Tapan
Tapan ( Cyrillic тъпан , plural tapani ), tápan, also tupan, topan, is a double-headed cylinder drum that is played in Bulgaria , North Macedonia , Serbia , Kosovo , Albania and Greece . The shape with W-shaped tensioned membranes and the way of playing go back to the davul introduced in Ottoman times . The oriental origin of the tapan is particularly evident in the interaction with the double reed instrument(Kegeloboe) zurla . The Anatolian ensemble tradition davul- zurna was probably introduced by the Roma before the 14th century in the Balkans , where the duo is mostly known as tapan-zurla . A fresco in the church of the Morača monastery from the 16th century shows the occupation with a drum and two cone oboes, which is still common today. In addition, professional musicians play the tapan at family celebrations together with the bagpipe gajda or other melody instruments.
Origin and Distribution
Since no cylinder drums with W-shaped tension cords are known from Mesopotamia or from European antiquity, several double-headed drum types with cord straps are known in the ancient Indian literature of the 1st millennium BC. Are mentioned, according to popular opinion it is obvious to assume that these drums have spread westward from South Asia . On the central Indian stupa of Sanchi , a stone relief from the 1st century BC shows Chr. Cylindrical and barrel-shaped drums with cord tension. The first representation of a W-shaped bracing on a cylinder drum was found at the Buddhist cult site of Garhwa (near Prayagraj ) from the beginning of the 5th century. Correspondingly, the name of the Turkish davul is connected via Persian duhul with tavil (south Indian barrel drum), davula (cylinder drum in Sri Lanka ) and also with the north Indian drums dhol and dholki . The commonality extends to the frequent interaction of this type of drum with a double reed instrument of the surnay type (cone oboe) and the use of mallets of different sizes and weights for both membranes. Such ensembles are widespread as far as East and Southeast Asia. According to Laurence Picken (1975), however, it is doubtful whether there is a connection, as Turkish folklorists have suspected, between the use of drums in shamanistic practices in Central Asia and the use of the davul in Turkish folk music , especially because single-headed frame drums were usually used as shamanic drums .
According to the Ottoman writer Evliya Çelebi (1611–1683), the first Ottoman to play davul was Sultan Orhan Gazi (ruled 1326–1359). Çelebi mentions the general word for drum, tabl , and adds that previously whose father Osman I (r. 1288-1326) to the drumbeats of a military drum davul had been appointed as Prince.
The variants of the tapan are generally understood as descendants of the davul . Most of the knowledge of musical instruments used by the Slavs in the Balkans from the 10th to the middle of the 19th century comes from paintings in churches and monasteries. Illustrations from the beginning of the 14th century, when the Balkans belonged to the Byzantine Empire , show cylinder drums with W-shaped lacing, V-shaped snare strings under a skin and a curved mallet. The earliest known illustration from 1294 is in the church of Sveti Bogoroditsa Peribleptos in Ohrid , an illustration from 1307 is known from the cathedral Bogorodica Ljeviška in Prizren , other such drum representations in a Christian context include the Church of St. George (1318) in the village of Staro Nagorichino in North Macedonia, the Serbian monastery Visoki Dečani (1335) in Kosovo and the Lesnovo monastery (1349) in the village of the same name in North Macedonia. According to the dated iconographic evidence, the double-headed, W-shaped tied cylinder drum was already in use in the Balkans before the military conquest by the Ottomans, who emerged victorious from the battle on the Amselfeld in 1389 . From this, Felix Hoerburger ( The Dance with the Drum, 1954) was the first to develop the hypothesis that the Asian tradition of playing the bowling oboe and double-headed drum, known under the name of tümrük during the Sultanate of the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia , co-existed with the immigration of Roma was introduced to the Balkans in the 14th century, i.e. still in Byzantine times. Several authors, including Laurence Picken (1975, p. 103) and Rudolf Brandl (1996, p. 15f), followed this assessment.
In the fresco in Bogorodica Ljeviška (1307) the cylinder drum in the scene of the Dormition of Mary belongs to a female musical group who also plays a psaltery , a harp , a lute and cymbals . Only the recognizable W-bracing of the drum could point to the oriental origin, the other instruments and their arrangement, however, refer to models in Byzantine manuscripts from the 11th century. This only shows drums without W bracing. In the representations in the churches of Bogoroditsa Peribleptos, Staro Nagorichino and Lesnovo, the drum belongs to the scene “The Mocking of Christ” according to ( Mt 27,27-30 EU ), the iconography of which goes back to a gospel book from the 11th century. The Bible passage does not mention any musical instruments and the painting of the same name by Matthias Grünewald from 1504 does not depict any instruments, but from the end of the 13th century the scene can be found on frescoes in churches in the Balkans with Christ, soldiers, musicians and fools in different compositions . In particular, the number and arrangement of the drums and wind instruments vary considerably. A recurring element is two trumpets symmetrically above the head of Christ. In Bogoroditsa Peribleptos the drum and cymbal are arranged on both sides of the figure of Christ, while on the fresco by Staro Nagorichino the drummers together with a wind instrument form an ensemble on one side. In both cases the drum has a W-lacing; in the later painted church of Lesnovo (1345), the illustration of Psalm 150 shows a drum with two parallel snarling strings and an X-shaped lacing. Possibly the oldest literary evidence of the presence of Roma in the Balkans dates back to 1348, when the Serbian King Dušan ruled. It speaks of craftsmen called c'ngar ' in the monastery of Prizren. In addition, there are other sources that also speak for the spread of Roma in Thrace during this period.
Frescoes on which a zurna (or zurla ) is clearly recognizable have not survived in Thrace or at all from the 14th century, but only shortly before the end of the 15th century in the Principality of Moldova . A changed attitude of the drum player can be seen in the frescoes from the end of the 15th century. Instead of a straight mallet, he now holds a solid, curved stick in his right hand and instead of striking with his bare left hand, he uses a thin cane between his thumb and forefinger. This brings the Christian drum images close to military representations in Islamic manuscripts, as they appear from the end of the 14th century at the latest. Apparently the sight of the Ottoman military bands Mehterhâne had become common in the Balkans. The Principality of Moldova, which lies outside the Ottoman sphere of influence, was involved in military conflicts with the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, until it became subject to tribute to the Sublime Porte in 1512 . The frescoes in the church in the Moldovan town of Bălineşti ( Suceava district ) were created between 1500 and 1511, when there were intensive contacts with the Turks. Gabriela Ilnitchi (2007) suspects that the scene of the mockery of Christ as a kind of rapprochement with the Ottoman great power was furnished with oriental images. This pictorial composition of Bălineşti with mehterhâne musical instruments ( davul, zurna and trumpet) was adopted a little later under the rule of Petru Rareş in other Moldovan churches, including in 1535 in the Humor monastery and in 1541 in the Arbore monastery .
South of the Danube , from the beginning of the 17th century the mocking of Christ is no longer illustrated with a mehterhâne ensemble, but with an instrument duo consisting of davul and zurna , around 1622 in the Serbian Orthodox monastery Pustinja near Valjevo and in the 1630s in Stragari ( Šumadija district ). The fresco in Pustinja is remarkable because it depicts one of the oldest, clearly recognizable representations of today's ensemble of two cone oboes and a drum. The cone oboe held slightly upwards at shoulder height with the bell and the drum hanging on a strap from the left shoulder also represent today's playing practice. The davul-zurna ensemble plays on the frescoes not only for the purpose of despising Christ, but also contributes a positive occasion, the wedding at Cana , for example on a mural from the end of the 16th century in the Morača monastery in Montenegro or in other places with the presentation of psalms in praise of God. Contemporary Ottoman images show corresponding davul-zurna ensembles on festive occasions. This cross-cultural musical correspondence is confirmed by the report of an anonymous German traveler who, at the wedding of the daughter of the Moldovan prince Vasile Lupu in 1652, saw that the groom was received with "military and other music, especially that of Turks and Gypsies (țigani)". At a later hour the ladies danced to the music of the gypsies in the bride's apartments.
A cylinder drum with W-lacing is depicted in the manuscript Kitāb fī maʿrifat al-Hiyal al-handasīya from 1206 by the Arabic author al-Jazarī . The traditional representation comes from the 14th century and shows musicians with two long trumpets ( buq ), a small kettle drum ( naqqara ), a pair of cymbals ( kasat ) and a cylinder drum ( tabl ). The same type of drum with W-shaped lacing is contained in the illustrated book Gabinetto armonico pieno d'instrumenti sonori by the Italian Filippo Bonanni , published in 1723, under the title Tamburro sonato dal Turco . In the 18th century this type of drum was called the “Turkish drum” in Europe.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina , a cylinder drum corresponding to the tapan with a snare string called bubanj was played together with cone oboes and trumpets at the royal houses in pre-Ottoman times. The bubanj , which used to be used as a soloist to spread news, is known and widespread in Bosnia and Herzegovina until today only under this name. Bubanj na derdinu is the name of a stem drum (flat frame drum) that is struck with a mallet in one hand.
etymology
The etymology of tupan is uncertain. The word is often traced back to the Old Church Slavonic tompanu in Latin tympanum and ancient Greek tympanon (τύμπανον, a frame drum, from tuptein , "to beat"). These include the Old High German timpana and the Italian timpano (" kettle drum ", plural timpani ). Timpan appears in English literature from the early 13th century.
Design
In Bulgaria the tápan is also known as topan, toba or daul , in eastern Serbia as tupan , otherwise in the former countries of the former Yugoslavia as goch and in Greece as daoúli . Its cylindrical body consists of a hollowed-out wooden trunk or a circularly curved strip of wood. The frame height in Bulgaria is 25 to 35 centimeters less than the diameter of 40 to 60, in exceptional cases up to 80 centimeters. According to the Hornbostel-Sachs system, the tapan is one of the cylinder drums, regardless of its dimensions, based on its origins in military drums . The Greco- North Macedonian daouli has a diameter of between 40 and 100 centimeters, while a smaller type with snare strings occurs on the Greek islands under the names toumbí, toumbaneli or gbanéli .
The two membranes made of goat, sheep or other animal skin are pulled over tension rings and these are braced against each other with hemp cords in a W-shape. The W-lacing is the simplest type of bracing. With a central connection, the lacing can be pulled tighter until a Y-lacing is created. There are further secondary lacing across the body, which leads to an irregular pattern. In the Serbian goch , the body is usually made of walnut wood and the higher-sounding of the two membranes on the left is made of goat skin. The deeper sounding diaphragm right, in the goch made of a thicker sheep, veal, or donkeys skin. The pitch difference between the two heads is generally about a fifth .
The tapan hangs on a strap over the left shoulder of the player, who fixes it with his left hand on the upper edge in a slightly inclined position from the vertical. He produces loud blows with a solid, curved wooden mallet (in Bulgaria ukanj, kijak or tokmak ) in his right hand and a thin whip (in Bulgaria prka, praka, schibalka, schibka ) made of cornel cherry in his left hand soft blows. If the tapan should be related to the ancient Greek frame drum tympanum , this would be the only thing in common, because the way of playing corresponds only to the Turkish tradition. From there, playing with two mallets of different weights can be traced back to an Indian tradition: the old South Indian double drum pambai is played with a curved mallet in the right hand and with the open left hand. This style of play also occurs on the Greek islands with the toumbí .
Style of play
The combination of one or two cone oboes and a cylinder drum is probably the most widespread instrumental ensemble in folk music in the Orient, including North Africa and the Balkans. Southeastern European folk music is generally classified according to its function and played accordingly by professional musicians or amateurs. The professional folk musicians in Romania are called lăutar (plural lăutari ). Depending on the region, between at least half and almost all professional musicians in Romania belong to the Roma minority. A corresponding influence exercised Roma musicians from the whole of the Balkan music, where they some popular styles of music, particularly the tapan-zurla- music, virtually the only cultivated. For example, they mainly played the violin and bagpipe in Vojvodina until the 1930s, later they took over the genre of the Hungarian Roma plucked orchestra with various tamburicas . The folk music of North Macedonia - as an example for the neighboring regions - is divided into 1) shepherd music with all kinds of flutes, 2) light music on the market square with the long-necked lute tambura , 3) accompaniment of epic chants with the three-stringed string lute kemene (related to gadulka and kemençe ) and 4) music for weddings and other celebrations with zurla, tapan, gajda and the frame drum dajre .
North Macedonia
The vast majority of the tapan and zurla players of North Macedonia are Roma who live in or near cities, especially in the Šuto Orizari district outside of Skopje . Roma women have a singing tradition (accompanied by the frame drum dajre ) and most of the men play the flute or bagpipe on an experimental basis, at least for a while. The tapan and zurla players do not take part in making music together because they always appear as professional musicians and see their work as a source of income. It is a purely male profession that is passed on in families. In an ensemble of two zurla (in North Macedonia, surla ) and one tapan, which plays to accompany round dances, the drummer follows the steps of the first dancer while the two wind players stand at the edge. The drummer first sets the rhythm, then the leading zurla player starts with the melody. It is followed by the second zurla- player taking a drone contributes. Occasionally both wind instruments play the melody in unison, in octaves or thirds.
The drum player ( tapandija ) takes money from the audience between the pieces of music, which he puts in his pocket and distributes to his fellow players after the performance. The income from such events depends heavily on the popularity of the musicians. At a Macedonian wedding, the weekly wages of a worker can come together for the musicians. The fee is lower for weddings of the smaller population groups ( Albanians , Roma, Wallachians ). For Muslim Roma in particular, tapan-zurla ensembles are indispensable for weddings and religious festivals. They have a ritual function on the bride's henna evening , announce the arrival of a guest and play on Đurđevdan , the spring festival on May 6th ( Romani ederlezi ). In addition, Roma (like Macedonians) appear in ensembles with clarinet, accordion, guitar and violin (following the Ottoman khalgiya ensembles from the beginning of the 20th century). In the 1930s there are said to have been over 20 permanent music groups ( društva ) in Skopje, consisting of two zurla and one tapan player. Timothy Rice (1982) observed fixed tapan-zurla ensembles around 1980 only among amateurs or employees of the radio, otherwise each musician took care of the clients for his performances himself and played in changing line -ups . When politicians visit a village for election campaigns or when political parades take place, tapan-zurla ensembles give priority to announcing the event.
Roma musicians must master an extensive repertoire of traditional songs for performances at weddings, circumcisions and religious celebrations ( Bayram ) of the various ethnic groups as well as on national holidays. The tapan and zurla players interpret the well-known songs and do without their own compositions. A distinction is made between song melodies and dance pieces. The latter maintain a certain, constantly fast rhythm, while songs consist of a sequence of different rhythms with a few long notes in between. The frequently repeated melodic phrases are followed by a free rhythmic improvisation of the bowling oboe over the continuous drum beats, while the second wind instrument holds a drone. The dance rhythms are often in 2/4 or 7/8 time (3 + 2 + 2). In the west and southwest of North Macedonia, dances with 12/8 (3 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 2) bars are common. In other dances, longer asymmetrical beats occur, such as are common in Bulgarian and Albanian folk music and in western Turkey ( aksak ). In the interplay of one or more drums, struck on both sides, with wind instruments, polyrhythmic patterns emerge . In addition to metrical improvisations, there are free rhythmic improvisations called mane (from the Greek amanedes, actually a genre of songs that goes back to Ottoman music, cf. the Romanian music style manele ).
In addition to tapan-zurla ensembles, bagpipe players or ensembles with tapan , two clarinets and an accordion perform at village festivals . These traditional ensembles compete with semi-professional village musicians or professional Roma music groups who play dance music with clarinet, saxophone, trumpet, accordion or keyboard and drums. Turbo folk has spread since the 1980s . An example of a larger line-up of a traditional ensemble is the folk music orchestra of Radio Skopje ( Naroden orkestar na Makedonska Radio Televizija ), which was conducted by Pece Atanasovski ( gajda ) in a recording around 1978 with three shepherd's flutes ( kaval ), five long-necked lutes ( tambura ) and a tapan can be heard. The orchestra accompanied well-known singers on radio recordings and acted as an example to other music groups who were striving for a modern arrangement of traditional folk tunes.
One of the most popular celebrations of the Orthodox churches is Lazarus Saturday , on which a procession of traditionally dressed girls takes place through the streets in the countries of the Balkans including Greece. The festival is called lazarice in Serbian , lasaruwane (лазаруване) in Bulgarian and, depending on the region, lasarki ( lazarki, лазарки), lasarinki or similar in North Macedonia . The girls sing ritual songs as they move and go from house to house to distribute their blessings. In return, they receive gifts from the families (food, clothing, money). After singing some songs, they dance a horo (circle dance) to the accompaniment of bagpipes ( gajda ) and tapan. The ritual, the cultic significance of which is practically no longer known, is nowadays performed professionally as a folklore event by singing and dajre- playing Roma women in some places in North Macedonia .
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria the tapan is the most widespread drum in the country and is particularly suitable for outdoor performances because of its loud sound. Other drums are the single-headed beaker drum tarambuka (equivalent to darabuka ) and the frame drum daire, which sound quieter because they are beaten with the hands and are therefore more used to accompany singing in rooms. The tapan occurs mainly in the southwest at village celebrations and festivals on the memorial days of Orthodox saints. A characteristic of Bulgarian folk music are the asymmetrical, compound time signatures, of which 7/8 and 9/8 bars are the most common.
In the Strandscha Mountains in southeastern Bulgaria, a Christian Orthodox ceremony, which probably goes back to ancient cults, performed a dance on glowing ashes called nestinarstwo (нестинарство). The ceremony takes place on certain Christian holidays and was held in many Bulgarian and Greek villages in Thrace until 1912 on the anniversary of the local patron saint. Today the performance is limited to the village of Balgari and a few villages in its vicinity. The dancers move in the evening on the hot ashes to the accompaniment of songs and hold in their hands the icons of St. Constantine or St. Helene, venerated as miraculous . One of the songs, called nestinárka, is able to trigger a trance in the actors and the rest of the audience. They are accompanied by bagpipes and tapan.
In the chalga (чалга) popular music style , the electronic sound is enriched by folk musical instruments such as gajda, zurna and tapan , albeit sometimes only as an electronically mimicked sound. Accordingly, the well-paid, modern ensembles that play at weddings are equipped with electric guitar, electric bass, clarinet, saxophone and synthesizer.
Serbia
In Serbia , brass ensembles (Serbian bleh-orkestri or bleh-muzika ), which today consist of five to ten members, who typically use three flugelhorns , as many euphonies , a tuba and a bass drum with a cymbal , were probably formed in Serbia after the First World War . The Wallachians in eastern Serbia play a smaller cast with a clarinet, a trumpet and a drum. Serbian brass music has been enjoying increasing popularity since the 1970s, promoted by the Zlatna Truba (“Golden Trumpet”) festival in western Serbia, which is widely reported in the media. The Serbian Roma use practically the same instruments. Especially in the south of the country the Roma play clarinets, tapan and the bell drum tarabuka as well as tapan and zurla .
Greece and Albania
In Greece and Albania , Roma musicians are called Yiftoi (from the Greek eyiftoi , " Egyptians "). In the Ottoman period in Greece, the Yiftoi were considered the musicians par excellence and they are almost the only ones to maintain the davul-zurna tradition to this day . In Greece, the double-headed bass drum is called daouli (νταούλι) and the cone oboe is called zournas ( zurna , plural zurnades ). In addition to the interplay of the two instruments, the Greek daouli accompanies the Thracian fiddle lyra at the demonstrations of the anastenarides ( fire walkers ) in northern Greece.
In Albania the drum is called daullja ( daullë ), lodra ( lodër ), lodërti or tupan and the cone oboe is called surla ( surlë ), curla or zurla . The military band Mehterhane was in the Ottoman period a privilege of the pashas and the Albanian ruler Ali Pasha Tepeleni (around 1741-1822) had such a chapel. According to travelers' reports, Yiftoi musicians played for the entertainment of the pasha in the 18th century. The English archaeologist Richard Chandler reports in Travels in Greece (London, 1776) about a festival at which a drum and oboe ensemble played to dance. As today, the big drum was struck with a large mallet, which was thickened at the tip, and at the same time with a thin stick on the other side. Such descriptions show that the davul-zurna tradition , which came from Asia with the Roma, spread in the Ottoman Empire in the vicinity of the military bands and was retained even after the Janissaries dissolved in 1826. In addition, since the Ottoman period belongs yet another ensemble guy named koumpaneia (in southern Albania saze ) to the musical tradition of the Roma. This ensemble consists of clarinet, accordion, string instruments and the frame drum defi or the beaker drum toumbeleki (or deblek ) and has been pushing drum-oboe ensembles into the background since the 1990s.
literature
- Yuri Arbatsky : Beating the Tupan in the Central Balkans. The Newberry Library, Chicago 1953
- Vergilij Atanassov, Radmila Petrović: Tapan . In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments . Vol. 4, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 714
- Gabriela Ilnitchi: Ottoman Echoes, Byzantine Frescoes, and Musical Instruments in the Balkans. In: Donna A. Buchanan (Ed.): Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman Ecumene: Music, Image, and Regional Political Discourse. Scarecrow Press, Lanham 2007, pp. 193-223
- Tupan. In: Sibyl Marcuse : Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary . Doubleday, New York 1964, p. 551
- Stoyan Petrov, Magdalena Manolova, Donna A. Buchanan: Bulgaria . In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Vol. 4, Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, pp. 569-583
- Laurence Picken : Folk Musical Instruments of Turkey . Oxford University Press, London 1975
- Timothy Rice: The Surla and Tapan Tradition in Yugoslav Macedonia . In: The Galpin Society Journal , Vol. 35, March 1982, pp. 122-137
Web links
- Davul-Zurna / Tapan-Zurla - drum shawm. Rombase
- Tupanat ne hoq video # 1. Youtube video (music group with five tapan and three zurla in an Albanian village near Prizren in Kosovo)
- Dances of Western Thrace, Greece (3). Youtube video (circle dance with daouli , longitudinal flute floyera , accordion, violin and lute laouto in Xanthi , Northern Greece)
- Lodrat kallnik te nadrija. Youtube video (slow Albanian dance by men with a lodra and two curle in a group of men)
- Valle me tupana Valltart. Youtube video (Albanian dance group with two lodra and two curle at a wedding party in a hall)
- Stoyan Yankoulol - Solo Tupan. Youtube video (Bulgarian drummer Stojan Jankulow plays tapan )
Individual evidence
- ↑ Roksanda Pejović: A Historical Survey of Musical Instruments as Portrayed in Mediaeval Art in Serbia and Macedonia. In: International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music . Tape. 13, No. 2, December 1982, pp. 177-182, here p. 180
- ↑ Walter Kaufmann : Old India. Music history in pictures. Volume 2: Ancient Music. Delivery 8. VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1981, p. 32f
- ↑ Laurence Picken, 1975, p. 102
- ↑ Laurence Picken, 1975, p. 104
- ^ Henry George Farmer (translation and commentary): Turkish Instruments of Music in the Seventeenth Century. As described in the Siyāḥat nāma of Ewliyā Chelebī. Civic Press, Glasgow 1937, p. 15 f. (Longwood Press, Portland, Maine 1976)
- ↑ Laurence Picken, 1975, p. 100
- ↑ Gabriela Ilnitchi, 2007, p. 197
- ↑ Gabriela Ilnitchi, 2007, pp. 202-204
- ↑ Gabriela Ilnitchi, 2007, p. 208
- ↑ Gabriela Ilnitchi, 2007, pp. 212, 221f
- ^ Henry George Farmer: Islam. ( Heinrich Besseler , Max Schneider (Hrsg.): Music history in pictures. Volume III. Music of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Delivery 2) VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1966, p. 91
- ↑ Filippo Bonanni, 1723, illustration p. 171: Tamburro sonato dal Turco.
- ↑ Cvjetko Rihtman: Bubanj. In: Grove Music Online, January 13, 2015
- ↑ Jasmina Talam: Folk Musical Instruments in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne 2013, pp. 62, 65, 67
- ^ Franz von Miklosich : Etymological dictionary of the Slavic languages with consideration of the other Indo-European languages and dialects; with addenda and an index of words that do not appear as subject headings. Braumüller, Vienna 1886, p. 358
- ↑ Vergilij Atanassov, Radmila Petrović, 2014, p. 714
- ↑ Laurence Picken, 1975, p. 111
- ^ Sibyl Marcuse: A Survey of Musical Instruments. Harper & Row, New York 1975, p. 130
- ↑ Laurence Picken, 1975, pp. 103, 111
- ^ Timothy Rice, 1982, p. 122
- ^ Felix Hoerburger: Oriental Elements in the Folk Dance and Folk Dance Music of Greek Macedonia. In: Journal of the International Folk Music Council, Vol. 19, 1967, pp. 71-75, here p. 73
- ^ Carol Silverman: Rom (Gypsy) Music. In: Timothy Rice, James Porter, Chris Goertzen (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Vol. 8: Europe. Routledge, New York 2000, p. 279
- ^ Timothy Rice, 1982, p. 123
- ↑ Timothy Rice, 1982, pp. 129f
- ↑ Timothy Rice, 1982, p. 131
- ^ Carol Silverman: Music and Power: Gender and Performance among Roma (Gypsies) of Skopje, Macedonia . In: The World of Music, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Music of the Roma) 1996, pp. 63–76, here p. 70
- ↑ Macedonian Folk Dance "Gajdarsko oro" - Pece Atanasovski. Youtube video ( Naroden orkestar from Radio Skopje under the direction of Pece Atanasovski, around 1978)
- ↑ Timothy Rice: Macedonia. In: Timothy Rice, James Porter, Chris Goertzen (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Vol. 8: Europe . Routledge, New York 2000, pp. 981f
- ^ Filip Petkovski: The Women's Ritual Processions “Lazarki” in Macedonia. (PDF) In: Venets: The Belogradchik Journal for Local History, Cultural Heritage and Folk Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2014, pp. 107–127, here p. 122
- ↑ Lada Braschowanowa: Bulgaria. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): The music in past and present . Material part 2, Bärenreiter, Kassel 1995, col. 258–267, here col. 260
- ↑ Christo Vakarelski: Bulgarian folklore. De Gruyter, Berlin 1969, pp. 331f, ISBN 3-11-000266-3
- ↑ Megan Drevits: Bulgarian Chalga: Forming a Post-Communist Identity through Music. Undergraduate Honors Thesis Collection, Paper 169. Butler University, 2012, pp. 9, 15
- ^ Mark Forry: Serbia . In: Timothy Rice, James Porter, Chris Goertzen (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music . Vol. 8: Europe. Routledge, New York 2000, p. 951
- ↑ Daouli. In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 17
- ^ Rudolf M. Brandl : The “Yiftoi” and the Music of Greece. Role and Function. In: The World of Music, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Music of the Roma) 1996, pp. 7-32, here pp. 18f