Literature of Oceania

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The Pacific Cultural Areas

The literature of Oceania is the literature of the people of Melanesia , Micronesia and Polynesia , past and present. It was and is written in different languages, but mainly in English .

The literatures of Australia and New Zealand , two countries in which the Anglo-Saxon cultural dominance in literary production was so strong from the beginning that the original inhabitants, the Aborigines and Māori , only very late and as disadvantaged minority groups, are not taken into account here Anglo-Saxon majority culture could gain literary validity. A small island state like Tonga, on the other hand, had been a kingdom for 1000 years and was never fully colonized; Here the feeling of regional connection with the large Polynesian language area prevails, in which the whites are always only a minority.

The pre-literary phase

In total, around 1300 different languages ​​are spoken in the Pacific region. Despite its enormous size, Polynesia is ethnically and linguistically much more homogeneous than Melanesia and Micronesia, which are extremely fragmented ethnically and linguistically. What societies and cultures have in common is that storytelling, singing and dancing were important elements of the socialization process. Many traditions, especially Melanesia, were destroyed by the Christian mission in the late 19th and 20th centuries.

Melanesia

Dancers at a performance in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea (2020)

The written tradition of Melanesia was shaped by myths about the origin of humans and nature as well as the origin of social groups. Many myths are about the establishment of a forefather and ancestor by an unfathomable power. But other stories also dealt with supernatural things, not with the mundane everyday life of people. The myths - especially the creation myths - were sacred legends that were closely related to religious rituals and were often withheld, even from women. Cultural heroes played a major role, e. B. the mythical brothers Kilibob and Manub . Due to the mixing and migration of many myths - especially the oldest - it is difficult to isolate local narrative forms here as in Micronesia. Magic spells, songs and, above all, countless metaphors were often removed from the context in which they were created and were barely understandable even for the locals, also because of the enormous fragmentation of language. Fairy tales, on the other hand, were told independently of the rituals. A collection of myths and fairy tales of the Eipo (who live in West New Guinea , administered by Indonesia ) in the original with transcription was published by Volker Heeschen.

The process of the extinction of local languages, some of which are only spoken by a few hundred people, is being promoted by advances in the educational system and urbanization.

Micronesia

In Micronesia, too, it is difficult to identify fixed genera in the pre-colonial phase. Singing, dancing, masks and pictures on the house gables work together in a recited myth that z. B. can relate to ancestry of a family or the formation of a group. The recitatives of the myths can last a few minutes or several hours. Complex symbols and allusions to certain ritually revered places and local deities are used, which are difficult to understand for a stranger. In addition, there is the great ethnic and linguistic diversity, which makes communication difficult. Today's Federated States of Micronesia with the main island of Pohnpei cover an area of ​​700 km² with seven official languages ​​and many dialects.

An important cycle of myths in Micronesia, here for Truk and Yap , is the Olofat cycle : Olofat is thought of as a humanized, hedonistic god, a trickster . The myth of Areop-Enap , the creator of the world, is cultivated on Nauru . This spider god can be found as Nareau in the creation myths of the I-Kiribati .

In many places in Micronesia, myths and folklore were recorded by ethnographers , for example the Hamburg South Sea Expedition 1908–1910 . From this z. B. Paul Hambruch made it known for the first time in Germany with the fairy tales of the South Seas published in 1916 . In Micronesia, the Japanese Hisataku Hijikata for Palau (1942 and 1953) and the Americans Melford Spiro for Ifalik (1951) and William A. Lessa for the Ulithi Atoll in the Carolines (1961 and 1980) and, more recently, Jane Downing and followed the archaeologist Dirk HR Spennemann , who published illustrated school books for the Marshall Islands .

Polynesia

Before the colonial era, the chiefs were the bearers of the historical and genealogical tradition in a centuries-old culture without writing. However, there were symbols on tapa bark or scratches on stone and wood, which had ceremonial, ritual, mnemonic or genealogical functions. The Rongorongo image writing on Easter Island was a particularly elaborate form .

Cultic chants and dance games were characterized by the integration of dance, song and instrumental accompaniment. Some orally transmitted Polynesian myths are related to those of the ancient Japanese , but also those of the Dayak on Borneo . Only on Easter Island (Rapa Nui) were there records in the Rongorongo script before proselytizing . Everywhere in Polynesia, Christian proselytizing brought scripture, but destroyed old oral traditions.

Among the most important surviving traditions of the Māori who immigrated to New Zealand from the Pacific region around the year 1000 are the love songs and lamentations called Waiata , which were first collected by George Edward Gray , published in 1855 and are still sung together today. The relative homogeneity of the Polynesian-speaking area had a positive effect on the preservation of the tradition.

Especially in Samoa, where over 400,000 people still speak Samoan , a form of Polynesian , many myths and customs have survived to this day, especially the myth of the creator and sky god Tagaloa (in Tonga: Tangaloa, in New Zealand in a similar role to the Sea god Tangaroa ). Samoan myths and tales have been a. collected by FWK Müller during the German colonial era.

Since the 1880s, traditional stories in the Polynesian language were written down in Hawaii under King David Kalākaua . The first Hawaiian novel was published by SN Haleole in 1863. This development was interrupted by colonization by the USA and the resulting dominance of the English language. The Hawaiian language is almost extinct today.

Old stories and songs from Tonga was published by Ernest Edgar Vyvyan Collocott (* 1986) from the 1920s to the 1970s (and later posthumously).

Anglophone literature of Oceania of the 20th century

During the colonial period, the z. Sometimes it was only 60 to 70 years old, the European influence on culture worked largely through the mission schools. Only a few testimonies to local missionaries have survived from the 19th century. As the memoirs of in Fiji living Tonga former Joeli Buru (Siaoeli Pulu, ca. 1810-1877). In many cases, pidgin languages ​​were developed - sometimes with a sprinkling of Hindi - or language mixtures between European languages ​​such as Nauru , which delayed the development of a written culture. The strength of the oral tradition has also hindered the creation of a literature. A turning point was not formed until the South Pacific Art Festival in Suva (Fiji) in 1972, when people became aware of the lack of written literature.

University of the South Pacific, Campus in Suva

With the independence of Western Samoa (1962), Fiji (1970) and Tonga (1970) and the development of the tertiary education system, a new English-language literature of the South Sea region crystallized, its center at the University of the South Pacific ( Unispac or USP ) with headquarters in Suva and several branches on other island groups. The University of Papua New Guinea (1965) also plays an important role. In this respect, there are parallels to post-colonial English-language literature in Africa, which took off from the newly founded universities in Kampala and Ibadan . Ulli Beier , who had already played an important role in the development of Nigerian literature in the 1960s , came to Papua New Guinea in 1968 and founded the literary magazine Kovava .

In the catchment area of ​​both universities, the feeling of togetherness among the educated elites, especially of Anglophone Polynesia, grew strongly in the 1970s, despite the political fragmentation. Micronesia was reached to a much lesser extent by this tendency, French Polynesia and New Caledonia not at all.

The political unrest of the 1980s, especially in the Fiji Islands, brought numerous literary activities to a standstill. Various literary magazines were discontinued. Occasionally, however, Australian, New Zealand or US literary magazines publish issues devoted to literature from the Pacific. The mobility of postcolonial authors is great; many have studied in the USA or New Zealand and no longer live in their home country. Since the turn of the millennium, literary production has grown again.

Papua New Guinea

Linguistic fragmentation - with 700 to 800 languages , Papua New Guinea is the state with the greatest linguistic diversity in the world - formed an obstacle to the preservation of oral traditions as well as literacy. Since 1920 the English-based pidgin language Tok Pisin spread as a lingua franca and for the distribution of missionary and governmental writings as well as foreign literature, but few people could read it. After 1950 it also reached inaccessible regions in the highlands and other parts of Melanesia. The influence of the English language on the Tok Pisin, which had been used in schools since the 1950s, grew stronger in the course of its spread, it developed into a more complex Creole language and was increasingly used for written communication since the 1970s. But so far it has not been standardized and is divided into dialects. Therefore it has not established itself as a literary language.

In 1932, the Methodist preacher Hsea Linge wrote an autobiography that was translated into English. Ulli Beier worked at the University of Papua New Guinea since 1968 and encouraged young people to write. From 1969 to 1974 he published the literary magazine Kovave . The first novel in Papua New Guinea ( The crocodile , 1970) in English was written by the teacher and diplomat Vincent Eri (1936-1993). The "crocodile" is an allusion to the political and economic role of Australia. Among the older authors, the politician Albert Maori Kiki (1931–1993) should be mentioned, who is also known in Germany for his autobiography. Kiki grew up in a hunter-gatherer community, trained as a pathology assistant, and became a union leader and deputy prime minister. Kiki's publisher was Ulli Beier, who transcribed the tapes discussed by Kiki. In 1969 Beier founded the literary magazine Kovave . Arthur Jawodimbari translated some of the cosmic myths of Papua New Guinea into plays. Uli Beier published the anthology The Night Warrior and Other Stories From Papua New Guinea in 1972 , which also includes a story by Jawodimbari.

The best-known author in Papua New Guinea is the novelist, storyteller and poet Russell Soaba , who was born in 1950 and trained in Australia and the USA . He taught at the University of Papua New Guinea . His novel Maiba (1979) deals with the life of a chief's daughter in the conflict between conventions and the modernization of a weakening culture. His volume of poems Kwamra: A Season of Harvest collects poems from three decades. Michael Dom ( At another crossroads , 2012) also became known as a poet . The lyric finds its role models mainly in the American slam poetry , partly using popular rhythms. Few authors work with traditional techniques.

A literary prize known beyond Papua New Guinea is the Crocodile Prize , named after Eris Roman , which has been awarded in seven categories since 2010 and sponsored by mining, oil and tobacco companies, but suffers from a funding problem. In 2018, 800 contributions were submitted, 166 of which were printed in an anthology.

Solomon Islands

The religious lyric poet Celo Kulagoe (or Celestin Kulaghoe) comes from Guadalcanal in the island republic of Solomon Islands and studied at the USP . Other authors are Frederick Butafa, who is also active as a painter, and John Selwyn Saunana (1945-2013), who wrote the first novel by a resident of the Solomon Islands in 1980, a pamphlet against colonialism ( The Alternative ). Authors from the Solomon Islands often published in Mana magazine . A South Pacific journal of language and literature .

Vanuatu

The national languages ​​of Vanuatu, which was formerly administered by England and France together, are English, Bislama (a pidgin language) and French. The politician, feminist and poet Grace Mera Molisa (1946–2002), the poet Albert Leomala, who wrote in both English and Bislama, as well as the politically committed teacher Mildred Sope and the former Prime Minister of Vanuatu, Donald Kalpokas ( 1943-2019). These two authors wrote short polemical anti-colonialist tendency poetry in simple, direct language, but with rhetorical and mobilizing qualities that connect to old oral traditions.

Fiji

Fiji literature is heavily influenced by Indian immigrants who have been recruited since the late 1870s and now constitute an intellectual and economic elite. After the Second World War until 1997, they formed the majority of the population. The multilingualism of the local literature is characteristic. However, this has only officially existed since independence in 1970, when the most important dialect of East Fidji, Bauan Fijian , which belongs to the Central Pacific branch of the Malay-Polynesian languages and has around 300,000 native speakers, became the national and written language. In addition to Bauan, English and Indian, there are numerous local dialects. Fiji-English (a basilect ) is also widespread . As a result of the immigration of Chinese, Cantonese and Mandarin are also increasingly spoken.

The University of the South Pacific became the center of literary work, and soon after it was founded in 1968, it established creative writing courses. Well-known authors from the Fiji Islands are the lawyer Pio Manoa , who published poetry in English and Fiji (Bauan) in the 1970s and 1980s; the former Labor politician Satendra Pratap Nandan (* 1939), who emigrated to Australia after the coup in 1987 and became a professor at Canberra University ( The wounded sea , 1991), as well as the women's rights activist and pacifist Vanessa Griffen, who became known through short stories, the playwright and film director Vilsoni Hereniko (* 1954), who presented the first feature film from Fiji in 2004, and the playwright and lecturer Jo Nacola ( I native no more , 1977), who comes from a chieftain's family.

Joseph Veramu wrote a total of over 20 novels, volumes of short stories as well as books for children and young people ( Growing up in Fiji , 1984; Moving through the street , German: "Durch die Straßen von Suva", 2000). In addition to social issues such as youth unemployment and crime, he takes a critical look at aspects of globalization such as the US dominance in the food markets ( Rebound , 2016).

Sudesh Mishra ( Diaspora and the difficult art of dying 2002) writes texts and poems in classical Indian forms, but in English with Fiji and Hindi words. He was visiting professor in Australia and Europe. As a writer, playwright and documentary filmmaker, Larry Thomas takes up the language of the underprivileged, Fiji English.

The theater plays a not insignificant role in Fiji in building the identity of a multiethnic society. The focus is on current social issues.

Of the periodical publications, the literary journal Mana, first published in 1976 by Subramani , is . A South Pacific journal of language and literature , which was discontinued in the 1980s. Today it appears at irregular intervals. In 2011 the first Fiji Literature Festival , organized by the Fiji Writers Association , took place. At the University of the South Pacific taught a. a. Authors like Epeli Hau'ofa from Tonga and Subramani, who writes in Hindi and English, literature.

The financial crisis, the president's coup in 2009 and the associated mass layoffs and censorship measures resulted in many authors, journalists, teachers and university lecturers emigrating to Australia and other countries, as they did in 1987.

Kiribati

The career of Teresia Teaiwa , who was born in Honolulu as the daughter of a father from Kiribati and an African-American mother , grew up in Fiji, studied history at the University of California, Santa Cruz , first taught at the USP and then at the Victoria University went to New Zealand. She is now considered one of the national icons of Kiribati. Oral lore was collected and published by Arthur Francis Grimble and Henry Evans Maude . Ioteba Tamuera Uriam (1910–1988), a musician, wrote the national anthem of Kiribati . However, due to the lack of media and the long distances between the individual islands, hardly any independent literary life developed. In addition, the islands are threatened by rising sea levels, with many residents going into exile.

Marshall Islands

Test of a hydrogen bomb on October 31, 1952, which completely destroyed the island of Elugelab .

In his books, the journalist Giff Johnson deals with the consequences of more than 40 American nuclear weapons tests on the archipelago and global warming. In Don't ever whisper: Darlene Keju, Pacific health pioneer, champion for nuclear survivors (2013), he set up a literary memorial to his wife, the health activist Darlene Keju, who made known the numerous malformations and other devastating consequences of nuclear weapons tests Cancer died.

Pohnpei (ponape)

Emelihter Kihleng , born in Guam , sees herself as a resident of Pohnpei and as a feminist. She studied in Hawaii and New Zealand and was the first author in Micronesia to publish in English ( My Urohs short collection of poems , 2008). She lives in Guam again today and is often referred to as an American author.

Nauru

Timothy Detudamo, a chief from Nauru, collected a number of stories and legends in 1938 that were only translated after 70 years ( Legends, traditions and tales of Nauru , 2008), but they are apparently barely understandable. Makerita Va'ai and Momoe Von Reiche - who come from Samoa and both write themselves - supported the establishment of a writers' association in Nauru and promoted young authors. Joanne Ekamdeiya Gobure (* 1982) writes mainly religious texts in English.

Samoa (until 1997: Western Samoa)

Albert Wendt (2013)

One of the most important and internationally best-known authors is Albert Wendt (* 1939) from Apia in Samoa , who spent some of his school and university days in New Zealand and wrote the first Samoan novel ( Sons for the return home , 1973) in which he told stories his homeland and the experiences of the Samoan emigrants in New Zealand and also used pidgin. In 1979, Leaves of the Banyan tree followed , a family saga about the rise and fall of three generations of a clan. Wendt also wrote short stories, poems, scripts and a play. He has also emerged as the editor of anthologies of South Pacific literature and has taught in New Zealand and Hawaii. Wendt, like other Pacific writers (Pio Manoa, Subramani, Konai Helu Thaman), was aware early on that the propagation of a Pacific Way oriented towards local traditions as an “ideology was suitable for establishing new power elites. In this context, nation-building was just as questionable a concept for him as preserving culture or national identity. "

Sia Figiel (* 1967) writes novels and poetry and paints. She became known through the novel Where we once belonged (1999; Eng. "Alofa") about a girl that grows up in the Samoan society, which is shaped by pop culture, and tries to adhere to traditions true. Her works take up traditional Samoan narrative forms and thus have a particularly intense effect in oral presentations. The author also deals with taboo topics and tries to educate people against the consequences of high sugar consumption, obesity and diabetes mellitus .

Sia Figiel, self-portrait

Also to be mentioned are: Sapa'u Ruperake Petaia (* 1951), who studied in the USA and at the USP and became a theorist of post-colonial literature; also Momoe Von Reiche , Tusiata Avia (* 1966), who also emerges as a performance artist, as well as the newspaper publisher and author Savea Sano Malifa, Makerita Va'ai and Emma Kruse Va'ai, who is chief under the name Letuimanu'asina and studied in New Zealand and Australia. The magazine Moana (Polynesian for: "Ocean") is dedicated to the maintenance of the Samoan language and literature.

American Samoa

Sia Figiel received the 1997 Commonwealth Writer Award for the best book in the Asia-Pacific region. Fofó Iosefa Fiti founded the first newspaper in American Samoa, was elected to the American Congress, and published books on the history of the territory. Tialuga Seloti is a teacher and writer. Vena Sele published her autobiography, Memoirs of a Samoan, Catholic and Fa'afafine , in 2007 , in which she described her life as a beauty queen, Fa'afafine (man who is socially treated as a woman and who voluntarily takes on this role) and MPs. Also worth mentioning are Eti Sa'aga with the volume of poetry Me, the laborer , the author and editor John Enright and Caroline Sinavaiana-Gabbard ( Alchemies of Distance , 2002), who works today at the University of Hawaii.

Cook Islands

One author from the Cook Islands is Marjorie Tuainekore Crocombe , wife of Ron Crocombe , who died in 2009 and a professor at the USP . Also to be mentioned are the poets and editors of the volume Tipani: poems of the Cook Islands (1991), Kauraka Kauraka (1951–1997) and Makiuti Tongia (* 1953), as well as Thomas Davis, who was also Prime Minister of his country from 1987 to 1998. Kauraka also wrote in Rarotongan , which is related to the Maori.

Niue

John Pule (2012)

John Puhiatau Pule (* 1962) comes from Niue , who left the island as a child, but kept in touch with Niue and returned from New Zealand in 2013. He is best known for novels such as The Shark That Ate the Sun: Ko E Mago Ne Kai E La (1992). His subjects range from Polynesian cosmology to criticism of colonialism. As a painter he had numerous international exhibitions, including in Europe.

Tonga

Authors from Tonga have been publishing short stories and poems since the 1970s . From Epeli Hau'ofa , a social scientist who originated the satirical collection Tales of the Tikongs (1973) on the corrupt island society and incompetent aid workers, destroying the working traditions and the satirical novel Kisses in the Nederend (1987). The geographer, cultural scholar and poet Konai Helu Thaman (* 1946) was born in Tonga, studied in New Zealand, the USA and Fiji and taught at the USP . She also worked for UNESCO. The bilingual magazine Faikava publishes papers in English and Tonga , a branch of Polynesian spoken by over 100,000 people.

Hawaii

David Malo, Bible translator and historian

The oldest, now extremely valuable, compilations of historical events, traditions and myths in the Hawaiian language come from native missionaries and historians of the early 19th century such as John Papa ʻĪʻī, Samuel Kamakau and David Malo (1793-1853), who at the suggestion of the US Missionaries Sheldon Dibble published the first Hawaiian history book in 1838. King Kalākaua (1836-1891) was a great promoter of Hawaiian culture and contributed to the preservation of oral traditions. After the annexation by the USA in 1898, the production of literature in the Hawaiian language came to a standstill. However, many American authors were interested in Hawaiian topics and published orally transmitted texts in English. Jack London processed episodes from Hawaiian history after the end of the monarchy and during the early days of the US annexation in his South Sea stories.

Since the 1990s, under the influence of Pacific literature, there has been a renaissance of Hawaiian awareness and the discovery of similarities with the South Pacific peoples. In her family sagas, Kiana Davenport covers Polynesian traditions, Hawaiian history and society from the 18th century to the present day. Also worth mentioning are Lois-Ann Yamanaka , Frances Kakugawa and the author of the well-known novel The descendents , Kaui Hart Hemmings . Some authors have Japanese roots.

Hawaii has its own magazine landscape, so there are extensive local publication opportunities for smaller texts. The University of Hawaii maintains the literature of the US state. The Read Aloud America Foundation, based in Honolulu, encourages reading, disseminating and dealing with literature from an early age, but also offers programs for adults.

Literature in Hindi in Fiji

Indian ( Hindustani ) is spoken in Fiji in the variants Hindi , Urdu and Fiji-Hindi, with the latter increasingly dominating. Stories from the Ramayana have survived in the form of folk tales.

Joginder Singh Kanwal followed his father to Fiji in 1958 and writes in English and Fiji-Hindi ( The New Migrant , 2006). Because of the coup in 1987, which was directed against the predominance of the Indians, various intellectuals of Indian origin, such as the poet Sudesh Mishra ( Rahu , 1987), left the country and emigrated mainly to Australia. The remaining authors often address the injustices and exploitation that they experienced for decades as cheap labor.

One of the most important authors who publishes in Fiji-Hindi and English is Subramani , who wrote Duaka Puraan (2001), the first novel in Fiji-Hindi. His new novel Fiji Maa: Mother of a Thousand (2019) addresses the loss of language and tradition through the adoption of the flexible and easy-to-learn English language, which can lead to stereotyped thinking. Subramani is today (2019) Vice Chancellor of the newly founded University of Fiji .

Francophone literature Oceania of the 20th century

Déwé Gorodey (2016)

The literature of New Caledonia is hardly developed yet, and that of Tahiti is comparatively weak.

New Caledonia

Jean Mariotti (1901–1976), the son of Corsican immigrants to New Caledonia, went to Paris at the age of 23, but his work remained influenced by the traditional legends of the Kanaks . The teacher Nicolas Kurtovitch (* 1955), son of Bosnian immigrants, amalgamated diverse cultural influences from the region, Europe and Asia in his poetry. He was the first president of the New Caledonian Writers' Association, and numerous guest stays have taken him abroad. The New Caledonian politician Déwé Gorodey (* 1949) campaigned for the cultural identity of the Kanaks. She wrote numerous novels, short stories, essays and a play.

Vanuatu

The first novel Vanuatus (a former Franco-British condominium ) was published in 2007 by the musician Marcel Melthérorong (* 1975 in New Caledonia) in French ( Tôghàn ). In it he addressed the uprooting of the Melanesian youth.

French Polynesia

Chantal Spitz (* 1954) from Papeete (Tahiti) wrote the first novel by an indigenous Polynesian author with L'Ile des rêves écrasés (1991; English Island of Shattered Dreams ), which tells the story of the broken dreams of several generations of the islanders. She was heavily attacked for her criticism of French colonial policy.

For Tahiti we should also mention: the Moorea- born poet, dramaturge and filmmaker Henri Hiro (1944–1990), who was also politically committed to the social and economic rights of the Polynesians, the author Michou Chaze (* 1950), who wrote in Tahitian Writes in French is the poet Hubert Brémond, author of the informal national anthem Porinetia , whose works range between nostalgic memory and protest against the French nuclear tests, and Célestine Hitiura Vaite (* 1966), who lives in Australia and writes in English ( Breadfruit , 2000 ).

literature

  • Hans Nevermann , The traditional literature of Oceania / Polynesia , in: Kindlers new literature lexicon , Munich 1996, vol. 20, pp. 758–763
  • Renate von Gizycki , Die Moderne Literatur Ozeaniens / Polynesiens , in: Kindlers new Literature Lexicon , Munich 1996, Vol. 20, pp. 764–768
  • Carl August Schmitz , revised and supplemented by Rose Schubert, The traditional literature of Melanesiens , in: Kindlers new Literature Lexicon , Munich 1996, Vol. 20, pp. 769-778
  • Hilde Link, The traditional literature of Micronesia , in: Kindlers new literature lexicon , Munich 1996, vol. 20, pp. 779–782
  • Subramani: South Pacific Literature. From myth to fabulation. Revised edition. IPS, USP, Suva 1992, ISBN 982-02-0080-6 . ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  • Nicholas J. Goetzfridt, Indigenous literature of Oceania , Westport CT, Greenwood Press 1995
  • Michelle Keown: Pacific Islands writing. The Postcolonial Literatures of Aotearoa / New Zealand and Oceania. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-927645-5 .
Anthologies
  • Albert Wendt (Ed.): Lali. A Pacific Anthology. Longman Paul, Auckland 1980, ISBN 0-582-71772-8
  • Albert Wendt (Ed.): Nuanua. Pacific writing in English since 1980. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu; Auckland University Press, Auckland 1995, ISBN 0-8248-1731-1 . ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  • Albert Wendt, Reina Whaitiri, Robert Sullivan (Eds.): Whetu Moana. Contemporary Polynesian Poems in English. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu 2003, ISBN 0-8248-2756-2 .
  • Hawaii:
  • Cheryl Harstad, James R. Harstad: Island Fire. An Anthology of Literature from Hawaii. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu 2002, ISBN 0-8248-2628-0 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ R. Schubert, 1996, p. 775
  2. ↑ Volker Heeschen: The Eipo in Papua. World views, ethnography and narratives. Institute for Social Anthropology at the LMU, Munich 2015.
  3. ↑ Hilde Link, The Olofat cycle in the narrative tradition of Micronesia , Munich 1986
  4. ^ Migrations, myth and magic from the Gilbert Islands. Early writings of Sir Arthur Grimble. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London / Boston 1972, ISBN 0-7100-7164-7 , p. 36 ff.
  5. ↑ Hilde Link, 1996, p. 779 ff.
  6. ^ Writer's Profile Jane Downing . Retrieved June 6, 2014.
  7. ↑ Literature on the Dirk HR Spennemann website . Retrieved June 6, 2014.
  8. ↑ Bwebwenatoon Etto: a collection of Marshallese legends and traditions , compiled and edited by Jane Downing, Dirk HR Spennemann & Margaret Bennett; with illustrations by Amram Enos and Paul Kingsbury, Republic of Marshall Islands Ministry of Internal Affairs, Historic Preservation Office, 1992
  9. ^ FWK Müller, Samoan texts. Collected and translated with the help of natives , Ed. C. Stübel, publications from the Royal Museum of Ethnology, Berlin 1896; again in English and Samoan ed. by AH Reed, Myths and Legends of Samoa: Tala O Le Vavau , 1976, ISBN 978-0589009687 .
  10. ^ H. Nevermann, 1996, pp. 758 ff.
  11. ↑ See e.g. BEEV Collocott: Tales and Poems of Tonga. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin no.46, Honolulu 1928.
  12. ^ Joel Bulu: The Autobiography of a Native Minister in the South Seas , ed. by George Stringer Rowe, 1871 (modern reprint).
  13. ^ Subramani: South Pacific Literature: From Myth to Fabulation. Revised edition, Suva 1992.
  14. ↑ von Gizycki, 1996, p. 764 ff.
  15. ↑ Eugene Benson, LW Conolly (ed.): Encyclopedia of Post-Colonial Literatures in English , Routledge 2004, p. 1509 f.
  16. ^ Don Kulick: Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self, and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinean Village. (= Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language 14). Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  17. ↑ Peter Mühlhäusler u. a .: Tok Pisin Texts: From the Beginning to the Present. John Benjamin, 2008.
  18. ^ Albert Maori Kiki: Ten Thousand Years in a Lifetime , 1968 (German: "I've been living for 10,000 years", Berlin 1969).
  19. ↑ Kovave. A Journal of New Guinea Literature. Jaracanda Press, Milton. Born 1.1969 / 70 to 5.1975.1 ( ZDB -ID 413688-3 ).
  20. ↑ Samples of his poetry can be found under [1]
  21. ↑ http://www.crocodileprize.org Website of the Crocodile Prize
  22. ↑ biography on www.solomonencyclopaedia.net
  23. ↑ Short biography on poetryfoundation.org, accessed March 31, 2020.
  24. ^ Albert Wendet (Ed.): Some Modern Poetry from Vanuatu. Mana Publications, 1983.
  25. ↑ U. a. in Sinnet: A Fiji Literary Quarterly (First Issue) (Vol. 1), January 1980
  26. ↑ http://www.arrow.org.my/?p=friends-of-arrow/vanessa-haben
  27. ^ Texts by Vanessa Griffen Online in New Zealand Electronic Text Collection (NZETC), accessed on June 6, 2014
  28. ↑ http://www.zoominfo.com/p/Jo-Nacola/32246194
  29. ↑ Ian Gaskell (Ed.): Beyon Ceremony: An Anthology of Drama From Fiji. Institute of Pacific Studies, 2001. ISBN 9820203139 .
  30. ↑ Mana ISSN  0379-5268 , ZDB -ID 896877-9 .
  31. ↑ Samisoni Nabilivalu: Praise for local writers. ( Memento of July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: The Fiji Times of November 17, 2011. Retrieved on June 12, 2014 (English).
  32. ↑ HC Maude, HE Maude (ed.): An anthology of Gilbertese oral tradition. From the Grimble papers and other collections. Translated by AF Grimble and Reid Cowell. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva 1994, ISBN 0-646-17265-4 .
  33. ↑ Vilsoni Iereniko, Rob Wilson (eds.), Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific , Rowman & Littlefield 1999, p. 219
  34. ^ Albert Wendt: Some modern poetry from Western Samoa. Mana Publications, 1974.
  35. ↑ Renat of Gizycki: Faikava - Meeting with the new literatures Oceania. In: GOEDOC publication server of the University of Göttingen 2015.
  36. ↑ Eti Sa'aga: Me, the laborer ... and other selected poems , Malua Printing Press 2009, ISBN 978-9829065100 .
  37. ↑ John Enright . In: Ancoral Literary Agency . Archived from the original on January 22, 2012 ; accessed on September 21, 2019 (English, original website no longer available).
  38. ↑ Marjorie Crocombe on the Cooks Islands Arts Community website.
  39. ^ Marjorie Crocombe in the National Library of Australia . Retrieved September 17, 2014.
  40. ↑ Major book launched in Cook Islands. In: News @ USP of February 19, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
  41. ↑ Pule, John Puhiatau , in: The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Literature , ed. v. Roger Robinson / Nelson Wattie, 1998.
  42. ↑ http://www.elsewhere.co.nz/culturalelsewhere/5649/john-pule-in-niue-2013-the-homecoming/
  43. ↑ http://anapesi.blogspot.de/2008/11/words-from-wise-dr-konai-helu-thaman.html
  44. ↑ Faikava. A Tongan literary journal. In: Nuku'Alofa , No. 1, 1978 ZDB -ID 443017-7 .
  45. ↑ Jack London: Tales of the Pacific. Penguin Classics, 1989.
  46. ↑ Read Aloud America website
  47. ↑ India honors author ( Memento of June 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) In: The Fiji Times of November 5, 2007 (on the occasion of the presentation of the Hindi Samman award ). Retrieved June 12, 2014.
  48. ↑ Short biography on alliancefr.vu, accessed March 31, 2020.
  49. ↑ Jean-Marc Tera'ituatini Pambrun, Henri Hiro: héros polynésien: biography , Mo'orea, Puna Honu 2010
  50. ^ Henri Hiro, le poète . Tahiti heritage , 2014, archived from the original on October 10, 2014 ; Retrieved on September 21, 2019 (French, original website no longer available).
  51. ↑ National anthem on www.youtube.com