Republic of East Turkestan

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Flag of the Republic of East Turkestan
Map of the Republic of East Turkestan

The Republic of East Turkestan (also: Second Republic of East Turkestan , شەرقىي تۈركىستان جۇمھۇرىيىتىSherqiy Türkistan Jumhuriyiti, Chinese  東突厥斯坦 共和國 , Pinyin Dōng Tūjuésītǎn Gònghéguó , Russian : Vostochnaya Turkestanskaya Respublika; Engl .: Second East Turkestan Republic , East Turkestan Republic , ETR ) was a short-lived socialist people 's republic of the Turkic peoples in a small part of Xinjiang , which was supported by the Soviet Union . The republic existed from November 12, 1944 to October 20, 1949 . It began as an uprising in the three northern districts of Ili , Tarbaghatai and Altay of the Xinjiang Province in what was then the Republic of China and ended in the Ili Rebellion . The remainder of Xinjiang remained under the control of the Kuomintang . Today, the areas where the uprising took place belong to the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China .

Historical background

From 1934 Xinjiang was under the influence of the Soviet Union . The "warlord" Sheng Shicai was dependent on military support and trade with the Soviets. In 1934 and 1937 even Soviet troops came to the area to support Sheng. After the 36th Division of General Ma Chung-yin was repulsed in 1934 and the Soviet troops withdrew in 1935, the Soviets sent a commission to Xinjiang to work out a plan for rebuilding the province. The head of the commission was Stalin's brother-in-law, the director of the Soviet State Bank , Alexander Svanidze . The Soviet Union granted Sheng a loan of 5 million gold rubles . The treaty was signed by Sheng on May 16, 1935 without notice or approval from the central government of China. After the Soviet intervention in 1937 and the suppression of Tungan and Uyghur rebels in the south of Xinjiang and the liquidation of the 36th Tungan Division and the 6th Uyghur Division , the Soviet government withdrew only part of the troops. A regiment from the Ministry of Internal Affairs stayed in Kumul to fend off a possible offensive by the Imperial Japanese Army , which had already conquered Inner Mongolia . In exchange, mining rights for oil , tin and tungsten as well as trade agreements were concluded that were highly advantageous for the USSR.

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai drove 20,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai , Hui under General Ma Bufang massacred their Muslim Kazakh comrades. Only 135 survived.

On November 26, 1940, Sheng Shicai signed an agreement with the USSR that guaranteed the Soviets further concessions in Xinjiang for 50 years, including areas bordering India and Tibet . As a result, Xinjiang was almost completely placed under the political and economic control of the USSR. Sheng Shicai writes in his memoir, Red failure in Sinkiang , that Joseph Stalin forced him to sign the 1940 secret concession agreement. The "agreement" was drawn up by Stalin and contained 17 articles that would ultimately lead to Xinjiang suffering the same fate as Poland . Sheng Shicai had been informed of this intention by the Soviet envoys in Urumqi , Bakulin and Karpov.

The first article stated, "The Sinkiang government agrees to transfer the exclusive rights to prospect, investigate and exploit the tin mines and rare earths in the Sinkiang Territory to the USSR government." The USSR established a Sin-Tin - "Agency" (Trust) as an independent legal entity, bound only by the legislation of the USSR and given the right, in accordance with Article 4 of the Convention, to open branches, sub-branches and offices throughout the Sinkiang area without hindrance all necessary means, deliveries of equipment and materials and other imports from the USSR as well as exports of minerals from Sinkiang without customs regulations and taxes.

After the agreement was signed, the Soviets sent large-scale exploration expeditions to Xinjiang (1940, 1941) and discovered large deposits of various mineral resources, including uranium and beryllium , in the mountains near Kashgar and in the Altai region . Ores were exported to the USSR from Xinjiang and Altai mines until 1949. Soviet geologists worked in Xinjiang until 1955 when Khrushchev refused to supply Mao Zedong with the technologies the PRC wanted to use to manufacture nuclear weapons. A Chinese nuclear project was started in facilities the Soviets had built in Chuguchak and Altai in northern Xinjiang. These facilities had been built by the Soviet Union for the production of nuclear weapons technology and for the production of the first Soviet atomic bomb , which was successfully tested on August 29, 1949. Thousands of Japanese prisoners of war disappeared without a trace while working on the project.

After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, and the United States' entry into World War II in December 1941, the Soviet Union became a much less attractive partner for Sheng than the Kuomintang . In 1943, Sheng abandoned his allies in favor of the Kuomintang after the Soviets suffered significant defeats by the Germans. All Soviet Red Army units and technicians were expelled, and units of the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China under Ma Bufang were sent to Xinjiang to secure the province. Ma Bufang aided the Kuomintang by building roads connecting Qinghai and Xinjiang, which made it possible to bring Xinjiang under control. In August 1942, Sheng met Vladimir Dekanozov , the former Soviet ambassador to Germany and Vice Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Relations of the USSR, in Urumqi and demanded the withdrawal of all Soviet troops and functionaries from Xinjiang within three months, the removal of all Soviet equipment from the Area of ​​concessions as well as the closure of all oil fields in Tushangze (Jungaria) and the Soviet aircraft factory in Ürümqi. On August 29, 1942, the day after Dekanozov left Urumqi, Sheng met Madame Chiang Kai-Shek , the wife of the Chinese generalissimo. She flew to Urumqi with a letter. In this letter, Chiang Kai-shek Sheng asked for his forgiveness for all of his past business. Sheng was appointed head of the Kuomintang Party Department in Xinjiang in 1943 and opened the province to party officials. In order to strengthen ties with the Kuomintang, Sheng arrested a number of Chinese Communists on September 17, 1942, who had been dispatched by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in 1938, and had them executed in 1943. Mao Zemin , Mao Zedong's brother, was among those executed . In the summer of 1944, after defeating the Germans on the Eastern Front , Sheng tried again to regain control of Xinjiang and again turned to the Soviet Union. Now he had the functionaries of the Kuomintang arrested in Urumqi and sent a letter to Stalin with the offer "to incorporate Xinjiang into the USSR as their 18th Soviet republic". Sheng Shicai asked Stalin for the post of ruler of the future Soviet republic. However, Stalin refused to negotiate with Sheng and forwarded the confidential letter to Chiang Kai-shek . As a result, the Kuomintang removed control of the province from him in August 1944 and appointed him as a minor official to a post in the Chongqing Forestry Ministry .

In 1944, the Soviets took advantage of the discontent of the Turkic peoples in the Ili region in northern Xinjiang and supported a rebellion against the rule of the Kuomintang in order to increase their influence in the region again.

rebellion

Many of the Turkic peoples of the Ili region had close cultural, political and economic ties with Russia and then with the Soviet Union. Many of them had also been trained in the Soviet Union and there was a community of Russian settlers. Turkish rebels often fled to the Soviet Union and the Soviets also helped found the Sinkiang Turkic People's Liberation Committee (STPNLC) in 1943 and to rebel against the rule of the Kuomintang in the Ili Rebellion . The pro-Soviet Uyghur, who later became the leader of the revolt and the Second Republic of East Turkestan, Ehmetjan Qasimi , had been trained in the Soviet Union and was considered a “Stalin's man” and a “communist-minded progressive”. Qasimi Russified his name to "Kasimov" and became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) .

Liu Bin-Di was a Hui-Chinese Muslim. He was sent by the leaders of the KMT in Urumqi to subdue the Hui ancestral lands and to crush the Turkish-Muslim movement, which was already in turmoil. However, he failed because his troops were late. Several Turkish cavalry units armed by the Soviets invaded China in the direction of Gulja . In November 1944, Liu was killed by Uighur and Kazakh rebels. That was the beginning of the Ili Rebellion (Three Districts Revolution), in which Uighur Ili rebels fought against troops from the Republic of China.

After Sheng Shicai was removed from Xinjiang, the new Kuomintang administration had increasing problems maintaining law and order. On September 16, 1944, troops had been dispatched to the Gongha region , an area mainly populated by Kazakhs. However, the troops were unable to stop a group of rebels. On October 8, the rebels captured Nilka , the seat of the district administration. In October the three-district revolution flared up south of Gulja, in Ili, Altay and Tarbagatay in northern Xinjiang. With the support of the Soviet Union and exiles, the rebels quickly secured control of the three districts and captured Gulja in November. The ethnic Chinese population in the region has been decimated by ethnic cleansing. American reports reproduce the declaration with which the Islamic scholar Elihan Töre proclaimed a "Turkistan Islam Government":

“The Turkestan Islamic Government is set up: Praise be to Allah for his multiple blessings! Praised be allah! The help of Allah has given us the heroism to throw off the government of the oppressors, the Chinese. But even after we have set ourselves free, it can be gratifying in the eyes of our God if we just stand there and watch while our brothers and sisters in faith ... still the bloody suffering of oppression under the black politics of the oppressive government of the barbaric Chinese? Surely our God would not be satisfied. We will not lay down our arms until we have freed ourselves from the five bloody fingers of the power of our Chinese oppressor, or until the very roots of the Chinese oppressor government have dried up and from the face of the earth in East Turkestan, which we call our homeland received from our fathers and grandfathers have died. "

The rebels attacked Gulja on November 7, 1944 and quickly captured parts of the city, massacred the Kuomintang troops, but encountered fierce resistance from the units stationed in the electricity works and the central police station. These were not captured until November 13th. The declaration of the "Republic of East Turkestan" (شەرقىي تۈركىستان جۇمھۇرىيىتى) took place on November 15th. The Soviet Army supported the Ili-Uighur Army by conquering several cities and airfields. Non-communist Russians (“White Russians” and Russian settlers) who had lived in Xinjiang since the 19th century also supported the Soviet Army and the rebels. They suffered heavy losses. Many of the leaders of the Republic of East Turkestan were Soviet agents or otherwise had ties to the Soviet Union. They included Abdulkerim Abbas , Ishaq Beg , Saifuddin Azizi and the "white Russians" F. Leskin , A. Polinov , and Glimkin . When the rebels had problems conquering the strategically important Airambek airfield , the Soviet military intervened directly and bombed the Chinese positions.

The rebels did not shy away from massacres of Han Chinese civilians either, specifically targeting people associated with the KMT and Sheng Shicai. In the "Gulja Declaration" of January 5, 1945, those responsible for the newly founded republic threatened the Han Chinese. The declaration also announced that the republic would seek cordial relations with the Soviets. The anti-Han tirades of official declarations later weakened, but this did not happen until after most of the Han Chinese civilians in the area were massacred. These massacres took place mainly in the period 1944–45 and the Kuomintang responded to the crimes with equally cruel punitive actions. In the ETR area, repressive methods were also used against the Han Chinese. In addition, a Soviet-style secret police was introduced. And while the non-Muslim Tungus peoples like the Xibe largely supported the rebels, they received little support from the Muslim Tungan (Hui) in Ili.

The rebels' demands included the end of Chinese rule, equality for all nationalities, recognition of native languages, friendly relations with the Soviet Union and a halt to Chinese immigration to Xinjiang. The Ili National Army was reorganized . In September 1945 the Kuomintang troops and the INA occupied positions on the opposite banks of the Manasi River near Urumqi. At that time, the ETR held the Zungaria and Kashgaria areas , while the Kuomintang controlled the Urumqi (Tihuwa) area.

The " Ili National Army" (INA, later renamed "East Turkestan National Army") was founded on April 8, 1945 as the military arm of the ETR. It was led by the Kyrgyz Ishaq Beg and the white Russians Polinov and Leskin . All three were pro-Soviet and had a history of their own in military functions in the Soviet military. The Soviets provided the INA with Russian-style ammunition and uniforms, and Soviet units also supported the INA directly in battles against the Chinese army.

A ceasefire was declared in 1946, with the ETR in control of the Ili area and the Chinese in control of the rest of Xinjiang, including Urumqi.

Negotiations and coalition government in Ürümqi

In August 1945, China signed a treaty of friendship and an alliance with the Soviet Union in which a number of concessions were made that the United States had previously made at the Yalta Conference . This ended the open support of the Soviets for the Republic of East Turkestan. The Kuomintang reached an agreement with the ETR leaders in July 1946. In the end, little changed. The ETR remained a de facto separate, pro-Soviet state with its own currency and military. Political activities of the republic were limited to the Union for the Defense of Peace and Democracy , a party based on the Leninist one-party model. Official representatives of the Kuomintang were not allowed to enter the three districts and in return the Kuomintang actively supported opposition members. Elihan Töre already belonged to this group at that time. He disappeared on a visit to the Soviet Union. Another leader was the Kazakh Osman Batur , who turned away from the rebels when their pro-Soviet orientation became apparent. The Kuomintang appointed several influential Uyghurs as advisers to the Xinjiang administration and Ehmetjan Qasimi, the leader of the ETR, as vice chairman of the province.

Bai Chongxi , a Muslim and the Minister of Defense of China, has been proposed as governor of Xinjiang. Ultimately, the post was given to Masud Sabri , a Kuomintang supporter and Uyghur who was downright anti-Soviet.

At the end of the Chinese Civil War in September 1949, when the Kuomintang Army and the provincial government of Xinjiang defected to the Chinese Communist Party (CPC), the Three Districts also sided with the CCP and accepted the leadership of the party. That ended the revolution. The three district leaders joined the CCP and the army was transferred to the Fifth Army of the People's Liberation Army and converted into the Xinjiang Manufacturing and Construction Corps in the 1950s .

opponent

Uighur opponents

The KMT CC clique took countermeasures in Xinjiang to prevent the conservative, traditionalist, religious Uyghurs in the oases in southern Xinjiang from defiling to the pro-Soviet, pro-Russian ETR Uyghurs in Ili in northern Xinjiang. The KMT allowed the three anti-Soviet, pan-Turkish nationalist Uyghurs, Masud Sabri , Muhammad Amin Bughra and İsa Yusuf Alptekin, to write and spread pan-Turkish nationalist propaganda to turn the Turk peoples against the Soviets and who became Soviets seriously annoyed by it. American telegrams then reported that Uighur mobs in the oases demanded that the "White Russians" be expelled from Xinjiang after the Han Chinese had already been expelled. They carried the slogan: "We have freed ourselves from the yellow men, now we must destroy the whites."

Many Yining Muslim leaders planned to go to Tihwa (Ürümqi) or to escape Soviet pressure in Inner China. They lived in fear of attacks by the Soviet Army.

Ehmetjan Qasimi demanded that Masud Sabri be removed from his position as governor and that all prisoners be released from Kuomintang prisons.

The Uighur linguist Ibrahim Muti'i opposed the Republic of East Turkestan and the Ili Rebellion because they were controlled by the Soviets and Stalin. Former ETR leader Saifuddin Azizi later apologized to Ibrahim and admitted that his opposition was the right decision.

Kazakh defectors

Osman Batur, the leader of the Kazakhs, defected to the Kuomintang and began in the course of the Beitashan incident (Baitag bogdin tulgaral, Байтаг богдын тулгарал; 北 塔山 事件; Běitǎshān shìjiàn; Pei-ta-shan shih-chien and against the Soviet Union) Fight Mongol Army.

The Beitashan Incident

The Beitashan incident was a border dispute between the Republic of China and the Mongolian People's Republic . The Tungan 14th Cavalry Regiment, which fought for the Kuomintang, was dispatched to attack the Soviet and Mongol armies at Beitashan on the border between Xinjiang and Mongolia.

There was a police station already before 1945, which was manned by a Chinese police unit.

First, Chinese Muslims and Kazakh troop units fighting for the Kuomintang attacked Soviet Russian and Mongolian troops. In June 1947, the Mongols and the Soviets launched an attack on the Kazakhs and pushed them back beyond the Chinese border. The fighting lasted for about a year. Thirteen battles occurred between June 5, 1947 and July 1948.

The Mongols invaded Xinjiang to assist Li Rihan , the pro-Russian Special Commissioner, and to take control of Xinjiang from Special Commissioner Us Man (Osman Batur), who supported the Republic of China. The Chinese Defense Ministry announced that Outer Mongolia soldiers had been captured near Beitashan and announced that military units were still resisting at Beitashan.

Elite Hui cavalry from Qinghai was then dispatched by the Kuomintang to defeat the Mongols and Russians in 1947.

The Chinese troops retook Beitashan and continued the fight against Soviet and Mongolian aircraft under the Chinese general Ma Xizhen and the Kazakhs Osman Batur. China's Legislative Yuan called for stricter policies on Russia. These struggles continued through June 1947.

Osman Batur continued fighting against the Uyghur forces of the Yili regime in northern Ashan after he was defeated by the Soviets.

Capture of the three districts by the People's Republic of China

Ehmetjan Qasimi, President of the Republic of East Turkestan 1948, Gulja.

In July 1949, the People's Liberation Army crossed the Yangtze , cutting off the Kuomintang administration's access to southern Xinjiang. In late 1949, some Kuomintang officials fled to Afghanistan , India and Pakistan , but most surrendered to the Communist Party. On August 17, 1949, the CCP sent Deng Liqun to negotiate with the ETR leaders in Gulja, Yining. Mao Zedong invited ETR leaders to participate in this year's political consultative conference. The leaders of the ETR traveled in vehicles through Horgos to the Soviet Union on August 22nd , accompanied by the Soviet Vice-Consul in Gulja, Vasiliy Borisov, where they were instructed to cooperate with the CCP. Negotiations between ETR and Soviet representatives in Alma-Ata lasted 3 days and turned out to be difficult because Ehmetjan Qasimi refused to integrate the three districts into the future Chinese state. In this decision he was an opponent of Abdulkerim Abbas and Luo Zhi . There was already a date in 1951 (the People's Republic of China had been proclaimed two years earlier, on October 1, 1949).

Qasimi wanted to use the historic opportunity for Uighurs and the other peoples of Xinjiang to acquire freedom and independence. As a result, shortly before leaving for Beijing, the ETR delegation was made an offer to continue negotiations in Moscow directly with Stalin. On August 24, Ehmetjan Qasimi, Abdulkerim Abbas, Ishaq Beg , Luo Zhi, Dalelkhan Sugirbayev and other ETR officers, a total of 11 delegation members , boarded a plane in Alma-Ata, officially to fly to Beijing. However, the flight was diverted to Moscow. On September 3, the Soviet Union informed the Chinese government that the plane crashed near Lake Baikal on the flight to Beijing, killing all occupants. On the same day, Molotov sent a telegram in Gulja to Saifuddin Azizi (education minister of the ETR and member of the CPSU), in which he spoke about the “tragic death of the devoted revolutionaries, including Ehmetjan Qasimi, in a plane crash near Lake Baikal on the way to Beijing ”. In accordance with instructions from Moscow, Saifuddin Azizi kept this news secret until early December 1949, when the bodies of the ETR leaders were removed from the USSR and when the Chinese People's Liberation Army of China had already taken control of most of the areas of Xinjiang.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, former KGB generals and senior officers (including Pavel Anatoljewitsch Sudoplatov ) announced that five high-ranking ETR leaders had been executed on Stalin's orders on August 27, 1949 in Moscow after three days of incarceration in the former stables of the tsar after they were arrested and interrogated on arrival by Colonel General Viktor Semyonovich Abakumov of the Ministry of State Security (MGB) and then sentenced to death. Rumor has it that this was done by agreement between Stalin and Mao Zedong, but these allegations have never been proven. The remaining leaders of the ETR, including Saifuddin Azizi (who led the ETR's Second Delegation to the Consultative Conference in Beijing in September 1949), approved the incorporation of the Three Districts into the Xinjiang Autonomous Region and assumed high administrative posts. However, some Kazakhs under Osman Batur continued their resistance until 1954.

Saifuddin became the first chairman of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, which was created in 1955 to replace Xinjiang Province. The first units of the People's Liberation Army arrived at Ürümqi Airport in Soviet planes on October 20, 1949 and took control of the north of Xinjiang, then moved to the south of Xinjiang together with troops of the Ili National Army and thus gained control of everyone 10 districts of Xinjiang. Earlier, on September 26, 1949, 100,000 members of the Kuomintang National Revolutionary Army had switched sides and converted to the CCP along with the provincial government chairman Burhan Shahidi . Shahidi was one of the few who knew about the incidents in the USSR . On December 20, 1949, the Ili National Army was admitted to the People's Liberation Army as the 5th Army Corps and the final political shaping of the province took place in 1955 when it was declared an autonomous region for 13 nationalities.

National army

The National Army of the Republic of East Turkestan was founded on April 8, 1945 and consisted of six regiments: Suidun Infantry Regiment , Gulja Regiment , Kensai Regiment , Gulja Reserve Regiment , Kazakh Cavalry Regiment , Dungan Regiment , Sibo Battaillion , Mongolian Battallion

When Kazakh irregular units under Osman Batur defected to the Kuomintang in 1947, the Kazakh cavalry regiment also followed the leader. The motorized part of the army consisted of an artillery division, with twelve cannons, two armored vehicles and two tanks. The Air Force had two aircraft that were captured in January 1945 on the Kuomintang airfield in Gulja, albeit damaged. Some of the planes were repaired by Soviet technicians. These planes took part in the battles between the rebels and the Kuomintang over Shihezi and in Jinghe in September 1945.

In this battle both the Kuomintang military bases and the oil fields in Dushanzi were captured. Another Kuomintang plane was captured and some divisions advanced to the Manasi River to the north of Urumqi. An offensive on the capital of Xinjiang was called off due to pressure from Moscow on the leadership of the rebels, who thereupon declared their consent to peace negotiations with the Kuomintang. Moscow ordered the National Army to stop firing at all borders. The first peace talks between the rebels and the Kuomintang followed Chiang Kai Shek's address on Chinese State Radio in which he offered "to peacefully resolve the Xinjiang crisis". The peace talks were moderated by the Soviet Union and began on October 14, 1945 in Urumqi.

The national army had between 25,000 and 30,000 soldiers. In accordance with the peace accords signed with Chiang Kai-Shek on June 6, 1946, the strength was reduced from 11-12,000 men and limited to military bases that were only in the three districts (Ili, Tarbaghatai and Altai). The units of the national army from the south of Xinjiang were withdrawn in the same way, whereby the strategically important old town of Aksu and the road from Urumqi to Kashgar became free. This gave the Kuomintang the opportunity to send 70,000 men between 1946 and 1947 and suppress the rebellion in the Pamirs .

This rebellion began on August 19, 1945, erupted in the Sariqol area in the Taghdumbash Pamirs . Rebels under the leadership of the Uyghur Sadiq Khan Khoja from Kargilik and the Sariqoli- Tajik Karavan Shah conquered all border posts to Afghanistan, the Soviet Union and India (Su-Bashi, Daftar, Mintaka Qarawul, Bulunqul), as well as a Tashkurgan fortress. The rebels took the Kuomintang forces by surprise as they celebrated the surrender of the Japanese army in Manchuria . Few Kuomintang soldiers in Sariqol survived and fled to India. The origin of the rebellion lay in the mountain village of Tagarma , near the Soviet border. On September 15, 1945, the Tashkurgan rebels captured Igiz-Yar on the Yangihissar road, while another group captured Oitagh , Bostan-Terek and Tashmalik on the Kashgar road at the same time .

At the end of 1945 the Tashkurgan rebels launched an offensive against Kashgar and Yarkand. On January 2, 1946, when the provisional peace agreement between the Ili rebels and the Kuomintang representatives was still being signed, the other rebels captured Guma , Kargilik and Poskam , important cities that controlled communications between Xinjiang, Tibet and India. On January 11, 1946, the Kuomintang Army counterattacked the Yarkand area with support from the Aksu region. The attackers drove the Tashkurgan rebels from the area around Yarkand, retook Poskam, Kargilik and Guma and brought the Tashkurgan region back under Chinese control.

Only a few hundred of the approximately 7,000 rebels survived. The survivors withdrew to the mountainous region in Qosrap (now a village in Akto County ). The National Army remained inactive until 1949 when the People's Liberation Army invaded Xinjiang.

Deng Li-Chun, a special envoy from Mao Zedong, reached Gulja on August 17, 1949 and began negotiations with the ETR leadership. Deng sent a secret telegram to Mao via the ETR army the following day, in which he put the troop strength at approx. 14,000 men, described that they had mainly German weapons, including heavy artillery, 120 military vehicles and artillery tractors, as well as around 6,000 cavalry horses. The Soviet military personnel were integrated in the army and operated the fourteen planes that were used as bombers. On December 20, 1949, the National Army was incorporated into the People's Liberation Army as the 5th Army Corps for Xinjiang.

Press

East Turkestan had the newspaper Azat Sherkiy Turkistan ("Free East Turkestan"), which appeared for the first time on November 17, 1944, five days after the proclamation of the republic. The newspaper was later renamed Inqlawiy Sherkiy Turkistan ("Revolutionary East Turkestan").

People and events in the environment

According to Rebiya Kadeer's autobiography , her father was one of the pro-Soviet Uighur rebels in the Ili Rebellion (1944-1946) and relied on Soviet help to fight against the Chiang Kai-shek government of the Republic of China . Kadeer and her family were close friends with White Russian exiles in Xinjiang, and Kadeer recalls that many Uyghurs perceived Russian culture as more advanced and respected Russians.

In the Xinjiang conflict in the 1960s, the Soviet Union again supported Uyghur separatists against China. The Soviet Union instigated separatist activities in Xinjiang through propaganda and encouraged Kazakhs to flee to the Soviet Union and attack China. China responded by fortifying the Xinjiang-Soviet border with Han Bingtuan militias and farmers. The Soviets intensified their news broadcasts, in which they conjured up Uighur revolts against China on Radio Tashkent since 1967 and directly encouraged and promoted. In 1966 the Soviet-instigated separatist attacks on China amounted to 5,000. The Soviets broadcast a radio broadcast from Radio Tashkent to Xinjiang on May 14, 1967, boasting that the Soviets had already supported the Second Republic of East Turkestan against China. In addition to Radio Tashkent, other Soviet propaganda organs were busy spreading propaganda among Uighurs evoking independence and revolt against China. Radio Alma-Ata and the newspaper Sherki Türkistan Evazi ("The Voice of East Turkestan") published in Alma-Ata included . After the Sino-Soviet rift in 1962, around 60,000 Uyghurs and Kazakhs fled to the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in hopes of Soviet propaganda that promised independence for Xinjiang. Uyghur exiles later threatened China with the deployment of a Uyghur "liberation army" made up of thousands who were supposedly recruited from the Sovietized emigrants.

The Soviet Union was also responsible for funding and supporting the East Turkestan People's Revolutionary Party (ETPRP), the largest militant Uighur separatist organization of its time, which led a violent uprising against China in 1968. Then in the 1970s the Soviets supported the United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET).

In 1969, Chinese and Soviet troops fought directly against each other on the Xinjiang-Soviet border.

Soviet Turkologists such as Dmitriĭ Ivanovich Tikhonov wrote propaganda works on Uyghur history, and Soviet-backed Uyghur historian Tursun Rakhimov wrote historical works openly promoting Uyghur independence and attacking the Chinese government, claiming that Xinjiang is one China's construct is that different parts of East Turkestan and Zungaria have been put together. These Soviet Uyghur historians waged an "ideological war" against China and highlighted the "national liberation movement" of the Uighurs in history. The Soviet Communist Party supported the publication of works extolling the Second Republic of East Turkestan and the Ili rebellion against China in an anti-Chinese propaganda war. Soviet propaganda writers wrote that only in a Soviet Central Asia could the Uyghurs achieve a better life and real exercise of their own culture. In 1979 the Soviet KGB agent Victor Louis wrote a doctoral thesis in which he demanded that the Soviets wage a “war of liberation” against “imperialist” China in support of Uyghurs, Tibetans, Mongols and Manchu. And of course the KGB also directly supported Uighur separatists against China.

The Uyghur nationalist historian Turghun Almas and his book Uyghurlar (The Uyghurs) and other nationalist works were hailed by the Soviets as "firmly established" in Turkology and were both influential and foundational for many other works. Soviet historiography also spread Uighur history based on the work "Uyghurlar". Almas claimed that Central Asia was the "motherland of the Uighurs" and also the "ancient golden cradle of world culture".

Xinjiang's importance for China increased after the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 and China increasingly felt itself encircled by the Soviets. In return, the Chinese supported the Afghan mujahedeen during the Soviet invasion and broadcast reports in Uyghur about Soviet atrocities against Afghan Muslims in response to Soviet propaganda broadcasts in Xinjiang. The Soviets then feared for the loyalty of the non-Russian Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Kyrgyz people in the event that the Chinese could attack the Soviet Union. And when there was a conflict, the Russians were threatened with the threat "Just wait until the Chinese come, they will show you what is what!" The Chinese government saw a settlement with Han Chinese in Xinjiang as vital to defend the area against the Soviet Union and ran training camps for Afghan mujahedeen near Kashgar and Hotan and supported them with weapons, rockets, mines and anti-tank weapons worth several hundred million . Dollars.

See also

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ^ The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol. 277, American Academy of Political and Social Science 1951: 152.
  2. ^ Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , Vol. 276-278, American Academy of Political and Social Science 1951: 152.
  3. ↑ Red failure in Sinkiang. University of Michigan , 1958.
  4. ^ "The Government of Sinkiang agrees to extend to the Government of the USSR within the territory of Sinkiang exclusive rights to prospect for, investigate and exploit tin mines and its ancillary minerals."
  5. ↑ “to establish without hindrance branch offices, sub-branch offices and agencies within the whole territory of Sinkiang with all supplies of needs of concessions, deliveries of equipment and materials and other imports from USSR and exports of minerals from Sinkiang free of custom duties and other imposts and taxes and payment of fixed price of five percent of the cost of mined minerals to the Xinjiang Government. "- Agreement of Concessions, Article 7.
  6. ↑ Lin 2007: 130. ( Memento of the original from September 23, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.silkroadstudies.org
  7. ↑ Lin 2002.
  8. ↑ "incorporate Xinjiang into USSR as its 18th Soviet Socialistic Republic." In addition to the already existing 15 Soviet republics of the Soviet Union, Sheng Shicai also counted Mongolia as the 16th Soviet republic and Tuva , whose incorporation into the USSR was already in progress, as the 17th Soviet republic.
  9. ^ Forbes 1986: 172-173.
  10. ↑ "communist-minded progressive" Forbes 1986: 174
  11. ^ Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 1982: 299.
  12. ^ "The Turkestan Islam Government is organized: praise be to Allah for his manifold blessings! Allah be praised! The aid of Allah has given us the heroism to overthrow the government of the oppressor Chinese. But even if we have set ourselves free, can it be pleasing in the sight of our God if we only stand and watch while you, our brethren in religion ... still bear the bloody grievance of subjection to the black politics of the oppressor Government of the savage Chinese? Certainly our God would not be satisfied. We will not throw down our arms until we have made you free from the five bloody fingers of the Chinese oppressors 'power, nor until the very roots of the Chinese oppressors' government have dried and died away from the face of the earth of East Turkestan , which we have inherited as our native land from our fathers and our grandfathers. "
  13. ^ Forbes 1986: 176
  14. ^ Forbes 1986: 178
  15. ^ Forbes 1986: 180
  16. ↑ a b Forbes 1986: 181
  17. ^ Forbes 1986: 179
  18. ^ Forbes 1986: 183
  19. ↑ a b Forbes 1986: 184
  20. ^ Forbes 1986: 217
  21. ↑ Forbes 1986: 185-6
  22. ^ Forbes 1986: 187
  23. ↑ a b Unsuccessful attempts to resolve political problems in Sinkiang; Extent of Soviet aid and encouragement to rebel groups in Sinkiang; Border incident at Peitashan.
  24. ^ Forbes 1986: 217.
  25. ^ Forbes 1986: 191.
  26. ^ Li Chang: The Soviet Grip on Sinkiang. vol. 32: 491-503.
  27. ^ Taylor & Francis: China and the Soviet Union. P. 233. 2010.
  28. ^ Andrew DW Forbes: Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archives, Cambridge, England 1986: 215. ISBN 0-521-25514-7
  29. ^ Political Implications in Mongolian Invasion of N. China Province. In: The Canberra Times 1947-06-13
  30. ^ Andrew DW Forbes: Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archives, Cambridge, England 1986: 214. ISBN 0-521-25514-7
  31. ^ Mark Dickens: The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911-1949. Oxus Communications 2008-11-18.
  32. ↑ Chinese Troops Recapture Peitashan. In: The Canberra Times 1947-06-13.
  33. ^ David D. Wang: Clouds over Tianshan: essays on social disturbance in Xinjiang in the 1940s. NIAS Press 1999: 87. ISBN 87-87062-62-3
  34. ↑ Liu Xiaoyuan: Reins of liberation: an entangled history of Mongolian independence, Chinese territoriality, and great power hegemony, 1911–1950. Stanford University Press 2006: 380. ISBN 0-8047-5426-8
  35. ↑ China: Encirclement. In: Time magazine 1947-10-06.
  36. ^ A Letter From The Publisher , Oct. 20, 1947. In: Time Magazine 1947-10-20.
  37. ↑ David D. Wang: Under the Soviet shadow: the Yining Incident: ethnic conflicts and international rivalry in Xinjiang, 1944-1949. The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong 1999: 275, 301, 302. ISBN 962-201-831-9
  38. ↑ A brief introduction of Uyghur history ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Birkbeck, University of London . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bbk.ac.uk
  39. ^ The quest for an eighth Turkic nation. Taipei Times.
  40. ^ Frederick Starr: Xinjiang.
  41. ^ Sinkiang and Sino-Soviet Relations
  42. ↑ "to peacefully resolve Xinjiang crisis"
  43. ↑ Dragon Fighter: One Woman's Epic Struggle for Peace with China.
  44. ↑ Kadeer 2009 : 9.
  45. ↑ Kadeer 2009 : 13.
  46. ↑ Starr 2004 : 138.
  47. ↑ Starr: [1] 2004: 139.
  48. ↑ Forbes [2] 1986: 188.
  49. ↑ Dickens [3] 1990.
  50. ↑ Bovingdon 2010: 141-142.
  51. ^ Dillon [4] 2003: 57.
  52. ^ Clarke [5] 2011: 69.
  53. ^ Dillon [6] 2008: 147.
  54. ^ Nathan [7] 2008.
  55. ↑ [8] .
  56. ^ Reed [9] 2010: 37.
  57. ↑ Tinibai 2010, Bloomberg Businessweek : 1 .
  58. ↑ Tinibai 2010, gazeta.kz .
  59. ↑ Tinibai 2010 Transitions Online .
  60. ↑ Burns, 1983.
  61. ↑ Dmitriĭ Ivanovich Tikhonov, Jihongnuofu, 吉洪诺夫, * 10/18/06: VIAF = 58056917 LCCN = n 85192517.
  62. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 38.
  63. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 39.
  64. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 40.
  65. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 41.
  66. ^ Wong 2002 : 172.
  67. ↑ Liev 2004 : 175.
  68. ↑ Wang 2008 : 240.
  69. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 42.
  70. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 33.
  71. ↑ Bellér-Hann 2007 : 4.
  72. ^ Clarke 2011 : 76.
  73. ↑ Radio was aims at China Moslems 1981 : 11.
  74. ↑ Meehan 1980.
  75. ^ Clarke 2011 : 78.
  76. ↑ Starr 2004 : 149.
  77. ↑ Starr 2004 : 158.