Nuclear energy in France

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Electricity production in France has been dominated by nuclear energy since the 1980s. Part of the electricity generated is exported. Renewable Energy Fossil Fuels Nuclear Energy Hydropower




Nuclear power plants in France

Nuclear energy had in 2016 in France accounted for 39% of the energy mix , ie on the electricity consumed in France primary energy . 72% of the electricity produced in 2016 (403 TWh (gross) of 556  TWh ) wasgeneratedby nuclear power plants.

France thus had the highest percentage of electricity generated from nuclear power in the world.

France was at times the largest net exporter of electrical energy in Europe; The main customers at the time were Italy , Switzerland , the Netherlands , Belgium , Great Britain and Germany (see table here ). In 2012 Germany took over this position because of the energy transition.

In 2011, France generated 542 billion kWh (net) and consumed 478 billion kWh (around 6800 kWh per person). 2011 was a relatively mild year; In 2010, 513 billion kWh were consumed. (1 billion kWh = 1 TWh). In 2011, 56 billion kWh were exported.

The 56 nuclear reactors in operation are operated by the state-dominated electricity company EDF . 14 old reactors were shut down for good. An EPR reactor has been under construction in Flamanville since December 3, 2007 , a power plant site with two pressurized water reactors from the 1980s. The planned construction costs are massively exceeded: instead of 3.3 billion euros, it should be around 12.4 billion euros (as of July 2019) (details here ).

Nicolas Sarkozy , President from 2007 to May 2012, planned to build another EPR until about the outbreak of the economic crisis . After the nuclear disaster in Fukushima (March 2011) and the election of François Hollande as the new president, the plan was not pursued any further .

The state energy company EdF ( Électricité de France ) plans (as of February 2012) to extend the terms beyond 40 years; The aim is to be 60 years old (as of early 2012). François Hollande , President of France from 2012 to 2017, was considered less nuclear-friendly than his predecessor Sarkozy. During his presidency, a gradual exit from nuclear energy was decided: For example, the Loi relative à la transition énergetique pour la croissance verte adopted in 2015 stipulated that the share of nuclear energy in energy production should be reduced to 50%. Under his successor Emmanuel Macron , this goal was postponed to 2035 with the pluriannuelle de l'énergie program decided in 2019 .

history

After the Second World War, many dams were built in France to generate electricity (list here ); the hydropower was the early 1960s, about 70% share of the electricity generated. As a result of the increasing demand for electricity with economic growth and structural change, oil-fired power stations in particular were built in the 1960s to cover the increasingly volatile demand for electricity.

The nuclear energy delivered in the beginning of the 1960s, only a small contribution to electrical energy production. Building on experience from the French nuclear weapons program ( Force de frappe ), nine gas-cooled and graphite-moderated reactors ( UNGG reactors ) were put into operation between 1959 and 1972 ; these could be operated with natural uranium . In 1967 a pressurized water reactor and a gas-cooled heavy water reactor were put into operation to test the technologies. In 1973, nuclear energy contributed 8% to electricity production in France.

Messmer plan

Pierre Messmer (1916-2007) was French Prime Minister from July 5, 1972 to May 27, 1974 (under President Georges Pompidou ). The “Messmer Plan” (electricity production from uranium to reduce dependency on energy imports) was adopted before the first oil price crisis . The massive expansion of new nuclear power plants was therefore not (as is often assumed) a reaction to the oil price crisis . After de Gaulle's resignation (1969), there was an atomic commissioner with around 3,000 employees. This was underemployed after the Force de frappe was armed. In 1971 the head of the Atomic Commissioner retired; he was succeeded by André Giraud (1925–1997). He took some energetic measures and published a plan in March 1971:

  • In the years from 1971 to 1975 four or five (instead of the previously planned only two) new nuclear power plants with a total output of 8,000 megawatts (MW) were to be built;
  • Fessenheim I (near Freiburg im Breisgau) and Bugey II in the Bugey nuclear power plant (near Lyon) were planned as the first new buildings .

The following construction starts show the pace of expansion: Bugey II November 1, 1972, Bugey III September 1, 1973, Bugey IV June 1, 1974, Bugey V July 1, 1974. Giraud brought state and nuclear industry closer together (details in the personal article) . The construction, however, took significantly longer than expected (completion between May 1978 and July 1979). Seven French nuclear power plants went into operation in 1980, eight in 1981, two in 1982, four in 1983, six in 1984, four in 1985 and six in 1986.

Like his predecessors, Georges Pompidou (President June 1969–1974) promoted the modernization of France. France was an agricultural country until the 1960s. With increasing industrialization during the economic boom of the post-war years ( Trente glorieuses ), many jobs in agriculture were lost and many were created in industry. France's energy consumption increased significantly.

The EdF selected the pressurized water reactor as the technology , u. a. also because of the existing uranium enrichment capacities from the nuclear weapons program. The national licensing and supervisory authority, the Autorité de sûreté nucléaire (in Germany: at the federal level, see Nuclear Regulatory Authority ), encouraged the use of standardized reactor designs throughout France (CP0, CP1, CP2); this was a basis for a quick and relatively inexpensive expansion of nuclear power plant capacities in the 1970s and 1980s. (In Germany, on the other hand, a relatively large number of different types were built; there were only four almost identical nuclear reactors from the 69 series (1969) ) In 1979, 20% of the electricity was generated in nuclear power plants, in 1983 it was 49% and in 1990 about 75%. Fossil power plants were shut down in parallel to the expansion of the use of nuclear energy .

Mitterrand era and the decline of the boom

Under François Mitterrand (President 1981–1995) there was a slowdown in the expansion of nuclear power plants (see list of nuclear facilities in France ) . It turned out that the Messmer Plan (similar to many German forecasts in the 1970s) had massively overestimated the electricity demand. There was an overcapacity of nuclear power plants. In 1988, the EDF reactors were only utilized to an average of 61% ; this made it difficult to repay the loans taken out for their construction. In order to develop additional sales opportunities, connections to the electricity networks of neighboring countries have therefore been expanded (see European network ).

The consequences of the Chernobyl disaster (April 1986) were systematically played down in France and kept secret.

Response to Fukushima

In contrast to Germany and other countries, especially Japan , France under President Nicolas Sarkozy did not change its nuclear policy after the meltdown in Fukushima . It is questionable whether the stress tests for the French reactors were carried out on their own initiative or just to reassure the EU, Germany and the French public. The stress tests carried out after Fukushima by the French Institute for Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN) showed that all 58 active nuclear reactors had to be retrofitted for reasons of operational safety, as they are not sufficiently designed to withstand natural disasters. Additional installations of flood-proof diesel generators, retrofitting of earthquake-proof pipes are required, and the cooling water supplies for emergency cooling must be increased. In addition, safety deficiencies that had previously been overlooked or ignored were discovered at the Tricastin , Gravellines and Saint Alban nuclear power plants , for example the proximity to chemical plants and plants for explosive substances.

In September 2011, the top candidates of the (then) opposition Socialist Party (PS) announced that they wanted to withdraw from the use of nuclear energy in the long term . In November 2011 it was announced that socialists and the Greens wanted to take 24 of the 58 nuclear reactors off the grid by 2025 at the latest if they won an election in 2012. The Fessenheim nuclear power plant should be shut down immediately.

In June 2011, in a representative survey by the Institut français d'opinion publique, 62% of the French were in favor of phasing out nuclear energy within 25 to 30 years; another 15% wanted to get out faster.

François Hollande was elected President of France on May 6, 2012 . He won the runoff election on May 6, 2012 against incumbent Nicolas Sarkozy .

In the French parliamentary elections in 2012 on June 10 and 17, 2012 , the Parti Socialiste received an absolute majority of the seats in the National Assembly. This gave greater opportunities to change energy policy ; In the end, however, not a single nuclear power plant was shut down under Hollande.

Particularities of nuclear energy in France

Because of the high share of nuclear energy in total electricity production, it is important for French nuclear power plants to be able to adapt their output to demand (“ load following operation ”), i.e. to work as medium- load power plants . This requires some technical adjustments to the reactor design; Nuclear power plants are usually used internationally as base load power plants.

Due to the problem described, the French nuclear power plants were only around 75% full in 2008. Because of the high proportion of fixed costs in the total operating costs of a nuclear power plant, this is bad from an economic point of view. It has sometimes been claimed that France has invested too much in nuclear generation capacity. Electricity was exported abroad at low prices; subsidized prices and low taxes fueled domestic demand. This leads to a relatively high consumption of electricity in France, u. a. through electrical water heating and building heating .

One problem arises from the cooling water requirement of the nuclear power plants in hot summer periods, unless they were built on a coast. Since France has little spare capacity, prolonged periods of heat can lead to serious problems in securing electricity supplies. This was shown, for example, in August 2003 .

Long periods of very cold frost are also critical, as the demand for electricity increases sharply due to the predominantly electrically heated and poorly insulated French building stock. So France z. B. temporarily a net electricity importer during the cold spell in Europe in 2012 .

Reactor types

The first generations

The first reactors were gas-cooled and graphite-moderated reactors ( UNGG reactors ). All reactors of this generation have since been shut down. A first pressurized water reactor of the 300 MWe class was built in Chooz based on a Westinghouse design. Based on the experience gained there, the standardized French reactor types were developed.

900 MWe class (CP0, CP1 and CP2)

The Saint-Laurent nuclear power plant , two CP2 reactors with their cooling towers on the right

All power plants of the CPx series ( CP stands for contrat programs , the following number denoting the number of the program) have a similar structure; the net electrical output is around 900 MW using a "3-loop" design. The heat from the primary circuit is transferred to the secondary circuit via three steam generators, and the turbine is operated with the steam generated there.

As the first reactors of the CP0 series, the two units of the Fessenheim nuclear power plant went into operation in 1977 ; the four other CP0 reactors are located in Bugey . In power plants on lines CP0 and CP1, two reactor blocks share a machine house and a control center.

The reactors of the CP1 and CP2 series have an additional cooling circuit, additional emergency systems, more flexible control technology for load-following operation and are very similar in their construction. Both are often summarized under the name 'CPY'.

All six reactors of the CP0 series and the 28 reactors of the CPY series in France with a total output of 5 and 26 GW are still in operation. CPY reactors have also been built in other countries. a. the Koeberg nuclear power plant in South Africa and the neighboring Daya Wan and Ling'ao nuclear power plants in China (referred to there as M310).

1300 MWe class (P4 and P'4)

The Cattenom nuclear power plant consists of four 1300 MWe reactors

The P4 ( P4 stands for Paluel 4-loop ) is a further development of the CP2 s - the net electrical output was increased to 1300 MWe using a "4-loop" design. Furthermore, the reactor control for load following operation has been improved. 20 reactors with a total net output of 26 GW were built from P4. The structural difference between the P4 and P'4 lies in the size of the reactor building and the machine halls, which were designed smaller in the P'4 in order to reduce construction costs.

1450 MWe class (N4)

The Civaux nuclear power plant with two 1500 MWe reactors

In addition to increased performance, the N4 reactor type also has improvements in load following capability. An N4 reactor can adjust its output with reduced use of boric acid and is the most flexibly controllable of the large pressurized water reactors built so far.

Only four reactors of the N4 were built, two in the Civaux nuclear power plant and two in the Chooz nuclear power plant . Construction began between 1984 and 1991; commercial commissioning took place between 2000 and 2002 - due to thermal fatigue problems in the residual heat removal system and turbine problems. The four reactors built have a total net electrical output of 6000 MW.

1750 MWe class (EPR)

The next French reactor generation is planned to be the EPR . It was developed by Areva from the N4 and by Siemens ( convoy reactor ). A first prototype is being built in Finland at the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant . The construction costs of the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant have been massively exceeded; the construction progress is (as of 2018) about ten years behind plan.

A second EPR was started in Flamanville, France in late 2007; 2012 was originally planned as the year of commissioning. As of mid-2019, commercial operation is not expected before 2022. The capital expenditures of this reactor increased sharply during the construction period. Before the start of construction in 2005, costs of 3.3 billion euros were estimated, these rose to 10.5 billion euros by 2018.

A third EPR was planned (as of 2008/09) in the Penly nuclear power plant .

The buyer has agreed a fixed price; Areva and Areva NP make billions in losses in construction. In view of the euro crisis , the global economic crisis of 2009/2010 and a banking crisis , financing nuclear power plants is more difficult than it used to be.

Breeder reactors

In France, two fast breeders were also operated in the past , the Meiler Phénix and Superphénix . Both were shut down prematurely for economic reasons.

Fusion reactors

The ITER demonstration reactor has been under construction in Cadarache, France , since 2009 and is intended to demonstrate the feasibility of generating electricity from the fusion of deuterium and tritium . Commissioning with a hydrogen plasma is planned for December 2025 (as of January 2020).

safety

European stress test for nuclear power plants

After the Fukushima nuclear disaster , a stress test of all existing nuclear power plants was carried out at EU level . In this stress test, in addition to northern European nuclear power plants v. a. French investments were particularly negative. Major deficiencies were found in all 54 nuclear power plants, and even the best French nuclear power plant was below the EU average with five complaints. Other nuclear power plants were at the bottom of the table with up to seven complaints. There is a considerable need for retrofitting in all power plants; Europe-wide, depending on the severity of the deficiencies, it is calculated at around 30 to 200 million euros per reactor block.

Environmental associations sharply criticized the stress test and called for the power plants in question to be shut down. The stress test was largely carried out on paper, while only a few power plants were actually examined. Originally, on pressure u. a. Only 38 of the 134 nuclear power plants were inspected by France in the entire EU, with no inspections taking place in particularly controversial plants such as the Fessenheim nuclear power plant and the Czech Temelín nuclear power plant . As a result, eight more power plants were inspected after severe criticism of the procedure, whereupon the French nuclear safety authority ASN complained about the methodology of the stress test. In addition, according to environmentalists, certain risks such as the risk of terrorist attacks or plane crashes have been completely disregarded, while only the resistance to extreme natural events and the control of the resulting accidents have been examined. Previously, on the initiative of France and Great Britain, terrorist attacks and cyberattacks had been removed from the audit catalog.

Financial consequences of a serious reactor accident

In February 2013, a study by the French Institute for Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety ( IRSN) was published, in which the economic consequences of a catastrophe in a French nuclear power plant, analogous to the Fukushima disaster, were examined. Overall, the researchers are assuming a total damage of around 430 billion euros, which is about twice as much as the follow-up costs in Fukushima. The reason for this is u. a. that in Japan by the weather during the disaster, v. a. the wind, which was blowing most of the fallout out to sea, prevented any possible worse effects. This is not to be expected in France. Around 100,000 refugees are expected. In addition to several departments, locations close to the border such as B. Cattenom or Fessenheim also affects neighboring countries such as Germany. Around 110 billion euros would have to be spent on direct environmental costs such as the decontamination of radioactively contaminated regions, and there would also be significant economic follow-up costs. In addition to a sharp decline in tourism , a slump in the sale of agricultural products, especially French wine, is to be expected, which together could result in follow-up costs of 160 billion euros. In view of this high financial impact, ISRN Director General Jacques Repussard called for French nuclear power plants to be retrofitted for safety reasons. The study clearly shows that "the ten billion euros that EDF is supposed to invest since Fukushima to make its nuclear power plants safer is not particularly high".

Material defects

In several power plants, including the new Flamanville 3 building , defects were found in the steel alloys used. The reactor pressure vessel was affected in Flamanville . Similar deficiencies could have occurred in 18 other reactors, according to the ASN, so a review was ordered. In October 2016, the regulatory authority ASN also ordered the shutdown of five nuclear reactors ( Fessenheim 1 , Civeaux 1 , Gravelines 4 and Tricastin 2 and 4 ) on suspicion of defective steel alloys in the steam generators . According to the operator EDF, the rectors should be switched off for 3–4 weeks in November or December 2016. ASN later announced that a total of twelve reactors would have to be tested.

Because of these shutdowns, among other things, France had to import large quantities of electricity from the surrounding countries in the winter of 2016/17, in particular from Germany, Belgium, Great Britain and Spain. Mid-January 2017 notified the then Energy Minister Segolene Royal up a crisis unit, which was aimed at the security of supply and to secure France during an expected cold snap, when the power consumption in France by electric heaters is very high. Staggered emergency measures included operating certain household appliances only at uncritical times, not supplying high-consumption industrial companies with electricity, temporarily disconnecting them from the grid and, if necessary, taking individual regions off the grid for an hour. In Germany, network operators briefly increased the transmission capacity of power lines to France; In addition, planned maintenance work on power lines was postponed unscheduled in order to export as much electricity as possible to France. In Germany, power plants were also started up from cold reserves and redispatch measures were carried out in order to increase security of supply in France.

Rust problems

In October 2017, the French nuclear safety agency ASN warned of rusted cooling pipes in 29 of the country's 58 nuclear reactors. Some of the cooling pipes are so heavily rusted that “there is a real risk that the pipes will not withstand the vibrations in the event of an earthquake”. This could lead to a meltdown like in Fukushima . Because of these hazards, the ASN classified the rust problems at INES level 2. The ASN named poor maintenance of the power plants as the cause of the rust problems.

Fuel cycle

Working on a repository

France is one of the few countries in the world that has a closed fuel cycle. Uranium ores are mined by French companies abroad, refined into nuclear fuel in two enrichment plants at the Tricastin site and the spent fuel elements processed in two reprocessing plants in Beaumont-Hague . The capacities are sufficient to also be able to supply foreign customers.

The Center de la Manche repository in northern France was used between 1969 and 1994 for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste . Short-lived waste was stored there close to the surface in order to ensure that the radioactivity would decay safely over the next 300 years. As a successor, the Center de l'Aube was opened in 1992 .

For high-level radioactive waste , the suitability of the clay formation there as a repository is being tested in a research mine in Bure in northern France .

costs

According to a report by the Supreme Audit Office in France (January 2012), the research, development and construction of French nuclear power plants cost a total of 188 billion euros. These costs have so far been amortized by around 75% through the sale of the electricity. Since the power plants are still in operation, these costs will probably be covered. There are hardly any provisions for follow-up costs . In addition, the Court of Auditors assumes that the planned 18.4 billion euros will not be enough for the dismantling of the plants, but that at least double the amount should be charged. In addition, long-term costs for the disposal or final storage of the nuclear waste would have to be taken into account; According to the report, these are difficult to quantify.

In its German translation of the summary, the Court of Auditors et al. a. (Page 8):

“The construction and planning costs (€ 79,751 million 2010), calculated down to the reactor output, increased over time from € 1.07 million 2010 / MW in 1978 (Fessenheim) to € 2.06 million in 2010 in 2000 (Chooz 1 and 2) and 1.37 million € 2010 in 2002 (Civaux) with an average of 1.25 million € 2010 / MW for the 58 reactors. This increase is primarily related to the ever increasing security requirements. Even if a precise comparison is not possible, as the final total costs of an EPR are unknown, the Cour des Comptes was able to determine that the construction costs in relation to the output in MW with this new generation, which had to meet extensive safety requirements from the start, continued to rise are. With an estimated construction costs of € 6 billion for the Flamanville EPR (first reactor of the series) and an output of 1,630 MW, the costs per MW are € 3.7 million; where the cost of the series is estimated at € 5 billion and its cost per MW is € 3.1 million. "

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ http://de.statista.com
  2. ^ [1] World Nuclear - France
  3. ↑ a b c [2] IAEA - Power Reactor Information System - Country overview France
  4. ↑ statista.com: Share of nuclear energy in electricity generation by country in 2016 and 2017
  5. ↑ Import 43.8 TWh electricity, export 66.6 TWh 22.8 TWh => 22.8 terawatt hours export surplus (MM April 2, 2013: Germany again European electricity export champion )
  6. ↑ The arithmetical difference between 542 and 578 is 64; How the difference of 8 billion TWh comes about is not clear from the source ( [3] ).
  7. ↑ as of March 2020; the shutdown of Fessenheim 1 is taken into account.
  8. ↑ a b [4] Radio France International - President Sarkozy builds a second EPR in France
  9. ↑ FAZ.net February 12, 2012: France extends nuclear power plant runtimes
  10. ↑ a b c d e Electricité de France History at FundingUniverse
  11. ↑ zeit.de April 23, 1971: De Gaulle's legacy is liquidated
  12. ^ A b Nuclear in France - what did they get right? ( Memento of the original from May 11, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.neimagazine.com
  13. ↑ www.berliner-zeitung.de
  14. ↑ Carom - broadcast on December 6, 2015 ( Memento of the original from January 3, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . On: Arte . Video (11 min), accessed January 3, 2016. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.arte.tv
  15. ↑ Welt-Online: GAU in Fukushima - This is how foreign countries are now dealing with nuclear power
  16. ↑ France's nuclear reactors are not safe enough . Der Tagesspiegel , November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
  17. ↑ a b France's nuclear power plants have to upgrade . Deutsche Welle , November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
  18. ^ Election campaign in France . FAZ , September 17, 2011. Retrieved October 3, 2011.
  19. ^ French socialists. The transformation of the dinosaurs . FAZ , October 3, 2011. Retrieved October 3, 2011.
  20. ↑ Experts call for retrofitting of French nuclear power plants . Süddeutsche Zeitung , November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
  21. ↑ note; this election promise was broken
  22. ↑ When the desire to leave grows . Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , June 6, 2010. Accessed October 3, 2011.
  23. ↑ Le nucléaire s'invite dans la campagne 2012 ( Memento of June 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) . Retrieved October 3, 2011.
  24. ↑ See also (January 2011): Possibilities and limits of load sequence operation of nuclear power plants (pdf, 32 pages; 540 kB)
  25. ^ Stephanie Cooke (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age , Black Inc., p. 359.
  26. ↑ Handelsblatt: Despite the heat wave on the network - requirements for nuclear power plants relaxed
  27. ↑ The energy transition in a practical test. Nuclear power blown on the wall . In: TAZ , February 3, 2012.
  28. ↑ a b Francois HEDIN / EDF - Plant Life Management of EDF PWR Nuclear Fleet (PDF; 443 kB)
  29. ^ Convention sur la sûreté nucléaire ( Memento of July 22, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
  30. ^ A b c Nuclear Development - June 2011 - Technical and Economic Aspects of Load Following with Nuclear Power Plants
  31. ^ Editions Technip: International nuclear energy guide. In: Editions TECHNIP, 1987, ISBN 2-7108-0532-4 .
  32. ↑ Power Technology - Civaux 1-2
  33. ↑ May 19, 2011: Jairam gets lesson on Areva reactor behind Finnish line
  34. ↑ Ralf Streck: Atomkraft: Always trouble with the EPR. In: Telepolis. Heise, July 25, 2019, accessed December 29, 2019 .
  35. ↑ Nuclear reactor becomes grave of billions. EDF lays a shiny cuckoo egg in Hollande's nest . In: Handelsblatt , December 5, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
  36. ↑ Werner Pluta: The one million piece puzzle in the crucial phase. In: golem.de. January 22, 2020, accessed February 22, 2020 .
  37. ↑ EU nuclear stress test in the analysis. The fairy tale of safe German reactors . In: tagesschau.de , October 5, 2012. Accessed December 8, 2012.
  38. ↑ AKW stress test. Bad grades for Europe's kiln . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , October 1, 2012. Accessed December 8, 2012.
  39. ↑ France is outraged by the EU's nuclear stress tests . In: Die Welt , October 5, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
  40. ↑ A nuclear disaster in France would cost 430 billion . In: Die Zeit , February 7, 2013. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
  41. ↑ Study on the costs of a nuclear accident. France's arithmetic games for a GAU ( Memento from February 11, 2013 in the Internet Archive ). In: tagesschau.de , February 7, 2013. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
  42. ↑ FAZ.net October 19, 2016: Doubts about reactor components. Paris shuts down nuclear power plants .
  43. ↑ France's nuclear regulator switches off five reactors orf.at, October 19, 2016, accessed on the same day.
  44. ↑ ASN.fr 5 December 2016: Situation des générateurs de vapeur dont l'acier présente une concentration élevée en carbone: l'ASN considère que le redémarrage des réacteurs concernés peut être envisagé. Des verifications propres à chaque réacteur restent nécessaires.
  45. ↑ Power supply before collapse. France is threatened with blackout . In: Tagesschau.de , January 13, 2017. Accessed January 14, 2017.
  46. ↑ French winter troubles the German power grid . In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , January 23, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2017.
  47. ↑ France. Nuclear power plants are rusting away . In: Frankfurter Rundschau , October 18, 2017. Accessed October 20, 2017.
  48. ↑ France's nuclear regulatory authority is sounding the alarm . In: Stuttgarter Nachrichten , October 17, 2017. Accessed October 21, 2017.
  49. ↑ www.ccomptes.fr The cost of nuclear energy (January 2012). Summary (PDF, 24 pages); Long version (PDF, 441 pages); Glossary  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; Cost of nuclear power in France. Basically wrongly calculated . In: Taz . February 1, 2012. Retrieved February 4, 2012.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.ccomptes.fr  
  50. ↑ Page 8 ( Memento of the original from September 23, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Note: "€ 2010" means "Euro with purchasing power in 2010" @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ccomptes.fr