemnly declared itself " clean of Jews ".

Towards the end of the war, Graz was one of the cities through which the columns of the death marches were driven. They consisted of Jews from Hungary who recently fell victim to Nazi persecution and who died on these death marches.

After the Second World War

With the liberation by the Allies in 1945, the first services in years for British soldiers of the Jewish denomination and the Jewish displaced persons were held by British field rabbis. DP camps were located in Admont or Sankt Marein in the Mürz Valley , for example . Many of the refugees moved on to Israel or other westward countries, but some stayed. In addition, a few former members came back, who then formed the foundation for the re-establishment of the community.

Those returning to Graz and Styria and their families included the lawyers Ludwig Biro and Fritz Strassmann, Hugo Kaufmann, Oskar Pichler, Harry Brady, Walter Haas, Franz Benedek, Rudolf Heller, Harald Salzmann, Alfred Klein, Artur Fürst, Berthold Sonnenwald, Otto Rendi, Walter Sonnenschein, Karl Latzer or Adolf Gottlieb. The Israelitische Kultusgemeinde was constituted as early as 1946, with Isidor Preminger becoming its chairman.

In 1969, the initially provisional prayer room was rebuilt and a permanent Torah shrine was added.

As the first mayor of Graz, 32 years after the end of the Second World War , Alfred Stingl visited the city's Jewish community on July 6, 1987.

The new building of the great synagogue in Graz

In October 1998 the city parliament voted to build a new synagogue. The church was inaugurated on November 9, 2000, 62 years after the original synagogue was destroyed, in the presence of Federal President Thomas Klestil and Jews expelled from Graz around 1938/39 and handed over to the IKG Graz.

In 2013, the community was incorporated into the IKG Vienna as a subsidiary and since December 1, 2016, Schlomo Hofmeister has held the position of regional and chief rabbi of the re-established regional rabbinate of Styria.

Personalities

Source:

  • Gerschon Schoffmann (1880–1972), Hebrew writer, he came to Vienna in 1913, where he spent the war years. After his marriage in 1920, he and his wife moved to Graz, where they lived until the Nazis came to power. On July 11, 1938, he managed to escape to Palestine with his wife and son.
  • Rabbi Samuel Mühsam (1837–1907), studied classical philology in Breslau , received his doctorate at the University of Leipzig in 1864 and then became rabbi in Postelberg, Znaim and Bisenz. From 1877 until his death he was the rabbi of the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde in Graz. He was the driving force behind the procurement of the necessary financial means for the construction of the old synagogue in Graz.
  • Kurt Brühl (1929–2014) became a partner in the Brühl & Söhne company and from 1980 to 2000 was President of the Israelite Cultural Community in Graz. In 1982 he was also Honorary Consul of Great Britain for the federal states of Carinthia and Styria. He was the holder of the silver medal for services to the Republic of Austria , the medal of honor of the provincial capital Graz in gold as well as the great gold medal of honor of the state of Styria and the human rights award of the city of Graz. In 1999 he became an honorary citizen of the Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz . In addition, he was a member of the board of the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde Graz for four decades. He took an active part in the reconstruction of the synagogue and after his death in Graz was buried in the Jewish part of the Vienna Central Cemetery.
  • Otto Loewi (1873–1961), was a full professor at the Pharmacological Institute of the University of Graz in 1909 and received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1936 together with Sir Henry Dale. He was imprisoned in 1938 and later fled to the United States, where he lived with his family until his death.
  • Rabbi David Herzog (1869–1946) studied Semitic philology in Berlin, Leipzig, Paris and Vienna and was appointed rabbi to Graz in 1908, where he worked until 1938. He was imprisoned and ill-treated until he managed to escape to England in 1939.
  • Alexander Zerkowitz (1860–1927), city architect in Graz. In 1895 the family moved to Graz, he donated large sums to the community and was commissioned to build the ceremonial hall of the cemetery. He died in 1927 and did not see his wife die in Theresienstadt and his children in Jasenovac and other extermination camps .
  • Otto Preminger (1905–1986), fled with his family from Bukovina to Graz during the First World War in order to avoid the Russian offensive. Otto Preminger came to Vienna via Graz, where he completed his law degree in 1928 . His brother Isidor, the first community leader after 1945, however, stayed in Graz. His successful theatrical productions made him known in Hollywood and New York and in October 1935 he went to the United States to direct more feature films.
  • Hermann Öhler (1847–1918), entrepreneur, he had a large department store built in Graz in 1913. His three children were murdered during the Shoah.
  • Paul Preuss (1886–1913), alpinist, born in Altaussee to a Jewish family, converted to Protestantism in 1909

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Eveline Brugger: History of the Jews in Austria . Überreuter, Vienna 2006, ISBN 978-3-8000-7159-3 , p. 180 .
  2. ↑ Timeline of the history of the Jews in Styria. In: juedischegemeinde-graz.at. Retrieved April 7, 2020 .
  3. ↑ a b c d From the history of the Jewish communities in the German-speaking area: Graz / Styria. In: jewische-gemeinden.de. Retrieved April 7, 2020 .
  4. ^ Eveline Brugger: History of the Jews in Austria . Überreuter, Vienna 2006, ISBN 978-3-8000-7159-3 , p. 181-182 .
  5. ^ History of Murau. In: murau.gv.at. City of Murau, accessed on April 24, 2020 .
  6. ^ Hartberg Jewish Community and the Waldensian Trial of 1401. Retrieved April 15, 2020 .
  7. ^ Johannes Simmler: The history of the city, the parish and the district of Hartberg . Hartberg 1914.
  8. ^ Arye Maimon, Mordechai Breuer, Yacov Guggenheim: Germania Judaica . Volume III: 1350-1519 , 2003, ISBN 3-16-147859-2 , pp. 952 .
  9. ↑ Wolfgang Haider-Berky: The medieval Jewish community of Neunkirchen and their synagogue. In: david.juden.at. Retrieved April 8, 2020 .
  10. ^ The synagogue in Maribor. In: visitmaribor.si. Retrieved April 7, 2020 .
  11. ^ Eveline Brugger: History of the Jews in Austria . Überreuter, Vienna 2006, ISBN 978-3-8000-7159-3 , p. 182-183 .
  12. ↑ Gerald Lamprecht (Ed.): Jüdisches Leben in der Steiermark (=  writings of the Center for Jewish Studies . Volume 5 ). StudienVerlag, Innsbruck 2004, ISBN 978-3-7065-1794-2 , p. 127 .
  13. ↑ Inge Wiesflecker-Friedhuber: The expulsion of the Jews from Styria under Maximilian I. In: Rudolf Kropf (Hrsg.): Jews in the border area. History, culture and living environment of the Jews in the Burgenland-West-Hungarian area and in the adjacent regions from the Middle Ages to the present (=  scientific work from Burgenland . Volume 92 ). Burgenland State Museum, Eisenstadt 1993, ISBN 3-85405-124-3  ( formally incorrect ) , p. 47-64 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
  14. ^ History up to 1938. In: juedischegemeinde-graz.at. Jewish Community Graz, accessed on April 14, 2020 .
  15. ↑ Timeline of the history of the Jews in Styria. In: juedischegemeinde-graz.at. Jewish Community Graz, accessed on April 14, 2020 .
  16. ↑ Gerald Lamprecht: Alien in your own city: the modern Jewish community of Graz before the First World War . Ed .: Center for Jewish Studies (=  publication series of the Center for Jewish Studies . Volume 8 ). Studien-Verlag, Innsbruck / Vienna / Bozen 2007, ISBN 978-3-7065-4202-9 .
  17. ↑ Eduard Staudinger: The pogrom night from 9./10. November 1938 in Graz . In: Pogrom 1938 in Austria and Germany . Picus-Verlag, Vienna 1990, ISBN 3-85452-213-4 .
  18. ^ After 1945. In: juedischegemeinde-graz.at. Retrieved April 17, 2020 .
  19. ↑ Personalities. In: juedischegemeinde-graz.at. Retrieved April 17, 2020 .