Mapudungun
Mapudungun | ||
---|---|---|
Spoken in |
Chile , Argentina | |
speaker | about 260,000 | |
Linguistic classification |
|
|
Language codes | ||
ISO 639 -1 |
- |
|
ISO 639 -2 |
arn |
|
ISO 639-3 |
arn |
Mapudungun ( mapu "country" + sdugun "language") is an indigenous language spoken by the Mapuche in Chile and Argentina ; it is known in German to this day under the foreign name Araukanisch . The Mapudungun is one of the larger isolated languages .
The Mapuche ethnic group consists of 600,000 people, of whom around 260,000 speak Mapudungun at times, around 250,000 in Chile and 10,000 in Argentina. According to recent surveys, however, only around 85,000 Mapuche speak this language with their children, which is why Mapudungun is one of the endangered languages .
History, language studies, corpora
When the Spaniards advanced into what is now Chile , they met three groups of Araucans, one of which they quickly subjugated , the Pikumche (< piku "north" + ce "man"). By the middle of the 18th century, however, the southern Williche group (< wilhi "south") also lost its political independence and only the central Mapuche group (< mapu "country") was able to maintain its independence until 1881. Mapudungun is not officially the state language in any country.
The first grammar of Mapudungun (then called "Chilean") was published by the Jesuit Father Luis de Valdivia in 1606; Of course, the work of the Jesuits Andrés Febrés ( Arte de la Lengua General del Reyno de Chile , 1765, Lima) and Bernhard Havestadt ( Chilidúgú sive Res Chilenses , 1776, Westfalia) were more influential .
The language was first described on a broad basis by the linguist Rudolf Lenz and the Augsburg Capuchin Felix de Augusta (both around 1900); To this day (2015) Augusta's dictionary is the most extensive work of its kind. Almost at the same time, Moessbach published the first comprehensive indigenous report in the stories of Pascual Coña.
In the last third of the 20th century, the linguistic research of the Mapudungun experienced a new boom through numerous scientific articles, but also more extensive works by Adalberto Salas, Brian Harmelink, Ineke Smeets and Fernando Zúñiga. In 1997, a team of Wycliff Bible translators in collaboration with SIL International published the entire New Testament on Mapudungun for the first time .
Noteworthy representations from the perspective of the Mapuche are popular descriptions such as that of Segundo Llamin ( Federico ñi Nütram , Lelfüntripa pichike che tañi chumgen ) and systematic poems such as those by Elicura Chihuailaf or Beatriz Pichi Malen.
The Mapudungun occurs in several language variants , which are actually area names and all of which are understandable among each other; The main differences are in the voicing of the fricatives, the appearance of interdental sounds, and the details of verb conjugation. In central Chile ( Gulu Mapu ) and neighboring Argentina ( Puel Mapu ) these are the language forms
- Pikumche ( Pikumce , in the Malleco area around the city of Lebu as far as Angol , not to be confused with the historically mentioned "picunche")
- Pewenche ( Pewence , from the headwaters of the Bio-Bio river to Neuquén, Argentina )
- Lafkenche ( Ldafkendce , in the coastal area of Carahue , Puerto Saavedra , and south of it)
- Moluche ( Moluce , the predominant form of language, from Temuco and Panguipulli via the Argentine Limay River to Lake Nahuel Huapi )
In Patagonia , Argentina , people speak alongside the latter two
- Tendrils (in Chalileo, General Acha and the locality of Río Colorado ).
The dwindling Williche (also Wiriche , Veliche , Chedungun ), in the coastal region of Osorno (Chile) and in the region of Lake Nahuel Huapi (Argentina), is no longer mutually understandable with the dialects above and is in contrast to this is often seen as a separate language.
Linguistic impact
The word “ poncho ” may have been taken from Mapudung (from pontro , “blanket”) via Spanish into many other languages, including German. Interestingly, the Mapudungic name for the poncho garment is different, namely makunh .
Numerous animal and plant names for the native fauna and flora were adopted from the Mapudungun into Chilean Spanish and sometimes also internationally. The names of the following list are, if not expressly indicated, noted in both Augusta and Zúñiga:
- Mammals: Coypu (< koipu , beaver rat), Degu ( <sdewy , shrub rat), Huemul (< wemul , wymul , Andean deer), sp.huillín (< wilhinh , river otter ), sp.Nahuel (< nawel , jaguar ), Pudu ( < pysdu , dwarf deer).
- Birds: sp.choroy (< coroi , long-billed parakeet ), sp.fío-fío (< wiju , tyrant species elaenia albiceps), sp.loica (< ldoika , larch blackbird), sp.pidén (< pisdenh , ralle ), sp.tiuque ( < triuky , ciuky , chimango caracara ) sp.traro (< traru , Caracara ) sp.tagua (< trawatrawa , coot ) sp.treile (< treqyl , lapwing ) sp.huala (< wala , Lappentaucherart podiceps major).
- Trees and plants: Boldo (< foldo ), sp.chilco (< cilhko , scarlet fuchsia ), sp.coihue (< koiwe , southern beech ), Copihue (< kolkopiu , wax bell ), sp.digüeñe (< sdiwenh , hose fungus ), sp. lingue (< lige , laurel species persea lingue), sp.luma (< luma , myrtle species amomyrtus luma), sp.michay (< mycai barberry ), sp.nalca (< galdka , mammoth leaf ), sp.notro (< notru , notry , fire bush) sp.pehuén, (< Pewen , Araucaria ), sp.quila (< kylda , bamboo Chusquea quila), Quillaja (< kylhai ), Temu (< temu , Myrtenart ) sp.ulmo (< gulgu , ylgu Scheinulme ).
- Other: sp.loco (< loko , murex ), sp.piure (< piwyr , Piwy , tunicate tribe Pyura).
Geographical names from the Mapudungian settlement area have usually kept their original names, including:
- Lakes and rivers: Bio-Bio river (< wiju , " tyrant birds "), Llanquihuesee (< lhankywe , "sunken area"), Nahuel Huapi lake (< nawel wapi , "jaguar clearing"), Lanalhuesee (< ldan? Alhwe , "Deceased souls"), Lake Colico (< koly ko , "red water"), Lake Caburgua (< kafyrwe , "excavation"), Lake Calafquén (< ka ldafkend , "other sea"), Lake Panguipullisee (< pagi pylhi , " Pumagründe "), Riñihuesee (< rygiwe ," place of bamboo grasses "), Toltén river (< troltro ," thistle "), Rancosee (meaning unclear), Puyehuesee (< pujewe ," place of the galaxy fish "), Rupancosee (< rupan ko , "Flowing water"), Petrohue River (< pytrowe , "place of sandflies ").
- Mountains: Nahuelbutagebirge (< nawel fytra , "jaguar heights"), volcano Llaima (meaning unclear), volcano Calbuco ( kalhfy ko , "blue water").
- Places and districts: Temuco (< temu ko , " myrtle waters "), Vitacura (< fytra kura , "rocks"), Curicó , (< kury ko , "black waters"), Talca (< tralka , "thunder"), Talcahuano (< tralka wenu , "stormy sky"), Lebu (< ldeufy , "river"), Carahue (< karawe , "inhabited area"), Pitrufquén (> trufken , "ash"), Cutral-Có (< kytral ko , " Fire Waters ”), Plaza Huincul (> wigkul ,“ mountain ”) and many others.
In the field of phonology , the retroflex pronunciation of the group ⟨tr⟩ in Chilean Spanish is often attributed to the influence of the substrate on the part of the Mapundungun. However, this group is also implemented in numerous other languages and other variants of Spanish retroflex.
According to the system
Mapudungun is written in the Latin script; At the moment (2015) there is no standardized spelling and suggestions for the spelling that have been made so far are linguistically and politically controversial, for example Mapuzugun or Mapusdugun is suggested for the name of the language . In the following simplified phonetic scheme, the IPA phonetic signs and (in brackets) the letter groups used in this article for the various phonemes are given ; for the pronunciation, see the links between the individual characters:
Vowels and semi-vowels
not rounded at the front | unrounded | rounded at the back | |
---|---|---|---|
open vowels | e (e) | a (a) | o (o) |
upper vowels | i (i) | ɘ (y) | u (u) |
Syllable initial / final | j (j), / i̯ (i) | . (q), / ɰ (q) | w (w), / u̯ (u) |
The half-vowels j and w only occur at the beginning of the syllable, and the non- syllable approximants i̯ , ɰ , u̯ only at the end of the syllable. An omnipresent unstressed [ ə ] is predictable for most authors and is treated here in writing as ɘ.
Consonants
Lips | teeth | Alveolar, retroflex | palate | sail | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lateral sounds | l̟ (ld) | ɭ (l) | ʎ (lh) | ||
Nasal sounds | m (m) | n̟ (nd) | ɳ (n) | ɲ (nh) | ŋ (g) |
Fricatives | f (f) | θ (sd) | ʂ (s), ɻ (r) | ʃ (sh) | |
Plosives | p (p) | t̟ (td) | t (t), ʈ͡ʂ (tr) | t͡ʃ (c) | k (k) |
Plosives and affricates only appear at the beginning of the syllable. The voicing of the fricatives, which occurs in the Pikumche and Pewenche dialect, is not relevant. The combinations ʈ͡ʂ, ʈ͡ʃ are perceived as uniform sounds. Some sounds do not have the usual IPA characters, such as the lisped nose and side sounds l̟, n̟, t̟ (with the tip of the tongue between the incisors, also written l̪, n̪, t̪), which are rarely used in the languages of the world. An occasional additional sound [ ist ] is probably just a free variant for ʈ͡ʂ.
Syllables
Syllables have the form (possible) initial - core - (possible) final, as follows:
- the initial sound is - if present - one of the semi-vowels j, w, or any consonant;
- the nucleus is an arbitrary vowel as syllable carrier ; and
- the final is - if present - one of the semi-vowels i̯, ɰ, u̯ or a friction, nasal or lateral consonant.
The stress of a syllable within a word is not meaningful.
The vowels e, a, o are always kernels. In those cases in which one of the vowels i, ɘ, u after a syllable nucleus or consonant is not an end, but should begin a new syllable, the explicit spelling of ji, qy, wu does not do any violence to the language, since these initial sounds too then implemented implicitly if they are not written. In the rare cases where a new syllable should begin with e, a, o after a consonant , qe, qa, qo are written here with silent q. If there is no initial sound, the contrast is u / o neutralized , if there is no initial sound, the contrast u / wy.
Grammatical language peculiarities
Some of the linguistic properties of Mapudungi follow which, when viewed from German, may seem particularly foreign.
Agglutinating suffixes
Mapudungic is a language that agglutinates primarily on the basis of suffixes . Successive suffixes appear in large numbers in verbs and phrases with verbal nuances and rather sparsely in adverbs and adjectives; Nouns are immutable.
Example:
- / trari-pa-rke-la-ja-i ti manshun , or / trari-manshun-pa-rke-la-ja-i , "Supposedly he won't harness the ox here"
In the speech samples presented below, a finite main clause verb has between 2 and 5 suffixes (on average 3.08 suffixes), and a non-finite subordinate verb has between 1 and 4 suffixes (on average 2.13 suffixes).
Parts of sentences with suffixes
In some sentence forms suffixes cannot be assigned to individual roots but only to entire parts of sentences , such as the evil queen's mirror in English , which means [the evil queen] 's mirror .
Examples are:
- Asdkintu-we-gilhan-manshun-kijawi , "He was herding newly bought oxen", literally: "He was herding-new-buying oxen".
- Mylei nhi pyra-kawelh-yn , "I have to get on the horse", literally: "It needs my horse-riding".
- Kim-wigka-sdugu-ken , "I speak the foreign language", literally: "I speak the foreign language".
This polysynthetic , often incorporating trait of language sometimes leads to difficulties when it comes to determining the gaps in the spelling.
Marked future tense
In contrast to German, where a distinction is made between past and non-past verbs,
- he works e yesterday , instead: he now works , he works tomorrow ,
the Mapudungun distinguishes between non-future and future:
- wija (yesterday) kysdawi , facandty (today) kysdawi , but: wyle (tomorrow) kysdaw a i .
This way of distinguishing makes it possible to use the future tense as an urgent command form.
Binary number
In the case of pronouns and verbs, a plural ending always refers to three or more people, since separate endings are used to refer to two people:
- inhciu , "both of us" instead of inhcinh , "we (three or more)"
- kypaju , " Are you two!" instead of kypamyn , " Are you all coming !"
These dual forms are also used when the two caregivers do not form a natural unit.
Common verb phrases
The Mapudungun has a variety of non-finite verbal forms. Where German uses compounds, adjectives or subordinate clauses, a non-finite verb phrase is often used in Mapudung, for example:
- [Sdoi pura mari tripantu nielu] trokiuwyn , "I consider myself [someone over eighty years old]"
- Fei tyfaci [fentren nhi mogemum] kimjepafinh [nhi cumkefel kuifike ce jem] , "In this [long I lived] I got to know [what-did the deceased ancestors] know"
Verbal word order
The word order of subject and sentence objects is relatively free; However, it is not indicated by prepositions or declension, but with the help of verbal suffixes . So means:
- Ti sdomo [[musdai elu-fi] ti wentru] , literally: "The woman [[gave corn schnapps] to the man]."
- Ti sdomo [[musdai elu-ejeu] ti wentru] , literally: "The woman [[received corn schnapps] from the man]."
In order to imitate the above sentence positions in German, two different verbs ( give and receive ) must be used; the Mapudungun uses only one verb ( elu- ) with different suffixes. The square brackets above indicate which parts of the sentence in Mapudung form the core statement. With three sentence objects, the "accusative object" ( musdai or corn schnapps ) must be mentioned explicitly and is immediately before the verb, immediately after the verb, or sometimes even between the verb and its suffixes.
Evaluative suprafixes
Conceptual evaluations of the speaker have a systematic and productive morphemic expression via suprafixes . So the sympathetic sounds r, s, n, l are always neutral, interdental sympathetic sounds sd, nd, ld are either neutral or pejorative , depending on the word, palatal sounds sh, nh, lh are neutral or enhancing. Words with neutral sounds can be upgraded or devalued by replacing the neutral sound with the corresponding upgrading or degrading sound, as in:
- narki (neutral form "cat"), nasdki (about "scratchy dog"), nashki (about "Muschikatz")
- but: sdomo (neutral form "woman", NOT derogatory), shomo (like "treasure")
In the Pewenche dialect, however, such distinctions do not exist or no longer exist.
Speech sample (bride robbery)
The following language sample was taken from the most significant Mapudungic corpus to date, the stories of Pascual Coñas, a speaker of the Lafkenche dialect from the Budisee area around 1850. His descriptions, called "How the ancestors lived" ( Kuifike ce jem cumgeci nhi asdmogefel egyn ) were written down and published around 1926 by Ernst Wilhelm von Moessbach, a missionary of the Capuchin Order ; here is an excerpt from Chapter 13, Gapitun .
/ kuifi | kakeumekefui | nhi niewyn | pu mapuce: |
earlier | many-was | her-to-have | [Mz] Mapuche |
The Mapuche used to get married in many ways: |
/ kinheke meu | gilhan-entu-kefui | ylhca, |
some regarding | buy-get-th | Virgin |
Some | got a virgin by paying, |
kagen meu | lef-je-kefui, |
others regarding | flee-wore-en |
other | took them and fled, |
kagen meu | myntukefui | fytda gelu | sdomo, |
others regarding | violated | being with-husband | woman |
other | robbed married women in war, |
kagen meu | gapitukefui | nhi fytapyra egyn. |
others regarding | ritual robberies | their adolescents [Mz] |
other | got their girls in ritual robbery. |
/ feici | kure geken | newen meu | sdoi | mylekefui. |
this | To be a wife | Force re | more | was |
These robbery marriages | were the most common. |
/ feula | nytramjeafin | gapinh | sdygu. |
now | I will-speak-of | Predatory bride | Thing |
Hereinafter | I am describing | the ritual robbery of a bride. |
Speech sample (Our Father)
The following sample of speech is from a more recent date and more widely distributed speakers, from the translation of the New Testament , Gynecen nhi Kyme Sdugu . In this translation, there are minor dialect differences to the text by Pascual Coña; for example, sdygu becomes sdugu and fyca becomes fytra ; The frequency of the focus particles ta is also noticeable , but this is probably attributable to the genre of the text . Unfortunately, the spelling of the translation does not fully reflect the pronunciation, as interdental sounds are not marked and the Ldafkenche variant was inserted here based on Augusta's information.
/ tajinh | cau, | wenu | mapu | mylelu, |
our | father | sky | country | located, |
Our father | in the kingdom of heaven, |
jamniegepe | tami | yi. | |
to be feared | your | Surname. | |
be sanctified | your name. |
/ felepe | May | tami | logko | yldmen | gene. |
it-be | certainly | your | head | Nobleman | -be |
Become verily | you supreme ruler. |
/ elumuajinh | tajinh | sduamtuelci | kofke |
you-will-give-us | our | needed | loaf |
give us | our | needed | loaf |
kake | andty | alu. | |
everyone | Day | future-being | |
on everyone | coming day. |
/ winho-sduam-mamujinh | tajinh | femkeelci | wesdake | sdugu |
back-intention-take-us | our | made | bad | stuff |
Forgive us | our evil deeds, |
/ cumgeci | ta | inhcinh | winho-sduam-matukefiinh |
how | [ta] | we | take-back-intention-them |
just as we forgive |
tajinh | wesda | femkeeteu. | |
our | evil | Perpetrator | |
our evildoers. |
/ kintu- | -kasduam- | -geljinh, |
searched- | -other thoughts | -becoming-when-we |
When we are visited by strange thoughts |
elumukiljinh | tajinh | femael | wesdake | sdugu. | |
don't-give-us | our | Act | bad | Things | |
avoid | that we are doing evil. |
An opinion on the Mapudungun
The Jesuit and linguist Bernhard Havestadt wrote in 1777 (original in Latin):
“As the Andes towers over other mountains, so it towers [the Mapudungun] over other languages. Anyone who knows the Chilean language sees other languages as if from a watchtower far below. He clearly recognizes how much of them is superfluous, how much they lack, and so on, and he can rightly say to anyone who is not a Chilean: If your language is good, Chilean is superior to it "
Individual evidence
- ↑ M. Crevel: South America. In: Christopher Moseley (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages. Routledge, 2007, pp. 103-196. (see also Online Ethnologue )
- ↑ Fernando Zúñiga: Mapudunguwelaymi am? Acerca del estado actual de la lengua mapuche. In: Centro de Estudios Públicos. 105, Santiago de Chile 2007. cepchile.cl ( Memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF).
- ^ Summer Institute of Linguistics: Online Ethnologue , Mapudungun
- ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas de Chile: Censo 2002; Estadisticas Sociales de los Pueblos Indígenas en Chile. Social statistics of the indigenous peoples in Chile, 2002. ine.cl (PDF).
- ↑ Andrés Febres
- ↑ a b c d e f g Félix José de Augusta: Diccionario Araucano. (Dictionary Mapudungun-Spanish & Spanish-Mapudungun). 1916. (New edition: Cerro Manquehue, Santiago 1996, ISBN 956-7210-17-9 ) (download)
- ↑ a b c d e Pascual Coña: Kuifike che yem chumgechi ñi admogefel egn. (Mapudungun with Spanish translation by Wilhelm Moessbach, new edition 1974), Santiago: Pehuén, Santiago 1926, excerpt ( Memento from February 4, 2002 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ A b Adalberto Salas: El mapuche o araucano: Fonología, gramática y antología de cuentos. Centro de Estudios Públicos, Santiago, 1992, ISBN 956-7015-41-4 .
- ^ Brian Harmelink: Manual de aprendizaje del idioma mapuche: Aspectos morfológicos y sintácticos. Universidad de la Frontera, Temuco 1996, ISBN 956-236-077-6 .
- ↑ a b Ineke Smeets: A Grammar of Mapuche. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019558-3 .
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Fernando Zúñiga: Mapudungun: El habla mapuche. Centro de Estudios Públicos, Santiago 2006, ISBN 956-7015-40-6 . Phonemics (PDF), grammar (PDF), syntax (PDF).
- ^ A b Wycliff Bible Translators: Ngünechen ñi Küme Dungu. 1997. (New Testament on Mapudungun, 2nd edition. 2011) Sociedad Bíblica Chilena
- ↑ Segundo Llamin: Lelfüntripa pichike che tañi chumgen. (Mapudungun with Spanish translation by the author), Editorial Küme Dungu, Temuco 1990, documentary ( Memento from August 11, 2002 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Elicura Chihuailaf: De Sueños Azules y contrasueños. 1995. VI. Festival of Latin American Poetry in Vienna
- ↑ Beatriz Pichi Malen, website
- ↑ Robert Croese: Estudio del dialectológico Mapuches. In: Estudios Filológicos. Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, 15, 1986, pp. 7-38.
- ↑ "El Poncho". Grupo Folclórico Sol Argentino, website with information on the origin of the word; accessed on June 28, 2019
- ↑ Cf. M. Aleza Izquierdo: "Fonética y Fonología", in: M. Aleza Izquierdo, JM Enguita Utrilla (ed.): La lengua española en America: normas y usos actuales. Universitat de València 2010, p. 75 ff.
- ^ A b Brian Harmelink: La incorporación nominal en el mapudungun. In: Lenguas Modernas. 19, 1992, pp. 129-138.
- ↑ Bernhard Havestadt: Chilidugu sive Tractatus Linguae Chilensis , facsimile of the first edition 1777, Editionem novam immutatam curavit Dr. Julius Platzmann, BC Teubner, Leipzig, 1883.
Web links
- Mapudungun. In: Ethnologue , Languages of the World. 16th edition. 2009
- WALS, worldwide language comparison
- OLAC, collection of language resources
- Joel Maripil: children's song on Youtube
- Felix de Augusta: Dictionary Mapudungun-Spanish and Spanish Mapudungun
- M. Catrileo: Glossary Mapudungun-Spanish ( Memento of October 11, 1999 in the Internet Archive )