psychosis

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Classification according to ICD-10
F06.0 Organic hallucinosis
F06.2 Organic delusional (schizophrenic) disorder
F20.– schizophrenia
F21 Schizotypic disorder
F22.– Persistent delusional disorders
F23.– Acute transient psychotic disorders
F24 Induced delusional disorder
F25.– Schizoaffective Disorders
F28 Other non-organic psychotic disorders
F29 Unspecified inorganic psychosis
F30.2 Mania with psychotic symptoms
F31.2 Bipolar affective disorder , currently a manic episode with psychotic symptoms
F31.5 Bipolar affective disorder, currently a major depressive episode with psychotic symptoms
F32.3 Severe depressive episode with psychotic symptoms
F33.3 Recurrent depressive disorder, currently severe episode with psychotic symptoms
F53.1 Severe psychological and behavioral disorders associated with the puerperium , not elsewhere classified
ICD-10 online (WHO version 2019)

Psychosis is a basic term from psychiatry . It used to represent all types of mental illness . Today the term denotes a vaguely defined complex of symptoms ( syndrome ), which is characterized by hallucinations , delusions , loss of reality or ego disorders . Also affective symptoms are associated with some diseases with psychosis. These different types of symptoms can occur individually or in combination.

Psychosis can occur in a variety of diseases. An assignment to a disease can only be made possible through careful diagnosis .

The therapy depends on the disease and the symptoms. Unless spontaneous healing occurs, the treatment is often still carried out with neuroleptics . In addition, there are psychotherapeutic treatment options if there is a corresponding indication .

etymology

The term psychosis was first introduced in 1841 by Carl Friedrich Canstatt and then again in 1845 by Ernst von Feuchtersleben . In 1846 Carl Friedrich Flemming wrote , including a physical origin ( somatogenesis ), on this: “The mental illness or psychosis is rooted in the soul, insofar as it is mediated by the sensual organ. [...] The next cause of sickness of the soul is sickness of the physical organ ”.

The word “psychosis” was established in general in psychiatry as early as 1875, alongside the terms mental disturbance, mental illness, mental illness and insanity . It came into German in the manner of French technical terms with a French ending, namely from ancient Greek psychē ( ψυχή ), “soul”, “spirit”, and -osis ( -οσις ), “state”.

Classification of psychotic diseases

Historically, the triadic system , the development of which goes back to the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin , dominated the classification of psychiatric illnesses . The triadic system divides psychoses into organic (physically justifiable) and endogenous ("not physically justifiable") psychoses. The endogenous psychoses were further subdivided in 1899 in the 6th edition of Kraepelin's psychiatric textbook, in which he contrasted dementia praecox ( later called schizophrenia by Eugen Bleuler ) with manic-depressive insanity ( bipolar disorder ). The triadic system dominated psychiatry until the 1980s, when a paradigm shift took place with the publication of DSM-III and ICD-10 : an etiologically motivated classification of diseases was abandoned, the focus shifted to a descriptive classification with inclusion the course of an illness (time criterion).

However , none of the currently used diagnostic manuals gives a definition of the term psychosis . Psychosis is still used today as a vague term for all mental illnesses and conditions that are associated with delusions , hallucinations , ego disorders , catatonia or possibly severe states of excitement.

Due to the operationalized diagnostics and the differences between ICD-10 and DSM-5, there are now a large number of diseases and thus codes that show psychosis as a possible symptom. Modern psychiatry distinguishes between psychoses primarily according to descriptive and temporal course criteria and no longer according to etiology. Instead of non-organic (or “endogenous”) and organic (or “exogenous”) psychosis, especially in English-speaking countries, the terms primary psychosis for the development of a psychosis from a psychiatric illness and secondary psychosis for the development from a somatic illness are also used used. This is mainly based on the assumption that psychiatric illnesses always correlate with neurobiological deviations, so that all psychiatric illnesses are ultimately of "organic" origin.

causes

Current research assumes a multifactorial development of most psychiatric illnesses, and thus also psychoses. The currently most common working hypothesis (as of 2018) is the vulnerability-stress model : According to this, a possibly existing predisposition ( disposition ; genetically or prenatally) interacts with subsequent stress , which is assumed to be the trigger. Stressors can be:

  • pre- and perinatal factors such as maternal stress during pregnancy or the place of birth,
  • Influences on the immune system (childhood infections),
  • Socialization and the psychological development of the child,
  • anatomical and functional deviations in the structure of the brain,
  • mechanical impact on the brain (e.g. through traumatic brain injuries or tumors ),
  • hormonal influences,
  • Drugs and medication,
  • as well as various somatic diseases (autoimmune / rheumatic, endocrine).

For schizophrenic psychoses, the model of the dopamine hypothesis was historically developed, which describes a dysregulation of dopaminergic neurons . This leads to under- / over-functioning of the transmission within different regions of the brain. Imaging evidence (increased dopamine release in the striatum in schizophrenic patients with acute psychosis) and the effect of dopamine receptor agonists or antagonists on the course of the disease support this thesis. Dopamine dysregulation, however, is no longer viewed as the actual cause of psychosis, but merely understood as the common end of all pathological changes.

Types of psychosis

Since psychoses are only a symptom or syndrome of a disease and can therefore not be codified as an independent disease, an underlying disease must be diagnosed in the case of a psychosis. These diseases can be roughly divided into organic (somatic) and non-organic (psychiatric) diseases.

Organic psychoses

Organic psychoses occur with demonstrable organic diseases. A variety of diseases can be considered for this:

Inorganic psychoses

Diseases with non-organic (similar names also endogenous or functional) psychoses include:

Organic psychoses

In organic psychoses, in contrast to other psychoses, organic causes can be clearly identified. These psychoses develop

Symptoms

Delusions, hallucinations (often optical from single flashes of light to the deceptive perception of objects and film-like scenes).

treatment

As far as possible, organic psychosis is treated by treating the underlying disease, for example by omitting medication or drugs that trigger psychosis, otherwise with neuroleptics .

Substance-induced psychosis

Substance- induced psychosis (also known as drug psychosis , toxic or drug-induced psychosis ) is a psychotic disorder that has been triggered by one or more psychotropic substances . Substance-induced psychoses can under certain circumstances be irreversible (incurable) or only temporary. Substances that can trigger psychoses can be assigned to a large number of categories: There are, among other things, luxury foods, solvents, medication, plant poisons and intoxicants, the consumption of which pose a corresponding risk. Examples include: alcohol , amphetamines , benzodiazepines, caffeine , cocaine , LSD , MDMA and new psychoactive substances . There is also evidence for tetrahydrocannabinol that regular consumption and high concentrations can increase the risk of psychosis. Antibiotics from the group of fluoroquinolones can cause psychosis and suicide.

Inorganic psychoses

Schizophrenic psychosis

The term psychosis is not to be equated with schizophrenia . Because as an umbrella term, it also includes organic and affective psychoses as well as individual psychotic episodes that are not part of a long-term disorder ( chronification ). Schizophrenic diseases are therefore only a subgroup of diseases in which psychoses can occur.

Symptoms

These primarily include delusions and various types of hallucinations (sensory disorders).

Today's diagnostic manuals ( DSM-5 or ICD-10 of the WHO ) assume a distinction between positive symptoms and negative symptoms. The latter manifest themselves in a lack of drive and communication and, in some cases, cognitive deficits. Negative symptoms often follow an acute psychotic phase and are more difficult to treat than positive symptoms.

frequency

Worldwide, around one percent of the population will develop a schizophrenic psychosis in their lifetime ( lifetime prevalence ). There seems to be little or no difference in frequency between different cultures. However, the risk is doubled when people or their parents are immigrants. The frequency has not increased in the last few decades. If one parent is affected, the risk of falling ill is around 10%, in the case of uncles and aunts around 2%, and in identical twins around 50%. The risk of the first illness peaks between the ages of 18 and 23 for men and between the ages of 23 and 28 for women. In terms of frequency, however, the gender ratio is balanced.

course

In about 10–20% of the cases there is a single psychotic episode. In about half of the cases there are recurring attacks and trouble-free phases in between. In about 20–30% of patients, there are recurring attacks and, in addition, persistent weakness.

treatment

A selection of different neuroleptics is available for treatment with medication . Outside of acute phases, neuroleptics given permanently - provided they are taken regularly - can prevent renewed phases.

A patient's response to different types of neuroleptics varies widely and has been linked to the possible existence of different types of schizophrenia.

In addition to drug treatment, socio-therapeutic measures are also used, depending on the individual case . Such relate to job retention, a protected work, assisted living , occupational therapy measures to restore lost during the disease work skills, development of daily structure, conduct load testing or psychotherapy . If the symptoms are no longer acute, there is the possibility of psychosis rehabilitation .

Affective psychoses

The term affective psychosis as a sub-category is out of date. According to ICD-10, there are mood disorders , some of which can occur together with psychotic symptoms. These include:

  • F30.2 - mania with psychotic symptoms (e.g. delusions such as megalomania , or hallucinations such as hearing voices)
  • F31.2 - Bipolar affective disorder, current episode manic with psychotic symptoms
  • F31.5 - Bipolar affective psychosis, current major depressive episode with psychotic symptoms
  • F31.6 - Bipolar affective psychosis, current mixed episode
  • F32.3 - Major depressive episode with psychotic symptoms

treatment

Acute manias can be treated with neuroleptics. For a recurrence prevention are lithium and some antiepileptic drugs available. Antidepressants can be used against depression as part of pharmacotherapy. In severe depression, a combination of drug therapy and psychotherapy is recommended. If necessary, the same sociotherapeutic measures are appropriate for mania and severe depression as for schizophrenic psychoses. In severe depression that cannot be treated in any other way, electroconvulsive therapy can also be considered, which is sometimes associated with a decrease in the tendency to commit suicide and a decrease in suicides.

therapy

The treatment of psychosis depends on the underlying disease. A common model for primary psychoses is treatment with antipsychotics , psychotherapy and sociotherapy, depending on the disease to different degrees and weightings. In the case of secondary psychoses, the treatment of the causal disease is in the foreground.

Medical therapy

The administration of antipsychotics has been part of the standard therapy for acute psychosis since the 1960s . These can be divided into the older, so-called typical , and the modern, atypical antipsychotics. While extrapyramidal movement disorders often occur with typical antipsychotics at therapeutic doses, they usually only occur at significantly higher doses with atypical antipsychotics, so that atypical antipsychotics are preferred for first-line therapy. Due to the different effects of antipsychotics (e.g. on negative symptoms, antidepressant effect), careful adaptation to the current clinical picture is necessary. Antipsychotics basically only relieve the symptoms and do not represent a cure. However, early administration can prevent the symptoms from becoming chronic due to the interruption in the progression of the mental illness (due to neurotoxic effects of altered neuronal networks).

The effect of antipsychotics in the treatment of psychoses has been studied extensively and is well-established. They are clearly superior to a placebo. However, patients respond differently to antipsychotics, so that several therapy attempts with different drugs may have to be made.

One attempt to get by with little or no medication is the Soteria treatment.

Sociotherapy

In addition to drug treatment, socio-therapeutic measures are also used, depending on the individual case . Such relate to job retention, a protected work, assisted living , occupational therapy measures to restore lost during the disease work skills, development of daily structure, conduct load testing or psychotherapy . If the symptoms are no longer acute, there is the possibility of psychosis rehabilitation . The latest S3 treatment guidelines of the German Society for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Neurology (DGPPN) recommend not only cognitive behavioral therapy, but also metacognitive training for the treatment of schizophrenic psychoses.

Diagnosis

Newly emerging psychoses require a careful initial examination in order not to overlook basic illnesses that are easy to treat and to make the correct one from the multitude of possible diagnoses. Standard diagnostics therefore usually include:

If there is a corresponding suspicion, the diagnosis can be extended by further procedures such as electrocardiography , drug screening or x-rays . Examinations of specific biomarkers can also be carried out in the event of suspicion (e.g. rare metabolic diseases).

Difficulties in diagnosis

Misdiagnosis of psychosis is possible. Personality disorders such as borderline personality disorder can be interpreted psychotically, especially since psychoses can also occur as a comorbidity in borderline personality disorder. Epileptic activities in the temporal lobe, such as a non-convulsive status epilepticus, can also trigger psychosis. Pre-existing illnesses and additional symptoms must be taken into account when making the diagnosis, as primary ( non-organic ) psychosis is a diagnosis of exclusion . Antipsychotic therapy can distort the clinical picture (symptoms) or mask symptoms by sedation .

In this respect, pre-existing conditions such as diabetes mellitus , epilepsy or metabolic diseases such as porphyria are particularly important. Metabolic diseases in particular pose a challenge, as these can cause very variable symptoms and antipsychotics are contraindicated in some diseases .

Consequences of psychosis

People with psychosis are at an increased risk of developing other diseases or of being harmed by their behavior. Your suicide rate is increased (lifetime risk up to 34.5%). They often tend to be addictive (lifetime risk of 74%) and become homeless more often (5% per year). People affected by psychosis are also more likely to be victims of crimes (38% within three years) and are more likely to be tried for violent acts than the general population .

Psychosis and art

In 2012, the psychoanalyst Stavros Mentzos dealt with the “creative aspects” of the symptoms of psychoses. With reference to his previous publication from 2009, in which he had presented the function of symptoms in detail, he also assigned a "protective function" to "psychotic symptoms" and compared the formation of symptoms with the "creative" process of dreaming. For some modern artists it is a “source of inspiration”, but as such it is “overrated”.

Visual arts

At the 10th Hamburg Colloquium of the Patriotic Society of 1765 in 2002 , Susanne Hilken gave her lecture the title Psychosis and Art - Between Stigma and Emancipation . Hilken described the number of publications on psychosis and art or related topics as "barely manageable". Limiting herself to the visual and performing arts , she recommended making the following distinction: people with a psychosis as an object ( subject ) of art and patients who begin to be artistically active during their psychosis, as well as artists who temporarily or chronically participate in one Get psychosis.

The proposed distinction helps you to find your way, because there is not always a corresponding differentiation, neither between these three groups nor with regard to their clinical pictures. The first-mentioned group of artists who, themselves not ill, expressly dedicate part of their art to the subject of psychosis, is a contemporary artist, for example Peeter Allik - a painter and graphic artist from Estonia who titled Cultivated one of his exhibitions in the Art Museum in Tartu Schizophrenia existed. Hilken recalled Théodore Géricault , who created portraits of patients from the then famous Hôpital de la Salpêtrière in Paris, but also of Goya and Frans Hals .

For the second group, there is often no differentiation between a psychosis and other mental illnesses, or between the courses of a psychosis, some of which differ considerably from one another. This group includes artists as diverse as Adolf Wölfli , August Natterer or, with a different vita, Paul Salvator Goldengruen . Yet the art of these patients, with the assistance of their doctors, has not infrequently attracted some attention. New terms - such as B. Art brut  - established themselves and entire collections emerged, for example the Prinzhorn Collection . Leo Navratil , an Austrian psychiatrist who coined the term "state-bound art" , published about it and was for his commitment to the art of his stationary treated psychiatric honored patients. At the same time, it drew harsh criticism - in 1976 by the Austrian writer Gerhard Roth and in 1979 by the journalist Ernst Klee .

Camille Claudel : L'Âge mûr , bronze sculpture from 1902 in the Musée d'Orsay . First version around 1893 in plaster in the Musée Rodin

For the third group, i.e. artists who suffered from psychosis in the course of their lives, there are numerous examples, such as Wolfgang Hallmann or Louis Wain . Hilken specifically differentiated between artists who develop increased artistic activity or, on the contrary, whose creative work comes to a standstill in psychosis. Others make marked changes in style, and with still others, their work does not seem to be influenced by the disease. In addition to Messerschmidt and van Gogh , she devoted herself to the French sculptor Camille Claudel (1864–1943), for whom she described various creative periods; she eventually destroyed her own work, as far as accessible to her, stopped her creative work and spent the last 30 years of her life in a psychiatric clinic against her will. Claudel's life's work was honored in May 2017 with the opening of his own museum in Nogent-sur-Seine . It houses the "largest Camille Claudel collection in the world".

Claudel's vita, around which numerous legends were entwined, was reevaluated in 2008 by B. Cooper, a professor in the Department of Old Age Psychiatry at King's College London , on the basis of modern interactionist models. For this purpose, Cooper evaluated material from the clinic and biography that have since been published. He concluded that Claudel would present two entangled syndromes . For him, at the age of 41, Claudel undoubtedly developed paranoid psychosis with persistent delusions and fears of being poisoned. In addition, a combination of serious self-neglect, social isolation and denial of the previous standard of living became effective, known today as Diogenes syndrome . Cooper would classify her psychosis as a delusional disorder , but strictly speaking it must be located in the fuzzy area between paranoia (delusional processing of perceptions), paraphrenia (late schizophrenia with separate symptoms) and schizophrenia . Cooper blamed an abnormal plant-environment interaction for the cause of her illness. In Claudel's case, a psychotic predisposition is associated with a pronounced creative-creative talent. Her art, although it symbolizes her emotional conflicts, should not be rejected as " morbid ". Instead - regardless of a possibly common cause of Claudel's inner urge to be creative and her mental instability - two different "lines" of her life had worked together, so that with continued social hardship, mental instability finally gained the upper hand.

Literature and theater

Thomas Melle describes internal views of experienced and suffered attacks of bipolar psychosis in his multi-award-winning book Die Welt im Rück . David Hugendick said at the time : “It rarely happens that you read a book with complex feelings of shame. One is ashamed of the dichotomy that opens up in oneself because one feels overrun or trampled, freezes and entertains again and again. [...] And you are ashamed because you are sure that this book is great literature, but perhaps does not want to be it at all, but possibly a self-exploration, in any case a tragic, true story that belongs only to the author and not the reader and not the cheers of the reviewers. "

In 2017 Melle's portrayal of illness was first performed as a play in Vienna, in the Akademietheater under the direction of Jan Bosse with Joachim Meyerhoff as the main actor. Wolfgang Kralicek summed up his impressions of the performance in the Süddeutsche Zeitung : “You don't have to be bipolar to understand that something is wrong. With each of us, but also with the world. That a book can be the salvation is the comforting thought that leaves this evening at the theater. "

Criticism of the diagnosis

The psychiatrists Thomas Szasz (1920–2012) and Ronald D. Laing , like the sociologist Michel Foucault , hold the view that concepts such as madness (psychosis) and psychological normality are not objective diagnoses but rather subjective judgments with social and political effects. According to Foucault, the demarcation between normality and madness is used for social control. Clinical psychiatry is no longer just a medical facility, but serves as a norm-setting authority.

The head of the anti- psychiatry movement, David Cooper, was convinced that madness and psychosis were social products and that a revolution would be needed to resolve them . He saw in those affected by psychosis prevented revolutionaries whose revolutionary potential would be prevented by social constraints.

Documentaries

  • Soteria Bern. Acute . Switzerland 2013, director: Leila Kühni - Documentary about Soteria Bern (part 1), Swiss dialect with high German subtitles
  • Soteria Bern. Integration . Switzerland 2013, director: Leila Kühni - Documentary about Soteria Bern (Part 2), Swiss dialect with high German subtitles
  • Soteria Bern. Conversation. Switzerland 2013, director: Leila Kühni - Documentary about Soteria Bern (part 3), Swiss dialect with high German subtitles

literature

Guidelines

Introductions

  • James B. McCarthy (Ed.): Psychosis in childhood and adolescence. Routledge, New York 2015, ISBN 978-1-136-73896-8 .
  • Paolo Fusar-Poli, Stefan J. Borgwardt, Philip McGuire (Eds.): Vulnerability to Psychosis: From Neurosciences to Psychopathology. Psychology Press, New York 2012, ISBN 978-1-136-59639-1 .
  • Heinz Häfner u. a. (Ed.): Psychoses - early detection and early intervention: the practical guide , with 23 tables, Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-7945-2704-5 .
  • Rudolf N. Cardinal, Edward T. Bullmore: The Diagnosis of Psychosis. Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-16484-9 .
  • Johan Cullberg: Therapy of Psychoses: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Psychiatrie-Verlag, Bonn 2008, ISBN 978-3-88414-435-0 .
  • Dieter Bürgin, Heiner Meng (HRSG): Childhood and Adolescent Psychosis. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers, Basel 2004, ISBN 978-3-8055-7706-9 .
  • Karl Leonhard : Division of the endogenous psychoses and their differentiated etiology (ed.): Hellmut Beckmann, 8th edition, 54 tables, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 978-3-13-128508-9 .

Psychotherapeutic treatment options

Psychoanalytic writings

  • Stavros Mentzos , Alois Münch (ed.): Resistance to a psychodynamic understanding of psychoses (=  forum of psychoanalytic psychosis therapy . Volume 31 ). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, Bristol 2015, ISBN 978-3-525-45245-5 ( frankfurterpsychoseprojekt.de [PDF; 256 kB ; accessed on May 1, 2018]).
  • Stavros Mentzos, Alois Münch (ed.): The meaning of the psychosocial field and the relationship for genesis, psychodynamics, therapy and prophylaxis of psychoses (=  forum of psychoanalytic psychosis therapy . Volume 2 ). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2000, ISBN 978-3-525-45102-1 .
  • Stavros Mentzos (Ed.): Psychosis and Conflict. On the theory and practice of analytical psychotherapy for psychotic disorders . 2nd Edition. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1995, ISBN 978-3-525-45750-4 .
  • Herbert A. Rosenfeld : On the psychoanalysis of psychotic states . Psychosozial-Verlag, Giessen 2002, ISBN 978-3-89806-119-3 (English: Psychotic states . Translated by Charlotte Kahleyss-Neumann).

counselor

  • Paul French, Jo Smith, David Shiers, Mandy Reed, Mark Rayne (Eds.): Promoting Recovery in Early Psychosis: A Practice Manual. John Wiley & Sons 2010, ISBN 978-1-4443-1882-1 .
  • Michael T Compton, Beth Broussard: The First Episode of Psychosis: A Guide for Patients and Their Families. Oxford University Press 2009, ISBN 978-0-19-970700-3 .
  • Thomas Bock : dealing with psychotic patients , Psychiatrie-Verlag, Bonn 2003, 6th edition 2009, ISBN 978-3-88414-332-2 .
  • Josef Bäuml : Psychoses from the schizophrenic circle of forms: Advice for patients and relatives, guidelines for professional helpers, introduction for interested laypeople. 2nd, updated and expanded edition. Springer, Heidelberg 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-43646-1 .

Psychosis and art

  • B. Cooper: Camille Claudel: Trajectory of a psychosis. In: Medical humanities. Volume 34, number 1, June 2008, pp. 25-29, doi: 10.1136 / jmh.2008.000268 . PMID 23674536 , PDF .
  • Susanne Hilken: Psychosis and Art - Between Stigma and Emancipation . In: Patriotic Society of 1765 (Ed.): Art and Therapy III . May 4, 2002 ( uni-hamburg.de [PDF; 1.4 MB ; accessed on April 24, 2018]).
  • Stavros Mentzos: Creative Aspects of Psychotic Symptoms. Comparable aesthetic qualities in dreams and in psychosis . In: Stavros Mentzos, Alois Münch (ed.): The creative in the psychosis (=  forum of psychoanalytic psychosis therapy . Volume 28 ). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-525-45236-3 , p. 13–26 ( frankfurterpsychoseprojekt.de [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on April 23, 2018]).

Web links

Wiktionary: Psychosis  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Remarks

  1. The psychoanalysts Peter Hartwich and Michael Grube called the "concept", according to which psychotic symptoms could also have a "protective function", as "model" and "interpretation". Nor did they provide any empirical evidence to support the “concept”. 1 Outside of psychoanalysis , on the part of science-oriented medicine, the specialists in psychoses Karl Leonhard and Heinz Häfner did not mention the “concept” of the “protective function” in their main publications on the subject of psychosis. 2  3
    1  Peter Hartwich, Michael Grube: Psychotherapy for psychoses: Neuropsychodynamic action in clinic and practice. 3rd, completely revised and updated edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-662-44246-3 , p. 81f.
    2  Heinz Häfner u. a. (Ed.): Psychoses - early detection and early intervention: the practical guide , with 23 tables, Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-7945-2704-5 .
    3  Karl Leonhard : Division of the endogenous psychoses and their differentiated etiology (ed.): Hellmut Beckmann, 8th edition, 54 tables, Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 978-3-13-128508-9 .

Individual evidence

  1. Duden: Mental Illness .
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  3. ^ A b S. Klingberg, K. Hesse: Differential indication for psychotherapy in psychoses. In: The neurologist. 89, 2018, pp. 276–282, doi: 10.1007 / s00115-017-0474-0 (Review).
  4. a b H. Muller, S. Laier, A. Bechdolf: Evidence-based psychotherapy for the prevention and treatment of first-episode psychosis. In: European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience. Volume 264 Suppl 1, November 2014, pp. S17-S25, doi: 10.1007 / s00406-014-0538-0 . PMID 25261211 (Review), PDF .
  5. Dorothea von Haebler, Stavros Mentzos , Günter Lempa (eds.): Psychosenpsychotherapie im Dialog. On the foundation of the DDPP (=  forum of psychoanalytic psychosis therapy . Volume 26 ). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2011, ISBN 978-3-525-45127-4 ( table of contents ).
  6. ^ M. Bürgy: The concept of psychosis: historical and phenomenological aspects. In: Schizophrenia bulletin. Volume 34, Number 6, November 2008, pp. 1200-1210, doi: 10.1093 / schbul / sbm136 . PMID 18174608 , PMC 2632489 (free full text).
  7. Klemens Dieckhöfer: Psychosis. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 1196, here: p. 1196.
  8. ^ R. Sommer: The etymology of psychosis. In: The American journal of orthopsychiatry. Volume 81, Number 2, April 2011, pp. 162-166, doi: 10.1111 / j.1939-0025.2011.01084.x . PMID 21486257 , ( preview first page , accessed March 6, 2018).
  9. Werner Janzarik: The concept of psychosis and the quality of the psychotic . In: The neurologist . tape 74 , no. 1 , January 1, 2003, p. 3-11 , doi : 10.1007 / s00115-002-1348-6 .
  10. Michael Zaudig et al. a .: Therapy glossary for psychiatry, psychosomatics, psychotherapy . Springer, Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-540-30986-4 , pp. 600 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  11. ^ A b Hans-Jürgen Möller: Schizophrenic Psychoses . In: Hans-Jürgen Möller, Gerd Laux, Arno Deister, Gerd Schulte-Körne, Hellmuth Braun-Scharm (eds.): Psychiatry, psychosomatics and psychotherapy . 5th edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 2013, ISBN 978-3-13-128545-4 , p. 154-181 .
  12. ^ Rudolf N. Cardinal, Edward T. Bullmore: The Diagnosis of Psychosis . 1st edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-16484-9 , pp. 3-5 .
  13. Paolo Fusar-Poli, Stefan J. Borgwardt, Philip McGuire (eds.): Vulnerability to Psychosis: From Neurosciences to Psychopathology. Psychology Press, New York 2012, ISBN 978-1-136-59639-1 , pp. 60 f.
  14. AS Khashan, KM Abel, R. McNamee, MG Pedersen, RT Webb, PN Baker, LC Kenny, PB Mortensen: Higher risk of offspring schizophrenia following antenatal maternal exposure to severe adverse life events. In: Archives of general psychiatry. Volume 65, Number 2, February 2008, pp. 146–152, doi: 10.1001 / archgenpsychiatry.2007.20 . PMID 18250252 .
  15. MJ Owen, A. Sawa, PB Mortensen: Schizophrenia. In: Lancet. Volume 388, Number 10039, July 2016, pp. 86-97, doi: 10.1016 / S0140-6736 (15) 01121-6 . PMID 26777917 , PMC 4940219 (free full text) (review).
  16. ^ P. De Rossi, C. Chiapponi, G. Spalletta: Brain Functional Effects of Psychopharmacological Treatments in Schizophrenia: A Network-based Functional Perspective Beyond Neurotransmitter Systems. In: Current neuropharmacology. Volume 13, Number 4, 2015, pp. 435-444. PMID 26412063 , PMC 4790396 (free full text) (review).
  17. JE Lisman, JT Coyle, RW Green, DC Javitt, FM Benes, S. Hecker, AA Grace: Circuit-based framework for understanding neurotransmitter and risk gene interactions in schizophrenia. In: Trends in neurosciences. Volume 31, number 5, May 2008, pp. 234-242, doi: 10.1016 / j.tins.2008.02.005 . PMID 18395805 , PMC 2680493 (free full text) (review).
  18. ^ Rudolf N. Cardinal, Edward T. Bullmore: The Diagnosis of Psychosis . 1st edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-16484-9 , pp. 118-139 .
  19. Alex Hofer, W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker: Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders (ICD-10 F2) . In: W. Wolfgang Fleischhacker, Hartmann Hinterhuber (Hrsg.): Textbook Psychiatrie . SpringerWienNewYork, Vienna 2012, ISBN 978-3-211-89864-2 , p. 126-127 .
  20. ^ CI Lau, HC Wang, JL Hsu, Liu ME. Does the dopamine hypothesis explain schizophrenia? Rev Neurosci. 24, 2013, pp. 389-400.
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