History of nursing

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nurses at the Hopital General in Montreal, Canada. 1894

The history of nursing describes the evolution of care for the sick from nursing in early societies to nursing today . The history of nursing is particularly linked to the history of medicine , but also to the social sciences and theology .

Nursing originally arose out of the need to care for sick and weaker members of one's family or community. From this a non-professional care developed, which in the sense of charity also looked after people in need outside of one's own circle of relatives. The further development to a medical assistant occupation and finally to a professional service occupation is a very recent phenomenon by historical standards. Specialized care professions emerged from the middle of the 20th century, e. B. for child nursing , curative education care , psychiatric care and care for the elderly (see alsoHealth profession ).

Nursing history and research

In contrast to the history of doctors, the history of nursing has no deeply anchored tradition or institutionalization within the professional profile and the self-image of nursing within the last centuries. In the course of the increasing professionalization and academization of the professional field of nursing in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, however, the need for one's own professional development and the change in role in social, political and societal contexts developed, especially towards the end of the 20th century as well as understanding the various further developments of the theoretical nursing background and nursing models in a historical context.

Since the history of nursing is only rudimentarily located within the history of medicine and European nursing science, research into the history of nursing was predominantly carried out by lay people , interested nurses and nursing researchers , most of whom did not have any historical training. In the world's leading Anglo-American nursing research, the scientific investigation of nursing history has been further developed and works closely with other departments. More recently, however, European medical history institutes have also started research projects in the field of nursing history, in which historians with a nursing education take part in order to advance the historical study of nursing. Findings from these examinations are part of the training of nurses in all areas in addition to the history of medicine and are taught in the context of professional studies.

History of Non-Professional Nursing

The practice of supporting people who need help because of their age, illness, injuries or social grievances is widespread in all societies and religions. Above all, children and the elderly were cared for, poor people supported and attempts to alleviate pain were given. Care is usually compensatory, for example, broken bones are splinted, pain-relieving positions are used, basic needs such as nutrition are satisfied by feeding, babies are swaddled and old people are supported with movement. This form of caring for and looking after others is not based on a specific vocational training or a nursing theoretical concept and is referred to as non-occupational.

Despite the development of the various care professions, many of these original tasks continue to be performed by the social environment of the person in need of care in modern times. This usually unpaid work, which is mostly done by women, is a central task of the family in most societies in the 21st century, which the various health systems cannot provide. The modern non-professional care is not taken into account after the development of professional care within the history of care.

Early days

Trephined skull from the Neolithic Age

Research in anthropology and paleopathology suggest that nursing was part of the social fabric even in early human groups. Various fossil finds from the Middle Paleolithic confirm the successful treatment of the consequences of accidents and physical damage, in which the patient would not have been able to survive without outside help. In addition to healed bone fractures, this also includes skull trepanations . It is unclear whether the medical treatments were carried out by special healers or shamans and who was responsible for the care.

Researchers assume that the care of the sick was the responsibility of the women, who took on tasks such as caring for the elderly and the injured, child care and caring for the tribal union as part of the early role allocation. The necessary help with childbirth makes the first appearance of the midwife profession likely in the Neolithic , when large societies and cities emerged - the prerequisite for the development of specialized professions.

Archaic civilizations

Old Orient

Panel with part of the Codex Ḫammurapi, exhibited in the Louvre in Paris

The oldest writings on medicine and curative treatments, but also legal regulations for the medical profession, are known from the ancient Orient , which were laid down in the Codex Hammurapi around 1750 BC . As with most of the older concepts of illness , people in the ancient East assumed that the disease was caused by demons and punishing gods, but these had no influence on the family's social obligation to care for the sick. Nothing is known about targeted care that is not provided by the family, but from a modern perspective some of the medical tasks are of a nursing nature. The occupation of midwife in obstetrics and the wet nurse who supports breastfeeding mothers is already known, legal and financial regulations for practicing the profession are also laid down in the Codex Ḫammurapi.

Egypt

In ancient Egypt there was a wide variety of medical knowledge, remedies, and prayers available to the doctor. One of the most comprehensive textual evidence of medical art in ancient Egypt can be found in the Ebers papyrus , which dates back to around 1550 BC. Is dated. The doctors specialize in different fields, the sick were in temples that Imhotep were dedicated, request assistance and treatment. In addition to doctors, high-ranking temple women and priestesses were employed in these facilities, and it is assumed that they worked hand in hand with the doctors and took over part of the nursing care of the patients. The predominant care was provided in the home environment of the sick by women or slaves , the necessary knowledge was probably passed on within the family and was based on the intuitive understanding of the needs of the cared for.

India

Buddha cares for a sick monk, mural in a Laotian monastery

In India around 300 BC. First standards for hygiene , ventilation and comfort in hospitals were laid down in writing. The care of the sick was the responsibility of specially trained men, who were known as Upasthatr . Around 250 BC The first nursing school was established in India , where the nurses learned basic nursing measures such as storage, cooking, personal hygiene and massage. Submission to the healer was expected, a later text, the Astangahrdayam , which was written around 550 AD, describes the qualities that a nurse should possess: he should turn to the sick, be loyal to the doctor, pure in body, mind and talk, be smart and work efficiently. These demands on caregivers hardly differ from those that were placed on carers in Europe well into the 19th century.

Judaism

The Torah and Talmud set various rules on hygiene and nutrition, such as examining slaughtered animals to prevent diseases caused by spoilage, or isolating people with contagious diseases to protect the population. Decisive commandments can be found in the Zedaka , which obliges both men and women to charity. These commandments also found their way into the works of mercy of Christianity, including nursing, and form the basis for Jewish social work in later centuries and the organization of poor relief in the ghettos . Visiting the sick " Bikur Cholim " (ביקור חולים) is one of the religious duties in Judaism. The origin of this duty is traced back in the Talmud to the fact that God himself visited Abraham on the third day after his circumcision.

Antiquity

Ancient Greece

A woman gives her baby to a wet nurse. Grave stele made of marble around 420 BC BC Athens

In ancient Greece , in addition to the spiritually oriented art of healing, developed towards the end of the 5th century BC. Rational medicine, for which the doctor Hippocrates of Kos was of particular importance. The care of the sick was the responsibility of the students who are in training to become doctors. In the Corpus Hippocraticum , a hierarchy became clear that assigned tasks to the nursing staff based on their level of training, whereby the transfer of nursing measures to laypeople was rejected and the learning doctors tasks such as feeding in food, giving medication, performing the therapies and one of the central ones Aspects of care assigned to patient observation. Among the advanced students, “nurses” were appointed, whose roles included both monitoring the patient and working with the doctor. The overseer was not understood as a servant, as in later epochs, his area of ​​responsibility lay in the assistance of the hierarchically one level higher, already trained doctor, whose profession naturally also included nursing activities. Apart from the assignment of tasks according to individual knowledge, there was no discernible separation between medicine and nursing.

Care was a purely male task, but it is assumed that women took over the basic care of the sick individual within the home environment according to the usual distribution of roles.

Roman Empire

While Roman medicine was mainly influenced by Greek doctors in pre-Christian times , nursing continued to develop especially within the Roman legion . The soldiers were instructed in the basic knowledge of first aid , while the additional care and care of the wounded and injured was carried out within medical units and hospitals , which were staffed with medically trained women who were familiar with necessary care measures. Aftercare for the wounded was provided in valetudinariums , which, like sanatoriums, were often located near thermal baths and in quiet areas. The focus here was on maintaining the combat strength of the Roman legions for the protection of Rome. Another group of the population who were cared for in the valetudinariums were slaves whose labor should be preserved. Access to this form of care was only possible in the case of a curable disease.

On the other hand, the care of the population in the cities themselves was not supported by the government, but there the emphasis was placed on conservation and prevention in the context of public health care. Achievements in civil engineering, such as the construction of aqueducts to supply the population with fresh water, public latrines and bathhouses made progressive hygienic standards possible for all population groups. Individual care was provided in private households by women and semi-skilled slaves, and the employment of wet nurses was widespread among the upper class.

Early Christianity

With the spread of Christianity , a new aspect of nursing trade appeared, which has shaped the care of those in need up to modern times: active neighborly love, in which love for God is equated with love for neighbor. Mt 25 : 31-46  EU became the central theme of European care, especially the word of Jesus: “Amen, I tell you: what you did for one of the least of my brothers, you did it to me”. This form of Christian-motivated devotion to one's neighbor, charity , initially spreads in the self-contained communities of the original Christians, where care is given to all those in need, poor and sick as well as widows, orphans and strangers. First reports, for example by Aristides of Athens about the care of the early Christians, date from the year 140 and prove the care of needy people within the early Christian communities.

The first hospitals were built in the Eastern Roman Empire , in Cappadocia . In relation to that of St. Basil's built hospital sources report on the use of male nurses. This system of hospices for strangers and the sick was introduced by Saint Fabiola , a Roman woman, who was close to the church father Hieronymus , around the 4th century AD in the Roman Empire . She collected the sick and poor from the streets and cared for them in the so-called nosokomeion . This unpaid work was done by voluntary helpers who did not have any nursing training.

With the increasing hierarchical structuring of the church in the course of the first centuries, the diaconate was created, the direction of which was incumbent on a council of elders subordinate to the respective bishop , the presbyters . The care of the poor and the care of the sick by the voluntary helpers was coordinated in this diaconate and thus represents the first organized form of care in Western Europe.

Islam

The first nurse in Islam is Koaiba Bint Saad Al Asla Miya, known as Rufaida Al-Aslamiya , who introduced the first standards for the care of wounded soldiers during the Battle of Badr in 624, for example the need to pass on medical and hygienic knowledge to nurses who Initiate emergency care or organize the care of the wounded in mobile hospitals. Long before the first European efforts to structure nursing, Al-Aslamiya founded a nursing school and developed the theoretical basis for practicing the profession.

During the “ heyday of Islam ” great medical advances were made, for example Avicenna's canon of medicine also influenced European medicine and its development for a long time. Hygienic standards were established and the care of the mentally ill in special facilities developed. The construction of the hospital began in Islam with the hospital built by Harun-al-Rashid in Baghdad in the year 805, which was especially available to the terminally ill and served as teaching and training facilities.

middle Ages

At the universities of Europe, medicine was included in the canon of subjects at an early stage, while nursing, shaped by the Christian ideal of charity, developed further in the monasteries in particular . Central problems of care and the non-medical art of healing in the Middle Ages were leprosy , which was widespread in Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries, and the plague, which was rampant in the major epidemics from the middle of the 14th century . Special hospitals were set up to care for leprosy and plague sufferers, in which religious and secular brotherhoods and hospital staff looked after the sick. Some hospital orders , such as the Johanniter, developed in the context of the crusades and became orders of knights , which also built up a network of hospitals and pilgrims' hostels . From hospital fraternities , third orders of the mendicant orders , beguines and begarians , who were dedicated to caring for the poor and the sick, the modern nursing orders gradually developed . It was not until the late Middle Ages and the early modern period that women's orders such as the Franciscan or Dominican Sisters increasingly turned to nursing, who were generally barred from this field of activity in the Middle Ages for social reasons.

16th Century

John of God, oil painting by Pedro de Raxis

In the 16th century, other active congregations emerged , which also worked in the care, in particular the Brothers of Mercy and the Camillians . St. John of God founded a hospital for "madmen" in Granada around 1540. He became the patron saint of hospitals, the sick and nurses. In 1574 the doctor Jakob Oetheus published a three-volume textbook in Dillingen: “Thorough report, teaching and instruction of the right and useful use of the Arzney, the healthy, the sick and nurses”, which is considered the first German treatise on nursing.

17th century

Infirmary Basel, photograph before 1895

In 1617 St. Vincent de Paul in Châtillon-sur-Chalaronne created the Filles de la Charité , which later became the Cooperative of the Cooperative of Daughters of Christian Love of Saint Vincent de Paul , also known as the Sisters of Mercy. With the emergence of these congregations came a decisive innovation in the historical development of nursing, which is regarded as a harbinger of the later organized and professionalized. The sisters received basic training in nursing, were obliged to carry out medical orders and later also placed under the medical management of the hospitals.

In 1679 the instructed Kranckenwartter appeared in Kiel , a textbook on nursing, written by the physician Georg Detharding . He mentioned the office of the nurse, named criteria for the selection of the same, and laid down principles of care. In his opinion, women should practice this profession. Detharding also called for the nurses to be strictly subordinate to medical orders. Another work written by Detharding deals with the examination of prospective midwives, then referred to as “wage attendants”.

The evolution of professional nursing

The need for professional care developed during the 18th and 19th centuries and was based on the advances in scientific medicine, which required more and more systematically trained assistants. From the hospitals, which were available to all those in need, pure hospitals developed that focused on medical care. Wars also created an increased need for nursing staff, which could no longer be covered by clerical staff alone. The importance of the initial manual training is increasingly emphasized.

New standards within and requirements for care were formulated in the 19th century by Florence Nightingale . Chronologically after the time of National Socialism, the first pioneering nursing theories emerged in the Anglo-American region, which contributed to an independent professional understanding and the development of academic nursing science and research. In German-speaking countries, nursing science courses were only introduced towards the end of the 20th century.

18th century

At the beginning of the 18th century, public nursing was often provided by people of the lower and uneducated classes, at the same time, due to ideological ideas, bourgeois women with a certain level of education were denied access to the nursing profession. The lack of professionally trained staff became increasingly evident.

In 1781, the first public German nursing school was founded in Mannheim by Franz Anton Mai, who tried to achieve at least a minimal level of training for nursing staff through three-month courses. Joseph II initiated reforms in Austria, and in 1784 the Vienna General Hospital was established . The basic idea was to separate the medically ill from those in need of care and to centralize them in one place. Only secular personnel were recruited for the care, a decisive innovation within organized care. Subsequent hospitals adopted this model, a slow process of suppression of purely Christian-motivated care in Europe began.

19th century

Florence Nightingale, around 1860

Pastor Theodor Fliedner founded an "educational institution for evangelical nurses" on October 13, 1836, which later became the Kaiserswerth deaconess institution , in order to improve the poor care of sick people due to the lack of qualified nursing staff. The deaconesses submitted to a spiritual way of life, while the professional training took place by doctors. The English nurse Florence Nightingale took part in the training there, but later criticized the facility. During the Crimean War , Nightingale recognized the need to professionalise nursing as well as an own self-image and meaningfulness in the context of professional practice. She published the Notes on Nursing in 1859 . This publication is considered to be the first of the nursing theories and the pioneering training model contained in Nightingale's system reformed nursing education .

Florence Nightingale also influenced Henry Dunant , the founder of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , who also set up ideologically and denominationally independent nursing schools. In Germany, Rudolf Virchow demanded professional training in 1869, outside the existing church institutions. He also advocates the establishment of nursing schools at every major hospital, in which mainly nursing content should be taught and no longer religious. Although he was considering an old-age security system on a cooperative basis, he also failed to recognize that women who are primarily educated must be paid enough to motivate them to enter the profession. So he assumed that a very low wage and service to others would be sufficient for them. In America, the International Council of Nurses was founded in 1899 , which saw itself as the mouthpiece of nurses and nursing associations worldwide and was supposed to promote the professional development and positioning of nursing.

20th century

1900-1930

From 1914 to 1918 poster for the recruitment of nursing staff and support of the Red Cross

The clearly deteriorating working conditions in Germany prompted Agnes Karll in 1903 to found the first German “professional organization for nurses in Germany and for baby and welfare nurses”, later renamed the “Agnes Karll Association”. Karll campaigned for the three-year training and implemented the uniform job title of nurse in Germany.

In 1908 the United States Navy Nurse Corps was established , which set new standards for the professional qualification of medical personnel in the armed forces . In the Anglo-American countries, the first higher education courses for nursing emerged from 1910, which as a rule are intended to guarantee both academic and nursing science as well as practical training for nursing staff. The first training courses for nurses and nannies were offered, and the first German examination for the profession of baby nurse took place in 1917.

The First World War caused a break in the professional development of nursing, as all efforts to standardize and collaborate were stopped; nursing in the individual countries was essentially focused on maintaining nursing care for the war wounded. The first courses on nursing research took place in the 1920s, for which the American Nurses Association , founded in 1924, was particularly committed. After the war, a number of associations for home nursing emerged in Austria, and in 1933 the “Association of Austrian Nurses” was founded.

In Switzerland, the doctor Anna Heer made a decisive contribution to the reform of nursing at the end of the 19th century. Together with the doctor Marie Heim-Vögtlin , she founded the "Swiss Nursing School with Women's Hospital" in Zurich in 1901.

1930-1945

NSV membership card

During the time of National Socialism , a paradigm shift in care took place in Germany, which placed the well-being of the people above the well-being of the individual. All secular and ecclesiastical professional organizations in Germany and later also in Austria became part of the “Reichsarbeitsgemeinschaft der Profufe im Sozial und Ärztlichen Dienst e. V. “under the patronage of the National Socialist People's Welfare . The "NS sisterhood", the so-called Brown Sisters and the "Reichsbund Deutscher Sisters", which were referred to as the Blue Sisters , emerged. Nurses have been involved in the murders of the sick and “ child euthanasia ”, mass extermination, and forced sterilization and abortion. With the beginning of the war, the care of war wounded took a large part within the worldwide occupational nursing.

1950-1980

In Germany and Austria, in the 1950s, partly with the help of the occupying powers, first attempts were made to reposition care after National Socialism and to catch up with international developments. With the nursing school at Heidelberg University , a nursing school was designed for the first time in Germany that was based on international standards. The three-year training developed there served as a model for the content specified in the Nursing Act. Nursing developed rapidly in the Anglo-American countries, with increasing professionalism and scientific debate on nursing. In 1952 Hildegard Peplau published the nursing theory of interpersonal relationships in nursing , which served as the first theory as the basis of a conceptual nursing model and was the first to describe nursing as a relationship process.

In the 1960s and 1970s, a number of other theories followed that will have a decisive influence on nursing into the 21st century. Among them are the 1966 care theory based on Henderson and the 1976 RLT model for the development of own care theories in German-speaking countries, for example for the activities of daily living (1983) by Liliane Juchli . In 1963, the first courses of study for medical education and graduate nursing were established in the GDR. The increasing need for trained nurses to care for those in need of long-term care in old people's and nursing homes led to the creation of the geriatric care profession by 1969 .

1980-2000

In Germany, after several unsuccessful attempts to establish a university degree in nursing in the 1970s, the first nursing science courses were offered in the early 1980s. The nursing emergency in Germany and Austria leads to an increased use of nursing staff in the course of the 1980s ; The quality of care declined due to the overload of the nursing staff, and various nursing scandals were the result. Despite the grievances, nursing tried to reposition itself and develop from an assistant job to a professionally independent health care profession. Various definitions of care emerge internationally, including the “Vienna Declaration on Nursing” from 1988.

In the course of the second half of the 20th century, a number of subject-specific advanced training professions developed , for example stoma therapist , hygiene specialist or specialist nurse in surgery . In 1999 the individual study of nursing science was introduced at the University of Vienna .

Museums on the history of nursing

In the Düsseldorf district of Kaiserswerth with its traditional deaconess institution, there is a nursing museum with an extensive collection on the history of deaconry and nursing in 15 rooms of the former Tabea nurses' hospital. The hospital museums in Bielefeld , Bremen, Munich and Nuremberg, as well as the numerous museums on psychiatry, also pay attention to this topic.

literature

  • Jean McKinlay Calder, Roy Spencer: The Story of Nursing . 5th edition. Taylor & Francis, 1971, ISBN 0-423-43040-8 (English).
  • Josef N. Neumann: Nursing. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. Walter de Gruyter, 2005, ISBN = 3-11-015714-4, pp. 790-796.
  • Deborah M. Judd, Kathleen Sitzman, Megan Davis: A History of American Nursing: Trends and Eras . Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2009, ISBN 0-7637-5951-1 (English).
  • Ann Marriner-Tomey : Nursing Theorists and Their Work . Recom, 1992, ISBN 3-315-00082-4 .
  • Kathleen Masters: Role development in professional nursing practice . Jones and Bartlett, 2005, ISBN 0-7637-2603-6 (English).
  • Irene Messner: History of Care . facultas, Vienna 2017, ISBN 978-3-7089-1490-9 .
  • Klaus R. Schroeter: The social field of care: An introduction to structures, interpretations and actions . Juventa, 2005, ISBN 3-7799-1625-8 .
  • Christoph Schweikardt: The development of nursing into a state-recognized activity in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The interaction of modernization efforts, medical dominance, denominational self-assertion and the guidelines of Prussian government policy . Martin Meidenbauer, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-89975-132-1 .
  • Eduard Seidler : History of the care of the sick person. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart a. a. 1966 u. ö. (= Kohlhammer study books: nursing , professional studies, 1).
  • Gertrud Stöcker: Education and care: a job and educational policy assessment . 2nd Edition. Schlütersche, 2002, ISBN 3-87706-690-9 .
  • Horst-Peter Wolff: Biographical lexicon for nursing history: “Who was WHO in Nursing History” . Ed .: Hubert Kolling. tape 1-4 . Elsevier, Urban & FischerVerlag, 2008, ISBN 3-437-26083-9 .
  • Horst-Peter Wolff, Jutta Wolff: History of nursing. Recom, Basel 1994, ISBN 3-315-00101-4 .
  • Horst-Peter Wolff, Jutta Wolff: Nursing: Introduction to the study of their history . Mabuse-verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-940529-01-5 .
  • Victor Robinson . White caps. The story of nursing . JB Lippincott, Philademphia & New York 1946 (digitized)

Web links

Commons : Nursing  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Beate Rennen-Allhoff: Handbook of nursing science . Juventa, 2000, ISBN 3-7799-0808-5 , pp. 31-33 .
  2. ↑ Werner E. Gerabek, Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil, Wolfgang Wegner: Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte . Walter de Gruyter, 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 790-791 .
  3. ^ Jean McKinlay Calder, Roy Spencer: The Story of Nursing . 5th edition. Taylor & Francis, 1971, ISBN 0-423-43040-8 , pp. 12 - 15 (English).
  4. ↑ Pat Holden, Jenny Littlewood: Anthropology and Nursing . Routledge, 1991, ISBN 0-415-04881-8 , The Doctor's Assistant: Nursing in ancient Indian Medical Texts, pp. 25 - 30 (English).
  5. ^ Janice Rider Ellis, Celia Love Hartley: Nursing in Today's World: Trends, Issues & Management . 8th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003, ISBN 0-7817-4108-4 , Exploring Nursing Origins, pp. 110 (English).
  6. ↑ Hilde Steppe : "... Consoling the sick and honoring Judaism ..." On the history of Jewish nursing in Germany until 1938 , Mabuse Frankfurt / M. 1st edition 1997, 2nd edition 2006, p. 81 ff.
  7. ↑ Christoph Schweikardt, Christian Schulze: Doctors' art and trust in God: Antiquity and medieval intersections of Christianity and medicine . In: Christian Schulze, Sibylle Ihm (Ed.): Spudasmata . tape 86 . Georg Olms Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-487-11603-0 , Facets of ancient nursing and its reception, p. 122-123 .
  8. ↑ Chad E. O'Lynn, Russell E. Tranbarger: Men in Nursing: History, Challenges, and Opportunities . Springer Publishing Company, 2006, ISBN 0-8261-0221-2 , History of Men in Nursing: A Review, pp. 9 (English).
  9. ↑ a b Lynn Basford, Oliver Slevin: Theory and Practice of Nursing . 2nd Edition. Nelson Thornes, 2003, ISBN 0-7487-5838-0 , Precedents, pp. 11-12 .
  10. ↑ Manfred Mürbe, Angelika Stadler: Vocational, Legal and Citizenship: Short textbook for nursing professions . 9th edition. Elsevier, Urban & FischerVerlag, 2006, ISBN 3-437-26283-1 , On Magic and Other Historical Backgrounds of the Nursing Profession, p. 36-37 .
  11. ↑ Gerhard Müller: Theologische Realenzyklopädie . Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3-11-016295-4 , Nursing - 1. Early Christianity and the old church, p. 659 .
  12. ↑ Aristides of Athens in a letter to Emperor Antoninus Pius from 140: “They love one another. The widows do not disregard them, the orphans free them from whoever abuses them. Those who have, give without envy to those who have not. If you see a stranger, you take him under your roof and are happy about him as a brother. ”Quoted in Günter Ruddat, Gerhard Karl Schäfer: Diakonisches Kompendium . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005, ISBN 3-525-62379-8 , 2.1 Diakonie - identification of the community, p. 37 .
  13. ↑ Barbara Feichtinger, Helmut Seng: The Christians and the body: aspects of physicality in the Christian literature of late antiquity . Walter de Gruyter, 2004, ISBN 3-598-77736-1 , p. 106-108 .
  14. ^ Lois White: Foundations of Nursing . 2nd Edition. Cengage Learning ,, 2004, ISBN 1-4018-2692-X , Nursing History, Education, and Organizations, pp. 43 (English).
  15. ^ Gerhard Münch, Fernande Assa-Schaeffer: Textbook for nursing . Walter de Gruyter, 1994, ISBN 3-11-013615-5 , 27.1.1.1 Early Christianity, p. 709-710 .
  16. ↑ R. Jan: Rufaida Al-Asalmiy, The first Muslim nurse. In: The Journal of Nursing Scholarship . tape 28 , no. 3 . Blackwell Publishing, 1996, pp. 267-268 .
  17. ↑ Andreas Speer, Lydia Wegener: Knowledge about limits. Arabic knowledge and the Latin Middle Ages. Walter de Gruyter, 2006, ISBN 3-11-018998-4 , p. 310-311 .
  18. ^ A b Klaus R. Schroeter: The social field of care: An introduction to structures, interpretations and actions . Juventa, 2005, ISBN 3-7799-1625-8 , 4. The differentiation of the care field, p. 43-44 .
  19. ^ Eduard Seidler : History of medicine and nursing . 6th edition. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1993, ISBN 3-17-012427-7 , pp. 132 ff .
  20. ↑ In the 19th century, nursing was referred to as "nursing". See for example JF Dieffenbach : Instructions for the maintenance of the sick. Berlin 1832.
  21. ↑ Horst-Peter Wolff: Biographical Lexicon for Nursing History: WHO was WHO in Nursing History . tape 1 . Elsevier, Urban & FischerVerlag, 1997, ISBN 3-86126-628-8 , pp. 38 , col. 2 .
  22. ^ Gertrud Stöcker: Education and care: an occupational and educational policy position determination . 2nd Edition. Schlütersche, 2002, ISBN 3-87706-690-9 , p. 16 .
  23. ↑ Schweikardt, Christoph: The development of nursing for a state-recognized activity in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Martin Meidenbauer, Munich 2008, p. 64-67 .
  24. ^ The Institution of Kaiserswerth on the Rhine
  25. ↑ Schweikardt, Christoph: The development of nursing for a state-recognized activity in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Martin Meidenbauer, Munich 2008, p. 68-76 .
  26. ↑ Schweikardt, Christoph: The development of nursing for a state-recognized activity in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Martin Meidenbauer, Munich 2008, p. 81-82 .
  27. ^ Conrad, Hilmar: The professional training of nursing, also outside the existing church organizations Speech by Rudolf Virchow on November 6th, 1869. A source analysis. (=  History of care . Issue 2-2017). hpsmedia, Nidda, S. 103-113 .
  28. ^ A b Geri LoBiondo-Wood, Judith Haber: Nursing research: methods, evaluation, application . 2nd Edition. Elsevier, Urban & FischerVerlag, 2005, ISBN 3-437-25936-9 , pp. 16-26 .
  29. ↑ The Agnes-Karll Association was later merged into the German Professional Association for Nursing Professions , see German Professional Association for Nursing Professions. Retrieved January 26, 2010 .
  30. ↑ JB von Zehmen: Our disease nurses - a word for communication and advertising. With a call from a sister to join the nursing profession. , Dietrich Gautzsch Verlag, Leipzig 1909, culture and progress; 258 = Vol. 13, 11 pp.
  31. ^ Doris Schaeffer, Martin Moers, Rolf Rosenbrock : Public Health and Care . Edition Sigma, 1994, ISBN 3-89404-134-X , p. 128 (English).
  32. ↑ Deborah M. Judd, Kathleen Sitzman, Megan Davis: A History of American Nursing: Trends and Eras . Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2009, ISBN 0-7637-5951-1 , Nursing in the United States from the 1920s to the early 1940s: Education rather than Training for Nurses, pp. 94-102 (English).
  33. ^ Gertrud Stöcker: Education and care: an occupational and educational policy position determination . 2nd Edition. Schlütersche, 2002, ISBN 3-87706-690-9 , p. 113 .
  34. ^ Vern L. Bullough, Bonnie Bullough: The Care of the Sick: The Emergence of Modern Nursing . Taylor & Francis, 1979, ISBN 0-85664-849-3 , pp. 218-219 (English).
  35. ↑ Alfred Cattani: A Milestone in Health Care. NZZ of March 30, 2001, https://www.nzz.ch/article7AS6L-1.481934
  36. ↑ Monika Stöhr, Nicole Trumpetter: Developing professional self-image and learning to cope with professional demands. Analysis and suggestions for teaching . Elsevier, Urban and Fischer, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-437-27620-4
  37. ↑ Martina Hasseler, Martha Meyer: Prevention and Health Promotion - New Tasks for Nursing: Basics and Examples . Schlütersche, 2006, ISBN 3-89993-161-0 , 1.2 The thought of prevention in community care until 1945, p. 15-16 .
  38. ↑ a b Care needs elites. Memorandum of the "Commission of the Robert Bosch Foundation for Higher Education for Teachers and Managers in Nursing" with systematic justification and materials. In: Robert Bosch Stiftung (Ed.): Contributions to health economics . 3. Edition. tape 28 . Gerlingen 1993, ISBN 3-89404-134-X , p. 128 .
  39. ^ Gertrud Stöcker: Education and care: an occupational and educational policy position determination . 2nd Edition. Schlütersche, 2002, ISBN 3-87706-690-9 , p. 95 .
  40. ↑ Including, for example, the Lainz scandal of 1989
  41. ↑ World Health Organization: Vienna Declaration on Nursing in the Framework of the European Strategy "Health for All" (1988)
  42. ↑ Eckart Roloff and Karin Henke-Wendt: Visit your doctor or pharmacist. A tour through Germany's museums for medicine and pharmacy. Volume 1 (Northern Germany) and Volume 2 (Southern Germany), S. Hirzel Verlag, Stuttgart 2015, ISBN 978-3-7776-2509-6