University working groups for spatial research

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In the months after the establishment of the National Socialist Reich Working Group for Spatial Research ( December 1935), the University Working Groups for Spatial Research (HAG) assigned to it were set up at many universities . The university working groups served to link science and politics.

Foundation phase

In a decree of February 1936, Science Minister Bernhard Rust committed himself to found appropriate working groups at the universities. These working groups are composed of professors and lecturers from various disciplines (geography, agricultural sciences, economics and social sciences, population sciences, transport science, forest sciences, hydraulic engineering, etc.):

"Rust immediately wanted to see an overview of the previous work on ' spatial research and planning' from the university rectors, as well as suggestions for suitable leaders for the working groups. 'The working group is managed by a suitable lecturer, who on the proposal of the rector (director) is appointed by the acting chairman of the Reich Working Group for Spatial Research, Professor Dr. Konrad Meyer. "

Thus, the multifunctional Konrad Meyer also assumed a key position in the appointment of the heads of the university working groups .

Objectives

The university working groups served the joint implementation of NS -specific spatial planning objectives. The university working groups represented the Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft (RAG) at the individual universities. Participating NS functionaries defined the political function of the working groups in a very general way:

“The basic idea of ​​the university study group is to combine the scientific forces in the diversity of disciplines for the task of designing the allocated space. In doing so, the university is also working on the immediate life management of the space. "

The number of university working groups rose from around forty in 1936 to fifty-one in 1941:

"This gave RAG a comprehensive structure of university working groups that worked on the entire Reich, recorded material and data and, in some cases, displayed it in maps. The core subject of work in the universities was their own region in particular."

In addition, 7 regional working groups for spatial research were formed by the RAG: Group Lower Saxony, Group North, Group East, Group Southeast, Group Southwest, Group West, Group Central Germany.

A university working group could include dozens of professors and employees.

The RAG awarded grants for research projects initiated by the university working groups. The RAG formally complained: “ The head of the university working group is the first and most important expert body for the RAG. “The chairman of RAG always played a decisive role. In the years 1936 to 1939, the RfR spent around 1.43 million Reichsmarks on spatial research through the RAG.

The university working groups were organizationally connected to the 23 regional state planning groups, which in turn were responsible for the Reich Office for Spatial Planning .

The university working groups were set up according to the National Socialist leader principle , and their fundamentally regional orientation was also directed towards the centralistic purposes of the NS leader state:

"Spatial research deliberately puts the universities back into concrete state research, whereby it must of course always be kept in mind that the individual universities are never just state or district institutions, because science can only be directly assigned to political leadership."

At an early stage, the university working groups were asked to take note of domestic and foreign literature on spatial planning / planning (from May 1936) in order to promote the development of a central bibliography. In the RAG journal "Raumforschung und Raumordnung", the thematic priorities of planning literature and international research from England, the USA and France were registered.

University working groups and their leaders

An overview of all management positions in the working groups for the years 1942 and 1943 is available. The RAG magazine " Raumforschung und Raumordnung " reported on the university working groups in separate sections ("From research" and "From the university working groups").

Of the 51 heads at the time of the “RuR” surveys, only eight were not at the universities because of military service (related to Jeserich, Kritzler, Flörke, Lemmel, Egner, Hoffmann, Saure and at times Bebermeyer). Personnel changes were planned at a total of four universities (University of Bonn, Bergakademie Freiberg, HHS Königsberg, University of Munich):

University working groups and their leaders in 1942/43

University Head of the university working group Deputy
1. Aachen University of Applied Sciences Hermann Roloff (from 1943) Robert Hans Wentzel
2. University of Berlin Kurt GA Jeserich Hans Weigmann
3. TH Berlin Gerhard Jobst
4. Berlin Business School Horst Jecht (until 1942) Walter Weddigen
5. University of Bonn smoke

from 1943: Heinrich Freiherr von Stackelberg

Mathias Ernst Kamp
6. TH Braunschweig Scribbler Ludwig Leichtweiß
7. University of Wroclaw Hans-Jürgen Seraphim
8. TH Breslau Louis Jänecke Walter Hartleb
9. TH Brno Camillo Worliczek
10. Clausthal-Zellerfeld Mountain Academy Friedrich Buschendorf
11. TH Danzig Friedrich Flörke Karl August Hoepfner
12. TH Darmstadt Max must
13. TH Dresden Adolf Muesmann Heinrich Heiser
14. Eberswalde Forestry University Hans Lemmel Friedrich Bülow
15. University of Erlangen Rudolf Stucken Horst Wagenführ
16. University of Frankfurt / M. Erich Egner Heinz Sauermann
17. Freiberg Mining Academy Walter Hoffmann

from 1943: Richard Pfalz

Karl Kegel
18. University of Freiburg Friedrich Metz

from 1943: Friedrich Maurer

19. University of Giessen from 1939: Fritz Klute
20. University of Göttingen Arthur Schürmann
21. University of Graz Armin Dadieu Mayer
22. University of Greifswald Hermann Lautensach
23. University of Halle Hellmuth Wolff
24. University of Hamburg Paul Schulz-Kiesow
25. TH Hannover Otto Leonhard Blum
26. Hanover University of Veterinary Medicine Hans Butz

from 1943: Uhden

Siegfried Strugger
27. Heidelberg University Ernst Schuster Ernst Plewe
28. Hohenheim Agricultural University Erhard Jung Paul Hesse
29. University of Innsbruck Kintzl ( Hans Kinzl )
30. University of Jena Joachim Heinrich Schultze Asmus Petersen
31. TH Karlsruhe Roman Friedrich Heiligenthal

from 1943: Fricke

Fricke (from 1943: Goerg)
32. University of Kiel Andreas Predöhl
33. University of Cologne Bruno Kuske Theodor Wessels
34. University of Koenigsberg Hans-Bernhard von Grünberg
35. Königsberg Commercial College Erwin Scheu (from 1943) 1942: Erwin Scheu
36. University of Leipzig Erich Dittrich from summer 1942: Rudolph Reinhard
37th Leipzig Graduate School of Management Karl C. Thalheim
38. University of Marburg Bernhard Martin
39. University of Munich Carell (until 1942) 1943: Reshuffle.
40th TH Munich Lutz Pistor Otto Eberhard Heuser
41. University of Münster Müller
42nd Hindenburg University of Applied Sciences, Nuremberg Karl Seiler
43. University of Poznan Walter Geisler
44. Universities in Prague Wilhelm Saure

from 1943: Hans Spreitzer

Hans Spreitzer (from 1940)

from 1943 representative:

Karl Valentin Müller

45. University of Rostock Heinrich Niehaus
46th Stuttgart Technical University Carl Pirath Hermann Ellinghaus
47. University of Strasbourg Gerhard Mackenroth
48. Tharandt Forest University Kurt Mantel
49. University of Tübingen Gustav Bebermeyer Hermann von Wissmann
50. Universities of Vienna Hugo Hassinger (from 1939)
51. University of Würzburg Georg Schenk Günther Just

Sources: “ Raumforschung und Raumordnung ” Vol. 6, 1942, p. 231 and Vol. 7, 1943, p. 127 and Venhoff 2000, p. 19f.

Josef Köstler headed the university working group at the Forestry University of Hannoversch-Münden , which was only listed for 1936 .

Mass surveys were also made. Students were obliged to participate in the studies of the university working groups. It is largely unclear whether and, if so, how individual university lecturers also used spatial research to cover their own resistance activities.

Some university working groups continued into the 1950s, in individual cases into the 1970s. So was Charles Henry Olsen (President of the ARL 1960 to 1965) Member of the Higher Education Working Group at the Technical University of Braunschweig. The hydraulic engineer Erwin Marquardt was from 1950 to 1952 head of the university study group for spatial research at the TH Stuttgart. The agricultural sociologist Herbert Morgen , previously employed by Konrad Meyer in the Agricultural Policy Institute (also head of the RKF's main office for planning and soil), was a member of the Wilhelmshaven University Working Group for Spatial Research and Regional Planning after 1945.

literature

  • Mechtild Rössler: The institutionalization of a new “science” under National Socialism. Spatial research and spatial planning 1933–1945. In: Geographical Journal . Vol. 75, No. 3, 1987, pp. 177-193, JSTOR 27818463 .
  • Mechtild Rössler: "Science and living space". Geographical research on the East under National Socialism. A contribution to the history of the discipline of geography (= Hamburg contributions to the history of science. 8). Dietrich Reimer, Berlin et al. 1990, ISBN 3-496-00394-4 .
  • Mechtild Rössler, The University Working Group for Spatial Research. In: Eckart Krause, Ludwig Huber, Holger Fischer (eds.): Everyday university life in the “Third Reich”. The Hamburg University 1933–1945. Part 2: Philosophical Faculty. Faculty of Law and Political Science (= Hamburg Contributions to the History of Science. 3, 2). Dietrich Reimer, Berlin et al. 1991, ISBN 3-496-00867-9 , pp. 1035-1048.
  • Michael Venhoff: The Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft für Raumforschung (RAG) and the Reich German spatial planning since their creation until the end of the Second World War in 1945 (= working material of the ARL. 258). ARL, Hannover 2000, ISBN 3-88838-658-6 .
  • Uwe Mai: "Race and Space". Agricultural policy, social and spatial planning in the Nazi state. Schönigh, Paderborn et al. 2002, ISBN 3-506-77514-6 (also: Berlin, Technical University, dissertation, 1998).
  • Ariane Leendertz: Creating order. German spatial planning in the 20th century (= contributions to the history of the 20th century. 7). Wallstein, Göttingen 2008, ISBN 978-3-8353-0269-3 (also: Tübingen, University, dissertation, 2006).
  • Leo Haupts: habitat in the west. The contribution of the University of Cologne specifically in the "University Working Group for Spatial Research". In: Gertrude Cepl-Kaufmann , Dominik Groß, Georg Mölich (eds.): History of science in the Rhineland with special consideration of spatial concepts (= studies of the Aachen competence center for the history of science. 2). kassel university press, Kassel 2008, ISBN 978-3-89958-407-3 , pp. 75-106.
  • Hansjörg Gutberger: spatial development, population and social integration. Research for spatial planning and spatial planning policy 1930–1960. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2017, ISBN 978-3-658-15129-4 .
  • Hansjörg Gutberger: People, Space and Social Structure. Social structure and social space research in the "Third Reich" . Lit-Verlag, Münster u. a. 1996, ISBN 3-8258-2852-2 .
  • Marc Engels: The "Economic Community of the West Country". Bruno Kuske and economic research on the West between the Empire and the Federal Republic , Shaker Verlag, Aachen 2007 (= Aachen Studies on Economic and Social History, Vol. 4), ISBN 978-3-8322-6642-4 .
  • Wolfgang Istel: Roots and development of state planning in Bavaria up to 1945. From urban expansion planning to area-wide imperial and state planning . Bayreuth 1993: Univ. Chair of Economic Geography and Regional Planning (working materials on spatial planning and spatial planning, 124).

See also

Web links

References and comments

  1. ↑ Ariane Leendertz: Creating order. German spatial planning in the 20th century . Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, p. 116 f .
  2. ↑ Paul Ritterbusch quoted. in: Fi. : From the university working groups. Report on the meeting of the university study group for spatial research at the University of Greifswald on June 4, 1943 . In: "Raumforschung und Raumordnung" 7th volume (1943), p. 168.
  3. ↑ Michael Venhoff: The Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft für Raumforschung (RAG) and Reich German spatial planning since their creation until the end of the Second World War in 1945 . ARL, Hannover 2000, p. 20 .
  4. ↑ Chronicle of Construction and Space , ed. from the Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning. Tübingen, Berlin 2007, p. 301.
  5. ↑ Ulrich Heß lists over 30 people for HAG at the comparatively small Leipzig University (cf. Ulrich Heß: Landes- und Raumforschung in der Zeit des Nationalozialismus . In: Comparativ 5 Jg. (1995), Heft 4, p. 68 ).
  6. ↑ See guidelines on the use of research funds of the Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft dated April 1, 1939, I. Research funds 2 , p. 2, in Federal Archives R153 / 1191 (quoted from Gutberger 2017, p. 94)
  7. ↑ Hansjörg Gutberger: Spatial Development, Population and social integration. Research for spatial planning and spatial planning policy 1930-1960 . Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2017, p. 87 .
  8. ↑ Paul Ritterbusch quoted. in: Fi .: From the university working groups. Report on the meeting of the university study group for spatial research at the University of Greifswald on June 4, 1943 . In: "Raumforschung und Raumordnung" 7th volume (1943), p. 168.
  9. ↑ Michael Venhoff: The Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft für Raumforschung (RAG) and Reich German spatial planning since their creation until the end of the Second World War in 1945 . Hanover: ARL 2000 (= working material / Academy for Spatial Research and Regional Planning. 258), p. 56.
  10. ↑ In 1936: Otto Gruber . Also about HAG Aachen: Marc Engels: The "Economic Community of the West Country". Bruno Kuske and economic research in the West between the German Empire and the Federal Republic , Shaker Verlag, Diss. RWTH Aachen 2007 (= Aachen Studies on Economic and Social History, Vol. 4); Moritz Wild: Architecture and urban planning from the twenties to fifties in the administrative district of Aachen. René von Schöfer (1883-1954) . Diss., RWTH Aachen 2017.
  11. ^ In 1936: Oskar von Niedermayer . Much material on the Berlin HAG and on Niedermayer, albeit in a questionable interpretation, in: Martin Burkert: Die Ostwissenschaften im Third Reich . Harrassowitz Verlag , Wiesbaden 2000. ISBN 3-447-04304-0 . From October 1937 Jeserich took over the management of the HAG, but von Niedermayer initially remained head of the HAG.
  12. ↑ Hans Weigmann served as deputy head from August 1941, but did military service in 1942. Before Weigmann took over the deputy HAG management: Harry Goetz (Communal Science Institute) and Leo Hilberath (also Communal Science Institute, then RfR ). In: Archive of the Humboldt University R / S 239, Bl. 90–95.
  13. ↑ For the person of Jobst see: https://cp.tu-berlin.de/person/1908 . In 1936 until it was taken over by Jobst in 1942, Gottfried Feder led HAG (see https://tu-dresden.de/bu/bauingenieurwesen/imb/ressourcen/daten/forschung/publikationen/monographien/Tagungsband-WillyGehler_screen-version_100dpi .pdf? lang = de ).
  14. ^ In 1936: Hellmut Wollenweber . Horst Jecht followed in 1937.
  15. ^ From May 1944 head of the HAG at the business school.
  16. ↑ In 1936: Arthur Spiethoff .
  17. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  18. ↑ In 1936: Günter Schmölders .
  19. ↑ 1936 in management position.
  20. ↑ See the biography: https://publikationsserver.tu-braunschweig.de/receive/dbbs_mods_00052314 . In the "RuR" Dipl. Ing. Francke is mentioned as his predecessor (until May 1937)
  21. ↑ In 1936: Joseph Tiedemann . Max Muss had been in office since May 1937.
  22. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. The engineer Wilhelm Geißler (1875–1937) was one of the employees of HAG Dresden .
  23. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  24. ↑ In 1936: Friedrich Maurer , followed by Zimmermann from May 1937. About HAG Erlangen: cf. Istel 1993, pp. 309-311.
  25. ↑ 1936 to February 1937: Walter Platzhoff .
  26. ^ In a management position since February 1936. The head of the Freiburg HAG is also named Dr. Gerhard Endriß (1937, see RuR Jg. 1, p. 559) . Walter Christaller received a scholarship from the Reich Working Group for Spatial Research and a member of the Freiburg University Working Group . For the history of the founding of the Freiburg HAG see also: Bernd Grün: The Rector as a Führer? The University of Freiburg i. Br. From 1933 to 1945 , Verlag Karl Alber, Freiburg, Munich 2010 (= Freiburg contributions to the history of science and universities, NF, vol. 4), pp. 457–461.
  27. ^ In 1936: Heinrich Bechtel . See also Rössler 1990, p. 270.
  28. ↑ The agricultural scientist Schürmann was also the head of the Lower Saxony state working group for spatial research , which comprised 8 universities (cf. Arthur Schürmann: Die Nationalozialistische Hochschule und Raumforschung . In: Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 2nd year, 1938, pp. 487-492).
  29. ↑ See also Peter Danner: Görings Geologen in der Ostmark. "Soil research" in Austria for the four-year plan from 1936 to 1939 - an archive study. In: Reports of the Federal Geological Institute. Volume 109, 2015, p. 12, PDF on ZOBODAT .
  30. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. The HAG had a forerunner with the Greifswald "Hochschulkreis"; the first meeting of the HAG took place in June 1936. The HAG Greifswald included geographers, geologists, soil scientists, biologists, historians, economists and the like. a .: "The cooperation was voluntary" (Werner Witt: Geographie, Raumforschung und Landesplanung in Pommern 1881-1945. In: Geographical and historical contributions to regional studies in Pomerania: Eginhard Wegner on his 80th birthday. Schwerin: Helms, 1998, p. 27 –34 (here: 30). On the founding history of the HAG also: Jan Mittenzwei: “Working towards the Führer” - NSD student union and NSD lecturer union in Greifswald. In: Dirk Alvermann (ed.) “... drop the last barriers ". Studies at the University of Greifswald under National Socialism. Böhlau, Cologne 2015, pp. 90–128.)
  31. ^ In 1936: Emil Woermann . Information on Wolff's biography at: https://www.catalogus-professorum-halensis.de/wolffhellmuth.html
  32. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. See also Rössler 1991 (literature list)
  33. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  34. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  35. ^ Ernst Schuster (1893–1979), German economist. Already in 1936 in a management position. On the Heidelberg University Working Group, see also: Kilian Peter Schultes, The Faculty of Economics and Politics of the University of Heidelberg 1934–1946, University of Heidelberg 2010, pp. 353–368.
  36. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  37. ↑ 1936–1939: Walter Weddigen (cf. http://cpr.uni-rostock.de/resolve/id/cpr_person_00003431?_search=8ea10421-f95e-42d3-bf36-f093783a15bd ). After Weddigen followed the geographer Albrecht Burchard (until 1940), then Schultze. For the establishment of the HAG in April 1936, see also: Jürgen John, Rüdiger Stutz: The Friedrich Schiller University of the Nazi era . In: Senate commission for the processing of Jena university history in the 20th century (ed.): Traditions - Breaks - Changes. The University of Jena 1850–1995. Böhlau, Cologne 2009, p. 515ff .; see also: https://www.uni-jena.de/Bereiche/Universitätsarchiv/Bestandsearch/Bestandsbeschreibung+Bestand+S+Abt_+XV.html?highlight=Raumforschung%2A
  38. ^ Until 1939: the geographer Albrecht Burchard.
  39. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. Few references to the HAG Karlsruhe in the context of the processing of art history: cf. Marlene Angermeyer-Deubner: The Institute for Art History at the Technical University Fridericiana in Karlsruhe during National Socialism 1933-1945 . In: Yearbook of the State Art Collections in Baden-Württemberg, Volume 40, Deutscher Kunstverlag, Munich-Berlin 2003, pp. 63–79 (esp. Pp. 77–79).
  40. ^ In 1936: Hermann Bente . On the geography of Kiel in the Nazi state, including members of the HAG Kiel, see: Patrick Bernhard: "Lebensraumwissenschaft". The Kiel geographers, Nazi ethnicity research and the dream of a German colonial empire . In: Christoph Cornelissen, Carsten Mish (ed.): Science at the limit. The University of Kiel under National Socialism. Klartext, 2nd edition, Essen 2010, pp. 341–358.
  41. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. The members of the Cologne University Working Community included u. a. Willy Gierlichs , Leopold von Wiese and Günter Schmölders . The Cologne HAG is said to have included up to 50 people (cf. Leo Haupts: The "University Working Group for Spatial Research" and the political use of research by the Nazi state. The example of the University of Cologne . In: Rheinische Vierteljahresblätter 68. Jg., (2004, pp. 172–200). Much about HAG Cologne in: Marc Engels: The “Economic Community of the West.” Bruno Kuske and the economic research on the West between the German Empire and the Federal Republic , Shaker Verlag, Aachen 2007 (= Aachener Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Social History, Vol. 4), especially pp. 130–210.
  42. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  43. ↑ In 1936: Hummel.
  44. ^ In 1936: Wolfgang Wilmanns . The following also worked for the university working groups in Leipzig: Hans Freyer , Karl Heinz Pfeffer , Heinrich Schmitthenner , Eugen Sieber, Hans Jürgen Seraphim , Franz Sigl, Adolf Helbok , Rudolf Kötzschke and numerous other scientists. (Ulrich Heß: Land and spatial research in the time of National Socialism . In: Comparativ 5, 1995, 4, pp. 57-69).
  45. ↑ Ulrich Heß: Land and spatial research in the time of National Socialism. The Leipzig University Working Groups for Spatial Research (1936-1945 / 46) . In: Comparativ, 5th year, issue 4 ("Region and regionality in the social history of the 20th century"), 1995, pp. 57–69 (here: 57f., 64f.).
  46. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. For the HAG at the commercial college worked u. a. Gerhard Menz , Balduin Penndorf , Richard Geith and Wilhelm Hasenack . (Ulrich Heß: Land and spatial research in the time of National Socialism. In: Comparativ 5, 1995, 4, p. 67).
  47. ↑ In 1936: Erwin Baur .
  48. ^ In 1936: Fritz Machatscheck . On the HAGs in Munich, their predecessors and competitors: cf. Istel 1993, pp. 287-305.
  49. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  50. ^ In 1936: Hans Dörries . For the research projects of the HAG Münster between 1936 and 1939 see: Kathrin Baas: Landscape - Settlement - Habitat. The research practice of geographers using the example of the University of Münster . In: Flachowsky, Hachtmann, Schmaltz: Resource mobilization. Science policy and research practice in the Nazi system of rule. Göttingen 2016, pp. 197-229 (here: 208-210); Gutberger 2017; Wilhelm Müller-Wille , Elisabeth Bertelsmeier: The geography in Münster. In: Heinz Dollinger (Ed.): The University of Münster 1780–1980. Aschendorff, Münster 1980, pp. 481-490.
  51. ↑ See Rössler 1990, p. 274. Hans Spreitzer (1897–1973), Austrian geographer.
  52. ^ In 1936: Hans Weigmann .
  53. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position.
  54. ↑ Hermann Ellinghaus (1890–1958) was professor of economics at the Hohenheim Agricultural University from 1936 to 1956 and was responsible for providing the subject at the TH Stuttgart (see Wilhelm Ellinghaus ).
  55. ↑ Already in 1936 in a management position. For the Tübingen university working group for spatial research see: Sabine Besenfelder: "Staatsnotwendige Wissenschaft". The Tübingen Folklore in the 1930s and 1940s . Tübingen 2002, pp. 359-364.
  56. ↑ Rössler 1990, p. 269. According to Gutberger, the legal and political scientist Adolf Günther was also one of the heads of the HAG at the University of Vienna (cf. Gutberger 1996, p. 78, 162). Also on Vienna's spatial research: Petra Svatek: "Southeastern Europe as a research area". Vienna spatial research and " living space policy ". In: Flachowsky, Hachtmann, Schmaltz: Resource mobilization. Science policy and research practice in the Nazi system of rule. Göttingen 2016, pp. 82–120.
  57. ^ In 1936: Reinhold Brenneisen . See also Istel 1993, pp. 305-308. Ludwig-Schmidt-Kehl also belonged to the Würzburger HAG . Cautery later headed, now at the State University of Poznan , the Working Group for Ostwirtschaft within the Association for Ostsiedlung (see. Rudi Goguel : About the participation of German scientists at Okkupatiponsregime in Poland during World War II, studied at three institutions of German Ostforschung Humboldt University of Berlin. , Philosophical Faculty, phil.diss. 1964, p. 73.)
  58. ↑ See also: Friedrich Ziemmermann (Hrsg.): Hochschulararbeitsgemeinschaft für Raumforschung at the Technical University of Braunschweig Publications 1973; Heinrich Habekost (ed.): University study group for spatial research at the Technical University of Braunschweig Publications.
  59. ^ Academy for spatial research and regional planning: 50 years of ARL in facts . Hanover: ARL 1996, pp. 204, 220.