Ustasha
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The Ustascha ( Croatian : , plural , completely Ustaša - Hrvatska revolucionarna organizacija , UHRO for short ; German The Insurgent - Croatian Revolutionary Organization ) was a founded by Ante Pavelić on January 10, 1929 in the Kingdom of Italy and from he led a Croatian nationalist - terrorist secret society , which developed into a fascist movement. The name Ustaša , i.e. insurgent , for the individual member as well as for the entire organization was chosen in memory of the insurgent soldiers who fought in the armed uprising of Rakovica under Eugen Kvaternik for a Croatia independent of Austria-Hungary in 1871 .
The Ustasha was in response to the proclamation of the royal dictatorship by the Serb-Yugoslav King Alexander I established. Their structure and rituals were initially comparable to those of other national terrorist secret societies in the Balkans , such as the Black Hand or IMRO , and were geared towards the armed struggle for an independent Greater Croatian state . Until 1941, the number of Ustaschers formally admitted, consisting of students, professors, writers, lawyers, former k. u. k. Officers, members of Catholic associations and members of marginalized social groups probably never recruited more than 3,000 to 4,000 people at home and in exile. Mark Biondich writes of a maximum of 10,000 members for 1941.
The bases and training camps of the Ustasha, in which up to 300 people were last housed, were mainly in the kingdoms of Hungary and Italy, until the Ustasha unexpectedly took power in a newly founded Independent State of Croatia (NDH) in April 1941 with the support of the Axis powers. could take over. It established a totalitarian dictatorship mainly in the area of today's Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , which was responsible for the genocide of various ethnic groups, especially Serbs , Jews and Roma , and the murder of numerous political opposition members.
The relationship between the Catholic Church and the Ustaše was ambivalent. Many Catholic clergy sympathized with the idea of a Croatian state. The nationalist clerics cooperated with the Ustaše, but were the minority and some clergy protested against their crimes. Due to the participation of representatives of the Catholic clergy in the establishment, organization and leadership of the fascist Ustasha regime, the Ustasha dictatorship is attributed to clerical fascism by some historians .
prehistory
After the end of the First World War with the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy , its southern states united to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The Ustaša movement was formed from groups that had formed the right wing of the Croatian opposition to the centralized and Serbian- hegemonic state order of the kingdom in the 1920s .
The most important of these was the Hrvatska stranka prava , which emerged from the right wing, strictly anti-Yugoslav wing of the older party of the same name. The later Ustaša leader and lawyer Ante Pavelić was one of the leading members of this party at that time . Initially, however, these and similar groups could not achieve any greater influence. The dominant political force in Croatia was and remained at that time the Croatian Peasant Party under the leadership of Stjepan Radić .
Origin, foundation
At the end of October 1928 Ante Pavelić founded the initially illegal Ustaša - Hrvatska revolucionarna organizacija ("Ustascha - Croatian Revolutionary Organization"). He was able to rely on anti-Yugoslav, revanchist and irredentist forces in Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria, as well as on legitimist circles in Austria and the revanchist movement in Germany. During a state crisis that followed the murder of the Croatian democrat Stjepan Radić in Belgrade by Puniša Račić , King Alexander I carried out a coup on January 6, 1929. He dissolved parliament, suspended the 1921 constitution and proclaimed a royal dictatorship that also banned the previous national symbols . A day later, Pavelić emigrated to Italy, where he gathered emigrants from the Ustasha movement and formed them into a terrorist organization . The supporters were trained for terrorist and subversive actions in centers and camps in Hungary, Italy and Austria. In the asylum , Pavelić created a Ustaša program that expanded the “Statutes” in 1932 and the “Principles” in 1941.
The Ustascha saw itself as a Croatian independence movement against the Serbian hegemony in Yugoslavia and for the development of a Greater Croatia with the inclusion of Bosnia , Herzegovina and Syrmia . The Serbian population should be eliminated quickly. The Ustaša developed into a fascist movement based on the models Mussolini and Hitler . From 1929 to 1934 it was actively supported by Mussolini's fascist regime in order to destabilize the state of Yugoslavia, which stood in the way of Italian supremacy on the Adriatic and the Balkans .
Although their supporters were not very numerous in Yugoslavia, they infiltrated the Croatian Peasant Party and made intensive efforts to expand its right-wing and separatist forces. Some of their secret bases in the country were safe Catholic convents and seminaries. The government reacted to the Ustasha's activities by forcibly suppressing any potential resistance. Several members of the opposition who were not involved in the terrorist activities, including Milan Šufflay , were murdered by agents of the Yugoslav secret service, which sparked international protests.
Goal setting
The self-imposed goal of the Ustaša was "the restoration of the free and independent Croatian state on the entire historical and ethnically closed territory of the Croatian people." This goal was to be achieved "by all means, even through armed uprising".
The “territory of the Croatian people” was understood to mean:
"In fact, Croatia does not only consist of the small area of Banal Croatia, which was autonomous until 1918 (with Slavonia and Syrmia ) [...], but of all its historical components: Banal Croatia, Dalmatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina ."
After the realization of the goal “the Ustaschen movement wanted to protect the state independence and the ethnic peculiarity of the Croatian people with all means and fight for the fact that in the Croatian state only the Croatian people rule, that they are the sole ruler over all material and spiritual goods his country remains, which is progressive and fair, directed in the spirit of the Ustaschen principles. "
As an opponent of this objective and as an enemy, the Ustaše saw:
- the Serbian state authority
- international freemasonry
- the Judaism
- the communism .
organization
The organization of the Ustaše was divided into
- "Roj", the Ustaša in one place
- “Tabor”, all roj in the municipality
- “Logor”, all tabors in a district
- “Stožer”, all logors on the territory of a county
In addition, there was a “Hochschulstožer” for the entire student body, which was directly subordinate to the headquarters.
Before 1941, there were nineteen "Stožers" in exile in the so-called "Greater Croatia" area. Due to the large number of Croatians abroad, there were also three "Stožer" in Europe and North and South America.
Above all stood the "Headquarters of the Ustaschen, which directs every activity that relates to the entire movement and the struggle for freedom." The headquarters consisted of the council of the Doglavniks and the staff of adjutants. The Poglavnik appointed and dismissed a maximum of twelve Doglavniks and the chief adjutants.
The poglavnik itself was chosen by the Ustaša founders or by the headquarters if there was a vacancy.
After the formation of the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaška mladež (Ustascha Youth) was formed based on the model of the Hitler Youth . Their subgroups were Ustaška uzdanica (Ustasha Hope) for primary school students from 7 to 11 years of age, Ustaški junaci or junakinje (Ustasha heroes) from 11 to 15 years of age and the Ustaška Starčević Mladež ( Ustasha Starčević -Youth ) from 15 to 21 years of age.
Ustascha could become any Croat who is "capable of fighting the Ustaschen and who is devoted to the Ustaschian principles [...]." The duties of a Ustascha were the taking of the Ustascha oath and the essential execution of all work, all duties, all orders and Regulations and an unwavering sense of responsibility.
The oath, which was to be taken in front of a crucifix, a knife and a pistol in accordance with propaganda, read:
“I swear, by God Almighty and all that is sacred to me, that I will adhere to the principles of the Ustas, obey all regulations and carry out all orders of the Poglavnik, that I will keep every secret entrusted to me strictly and not reveal anything to anyone will. I swear that I will fight in the ranks of the Ustaschen for the independence of the state of Croatia and will do everything the Poglavnik orders me to do.
I swear that I will protect and preserve the Croatian independence and Croatian national freedom in the ranks of the Ustashe, which I have once won.
If I, conscious of my full responsibility for my deeds and omissions, violate this oath, I will be punished with death according to the rules of the Ustashe. So help me God! Amen!"
Symbols
emblem
The emblem of the Ustasha was the blue capital letter "U" with serifs , which contains a silver-colored, red-flaming grenade . The grenade also featured the historic red and silver checkerboard coat of arms of Croatia , with a first silver field. The color scheme of the emblem reflected the Croatian national colors red-white-blue.
The "U" stood for the initial of the word Ustaša . The grenade was intended to underline the militant, revolutionary and elitist character; borrowed from the revolutionary traditions of Italy and France. There the grenade was initially a symbol of the grenadiers (an elite unit of the infantry in the 17th and 18th centuries ) and is still used today by military units (e.g. Carabinieri , Foreign Legion ). The variant of the historical Croatian coat of arms with a first silver field was probably chosen to delimit it from the Croatian coat of arms contained in the royal Yugoslav coat of arms with a first red field.
The first schematic use of the Ustaša emblem can be found in the logo of the organization newspaper "Ustaša: Vijesnik hrvatskih revolucionaraca" from May 1930. The first depiction of the graphically mature emblem can also be found in 1932 in the logo of the newspaper "Ustaša" and above all on the Title page of the "Constitution of the Ustaschen Movement".
In 1934, the Ustasha headquarters in exile issued a 5 kuna silver coin minted in Vienna and two stamps printed in Bergamo for propaganda purposes , which also show exactly this Ustasha emblem.
After the defeat of Yugoslavia, the 300-strong armed units of the Ustasha in exile, with this emblem on their uniform cap, crossed the border from Italy and paraded in front of Pavelić in Zagreb.
The Independent State of Croatia used the historical coat of arms of Croatia with the uppercase letter "U" in Croatian wattle as a state symbol . In this state coat of arms, the "U" was deliberately placed in the background, that is, placed on top of the coat of arms, in order to make it easier for the majority of the population, who were not Ustas, but saw themselves as Croats, to identify with the state.
The oldest known representation of the Croatian coat of arms in Innsbruck is from 1495. Due to its use by the Ustascha, the historic Croatian coat of arms with a first silver field is used and perceived today as evidence of a right-wing political orientation.
Many sympathizers of the Ustaše and its ideology today often use greatly simplified variants of the emblem or the national coat of arms (e.g. a "U" with a coat of arms, a "U" with a cross, etc.).
The state youth organization Ustaška Mladež had its own symbol, which was used in different colors.
Greeting
The Ustasha's greeting was “ Za Dom - Spremni! “ (For the homeland - ready!) And was pronounced with a raised right arm at the latest when the rapprochement with fascist Italy and National Socialist Germany was reached. It can be found on party-internal and also on state documents as a final greeting (e.g. for medals).
anthem
The hymn of the Ustaša (Croat. Ustaška Himna ) with the title "Puška puca" was written by Ante Pavelić himself and set to music in the style of a marching song.
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Classification of the ideology
According to its conception, the Ustaša was an authoritarian and totalitarian regime and is basically characterized as fascist. However, there are some features that differ from fascism , although many means and features are in common with it. The Ustaše used ideologically elements of the then modern state systems of Italian fascism and National Socialism . These elements also included anti-Semitism , anti-communism and racism . However, the state systems in Italy and Germany were also a politico-social response to domestic problems in the respective country. The Ustaše, however, initially had no state and no social program. The core of their ideology focused on the national question of the independence of a Croatian state. Associated with this was a strong antipathy towards the Serbian population and the Serbian-dominated state of Yugoslavia . Thus the ideological foundation of the Ustaša movement was formed from hatred of Serbs, anti-communism and anti-Semitism.
Recently, researchers of fascism have tended to classify the Ustasha as a fascist movement. This also coincides with their self-image as a fascist movement. In addition, classifications such as clerical and semi-fascist are common. Stanley Payne describes the Ustasha movement in its early years as a terrorist and insurgent organization, which was at best proto-fascist and was only led by Pavelić to an open fascist and anti-Semitic position from 1936. However, Payne doubts whether they ever got beyond the status of proto-fascists:
“The murderous nature of the Ustaši did not qualify them for classification as generic fascists, because the vast majority of movements and regimes of this century that have committed significant murders were either Marxist-Leninists or non-fascist nationalists . Their appalling peculiarity was that they became the leaders of the only regime in occupied Europe that could take on the Nazis in terms of mass murder. "
Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat also think it appropriate to describe the Ustasha movement as “pre-fascist” or “semi-fascist” because of its less ideological character, however unsatisfactory these terms may be . Arnd Bauerkämper also shares this view .
The Ustascha did not initially become a mass movement like the counterparts in Germany and Italy, but were supported by a maximum of 10% of the population in the 1930s. The historical roots can be found above all in Ante Starčević , who was a vehement supporter of Croatian independence, which is reflected, for example, in a substantial part of the Ustaša oath. Since religion or the Catholic denomination was also an essential distinguishing feature from the Serbs, this was appropriately instrumentalized by the Ustasha movement. Other ideological influences came from the then strongest Croatian party in Yugoslavia, the Croatian Peasant Party.
Assassination attempt on Alexander I.
After the Velebit Uprising in 1932, the Ustaša activities culminated in the assassination of the Yugoslav King Alexander I and the French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou by Vlado Chernozemsky in Marseille in 1934 , in close cooperation with the Macedonian nationalists of the IMRO .
After the perpetrators became known and had led to a crisis in Franco-Italian relations, Pavelić was placed under house arrest by Mussolini and forced to suspend his terror campaign. The Ustaše then shifted the focus of its activities to building support groups among Croatian emigrants and waited for an opportunity to seize power with German or Italian help.
On the eve of the Second World War , the Ustaša established a "Ustasha Army" with several hundred of their supporters in Tuscany. She went to the Italian-Yugoslav border. A German Ustasha group had set up a “Croatian Legion” in Austria while intensifying its anti-Yugoslav propaganda.
Second World War
The Balkan campaign with the attack by the Axis powers led to the occupation and destruction of Yugoslavia by German , Italian , Hungarian and Bulgarian troops between April 6 and 17, 1941 . On April 10th, before the full occupation , Colonel Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed the Independent State of Croatia (Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) under the protection and support of the German National Socialists . Hitler first offered the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, Maček, leadership of the state, who refused the offer. On April 15, Ante Pavelić took power.
The Ustascha state remained a loyal ally of the German Reich until 1945 and also sent troops to support the German campaign against the Soviet Union . Militarily, however, he was mainly engaged in the fight against the partisans led by Tito and against the Chetniks (Serbian National Monarchist Movement).
The NDH interior minister Mladen Lorković and the defense minister Ante Vokić made contact with the Allies in 1943/1944 and tried to bring about the overthrow of the Pavelić regime. However, this attempted coup was discovered, those involved arrested and executed in the summer of 1944 .
The most famous unit of the Ustaša was the Black Legion ( Crna Legija ) under the command of Colonel Jure Francetić .
State system of the "Independent State of Croatia"
The territory of the Independent State of Croatia also included all of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Syrmia , which were claimed by the Ustaše as "historical Croatian countries"; Large parts of Dalmatia, inhabited by Croats and Serbs with almost 380,000 people, had to cede the Gorski Kotar to irredentist Italy and the Medjimurje to Hungary. After the fall of Mussolini on September 3, 1943, Pavelić incorporated the areas that had gone to Italy into the Independent State of Croatia .
The independent state of Croatia was organized as a leader state along the lines of its fascist allies. Pavelić took on the role of leader under the title Poglavnik (literally as head ) , the Ustascha movement ( Ustaški pokret ) became a unity party and parallel to the establishment of a regular army based on conscription (whose political reliability there were doubts) was after Model of the SS, the Ustaša militia ( Ustaška vojnica ) formed as the regime's Praetorian Guard .
Democratic elections that would have legitimized the Ustaša regime by the Croatian people were not held.
German and Italian occupation troops remained present on its territory and often operated without regard to the “state organs” of the officially independent puppet state . The population was very disappointed with the Ustaše and support decreased rapidly after just a few months. Alojzije Stepinac , the Archbishop of Zagreb, clearly distanced himself from the Pavelić government by not joining their political plans and helping the increasingly threatened minorities in the German-Italian satellite state "NDH" (Jews, Serbs, Roma, etc.). He escaped two attacks by the Ustaše.
genocide
The Ustasha state enacted racial laws modeled on the Third Reich , which were directed against Jews and Roma , but mainly against Serbs , who were collectively declared enemies of the Croatian people.
Serbs, Jews, Roma and Croatian anti-fascists were locked up in concentration camps , the largest of which was the Jasenovac concentration camp , and, above all, murdered by the Ustaša militia in the most brutal way. The Serbs represented the numerically strongest group among the victims. The German historian Holm Sundhaussen comments: "Just as Hitler strived for a 'Jew-free' Europe, Pavelić strived for a ' Serbs- free' Croatia." According to reports, were already in the first 4 months 200,000 Serbs were murdered during the Ustasha rule and 104,000 were deported to the German occupied territory in Serbia .
How many people fell victim to this genocide is still controversial today. The figures vary from more than 300,000 to 750,000 murdered people, mostly represented by Croatian and Serbian historians. In Western research, the number of Serbs who fell victim to the Ustasha is estimated at 330,000 to 390,000. The research by Bogoljub Kočović ( Žrtve Drugog svjetskog rata u Jugoslaviji . London 1985) and Vladimir Žerjavić ( Gubitci stanovništva Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu . Zagreb 1987) on the number of victims of the Second World War in Yugoslavia result in approx. 9 million Serbs as well as the vast majority of the 30,000 to 40,000 Jews and the 25,000 to 40,000 Roma who lived in the Ustaša's area of influence at the beginning of the war fell victim to her, between 60,000 and 100,000 of them in the Jasenovac concentration camp. Both figures are currently in public circulation and are cited by documentation centers. The Simon Wiesenthal Center gives the number of people who were murdered in the Jasenovac concentration camp at around 85,000, while the state-run United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington between 77,000 and 97,000. On the other hand, the Simon Wiesenthal Center gives the total number of victims of around 600,000 people under the Ustascha, while the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum speaks of around 400,000, with the Simon Wiesenthal Center based on information from communist Yugoslavia .
Muslims
The Bosniaks ( Bosnians of Muslim faith) were declared "Croats of Muslim denomination" by the Ustaše and officially put on an equal footing with those of the Catholic denomination and, like the Catholic Croats, were used for military service in the army. At the same time, however, separate Bosniak divisions such as the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS "Handschar" were set up under German guidance .
Feedback in Germany
The Illustrirte Zeitung Leipzig 1941, 98th year (2nd half of the year) celebrated the Ustascha's seizure of power with German help in a special issue. It reproduces an explanation by Poglavnik (Pavelić):
“ The independent state of Croatia will be built according to the principles of the Ustaschen movement. In all important national and state questions, its principles are in perfect harmony with the National Socialist ideology, applied to the social character of the broad Croatian people, especially the Croatian peasantry. Race, unrestricted state authority, managed economy for the purpose of maximum production, especially agricultural production, soldierly spirit in the sense of the traditional characteristics of the people, work as the basis of every value, sense of responsibility and sense of duty of every individual: these are the principles that apply everywhere in Ustaschen-Croatia begin to rule. Such a Croatia enters the new order in order to be a worthy and useful co-worker of the Greater German Reich under the leader Adolf Hitler in war and peace. "
After the Second World War
After the victory of the Yugoslav partisans towards the end of the Second World War in May 1945, numerous members of the Ustasha, including the leadership around Ante Pavelić, fled abroad. Many Ustaša, who were guilty of crimes during the war, were supported in their escape by the Croatian Roman Catholic Church . This helped them go into hiding, smuggled them out of the country and supported their escape to Spain, South America and some Arab states by using the connections of the Vatican.
Immediately after the end of the war, Croatian civilians, remnants of the Ustascha and the regular army ( Domobrani ) as well as Yugoslav associations, which were a thorn in the side of the new government, surrendered to the British near Bleiburg ( Pliberk in Slovenian ) in Austria. However, these were handed over to the Tito partisans . There are no undisputed figures here either. The majority of them were shot shortly after their capture or murdered in death marches lasting months or in camps. This and comparable action taken by the Tito partisans from other places became known under the collective name of the Bleiburg massacre .
Most of the leadership of the Ustaše around Pavelić, however, had already withdrawn from their own troops. Several hundred members of the Ustaša came to Italy via the so-called rat lines and shipped to Argentina , the USA , Canada and Spain . Pavelić himself reached Argentina in 1947 and lived in Buenos Aires until shortly before his death in the late 1950s , where he acted as security advisor to the Argentine dictator Juan Perón . There he formed a " government in exile " which, however, was not recognized by any state. Due to personal and political rivalries, it split into several groups, each claiming sole representation.
Many Ustaša members living abroad were killed by Serb militant groups through vigilante justice and the Yugoslav secret service UDB-a Uprava državne bezbednosti through targeted liquidations. In Germany, too, Ustaša-related Croatian exiles and exiled Serbs as well as the UDB-a carried out numerous attacks on each other, which led to some media coverage in the 1970s.
Ustaše renaissance during the Tuđman era
From 1990 the Ustasha ideology and symbolism underwent a rehabilitation under Franjo Tuđman . The reappearance of symbols of the fascist Ustaša era and their public display were encouraged. Former Ustaša were brought back into the country or offered high political offices. Croatian military ranks were named after the last name in the NDH and individual military units were named after Ustasha legionaries. Streets were renamed after Ustaša functionaries and almost 3,000 memorials and memorials for the anti-fascist struggle and the murdered victims were damaged or destroyed. Croatian combatants and volunteers in Dalmatia, Slavonia and Bosnia adorned themselves with the “U” symbol, greeted each other with the Ustasha formula “Za dom spremni!” (Ready for the homeland!) And sang Ustasha songs. Tuđman’s defense minister, Gojko Šušak , also came from these circles . In 1990 Tuđman declared at the first congress of his ruling party HDZ that the fascist puppet state of Pavelić was also an “expression of the Croatian people's striving for independence and sovereignty”.
In this way, the fear of a new Ustasha regime was deliberately stoked among the Serbian minority in Croatia and contributed significantly to the escalation of the conflict over the Serbian-Croatian border region of Krajina . The Serbian media also used the fear of a new Ustaša regime for propaganda purposes in order to further fuel ethnic tensions.
Even after the wars of Yugoslavia , there were repeated scandals by prominent Croatians who publicly displayed the Ustasha greeting or Ustasha symbols. The Ustasha greeting is regularly celebrated in Croatia's stadiums . Fans of the band appeared at a concert of the controversial Croatian rock band Thompson in Zagreb, some in black clothing and other symbols of the Ustaša's “ Black Legion ” and often chanted the greeting. In 2015, Croatian Archbishop Želimir Puljić proposed a referendum to legalize the Ustaše greeting within the military.
literature
Monographs
- Martina Bitunjac: Entanglement. Participation. Wrong. Women and the Ustaša Movement. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2018, ISBN 978-3-428-15338-1 .
- Rob McCormick: Croatia Under Ante Pavelic. America, the Ustase and Croatian Genocide. IB Tauris, 2014.
- Alexander Korb : In the Shadow of the World War: Mass violence of the Ustaša against Serbs, Jews and Roma in Croatia 1941–1945 . Hamburger Edition, Hamburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-86854-259-2 .
- Rory Yeomans: Visions of Annihilation. The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. Pitt Russian East European, 2013.
- Radu Harald Dinu: Fascism, Religion and Violence in Southeast Europe. The Archangel Michael Legion and the Ustaša in historical comparison. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 978-3-447-10002-1 .
- Marko Attila Hoare: The Ustasha Genocide . In: The South Slav Journal . tape 25 , no. 1-2 (95-96) , 2004, pp. 29-38 .
- Irina Ognyanova: Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) . In: Dorothy Rogers, Joshua Wheeler, Marína Zavacká, Shawna Casebier (Eds.): Topics in Feminism, History and Philosophy (= IWM Junior Visiting Fellows Conferences . Volume 6 ). IWM, Vienna 2000 ( iwm.at [PDF]).
- Petar Požar (ed.): USTAŠA: dokumenti o ustaškom pokretu (= Biblioteka Memoria . Volume 1 ). Zagrebačka stvarnost, Zagreb 1995, ISBN 953-192-013-3 (document collection).
- Mario Jareb: Ustaško-domobranski pokret: od nastanka do travnja 1941. godine . [The Ustasha Domombranen Movement: from its founding to April 1941]. Školska knjiga dd, Zagreb 2006, ISBN 953-060817-9 (Croatian).
- Ladislaus Hory, Martin Broszat: The Croatian Ustasha State 1941–1945. 2nd edition, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1965.
further reading
- Slavko Goldstein: 1941 - The year that does not go by. The seeds of hatred in the Balkans. Frankfurt am Main / Berlin 2018, ISBN 978-3100025371 .
Web links
- Map of the concentration camps during the German occupation of Yugoslavia 1941–1945 .
- United States Holocaust Museum: In memory of the victims of the Ustasha regime (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Historical background and causes of the Croatian War 1991-1995. Nationalism, ethnic conflict and national (dis) integration processes. Boris Katić, Vienna 2012, p. 85.
- ^ Ante Pavelić: Submission to the public prosecutor at the Court of Appeal in Aix-en-Provence . In: People and Empire . Issue 2 (February). People and Reich, Berlin 1936, p. 160 .
- ↑ Branimir Jelić: Političke uspomene i rad dra Branimir Jelića [The political memories and the work of Dr. Branimir Jelićs] . Ed .: Jere Jareb, M. Šamija. Cleveland 1982.
- ^ Holm Sundhaussen : Ustaše . In: Lexicon on the history of Southeast Europe . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2004, p. 719 .
- ^ Mark Biondich: Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia: Reflections on the Ustaša Policy of Forced Religious Conversions, 1941–1942. In: The Slavonic and East European Revue. Vol. 83, No. 1, 2005, p. 79.
- ^ Marie-Janine Calic: History of Yugoslavia in the 20th century . CH Beck, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-406-60645-8 , pp. 160 .
- ^ Sabrina P. Ramet: The three Yugoslavias: state-building and legitimation, 1918–2005 . Indiana Univ Press, 2006, ISBN 0-253-34656-8 , pp. 123 .
- ↑ Michael Phayer: The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930-1965 . Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2000, pp. 35 ff .
- ^ Ewa Kobylińska: Religion and Church in Modern Society. Polish and German experiences. Otto Harrassowitz, 1994, p. 52 and Lutz Raphael : Imperial violence and mobilized nation. Europe 1914–1945. CH Beck, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-406-62353-0 , p. 256.
- ↑ Eternal Memory - Jasenovac - The Place soaked in the Blood of Innocents ( Memento from July 13, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Ante Pavelić: The Croatian Question. Origin: October 28, 1936. Private printing by the Institute for Border and Foreign Studies, Berlin 1941, p. 23.
- ^ Item 1 of the Constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen Freedom Movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt, Berlin 1944, p. 192. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ^ Ante Pavelić: The Croatian Question. Origin: October 28, 1936. Private printing by the Institute for Border and Foreign Studies, Berlin 1941, p. 22. (Origin: October 28, 1936)
- ↑ Item 2 of the Constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen Freedom Movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 192. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ^ Ante Pavelić: The Croatian Question. Origin: October 28, 1936. Private printing by the Institute for Border and Foreign Studies, Berlin 1941, p. 26 ff.
- ↑ Item 3 of the Constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen Freedom Movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 193. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ^ Ante Pavelić: Submission to the public prosecutor at the Court of Appeal in Aix-en-Provence . In: People and Empire . Issue 2 (February). Volk und Reich, Berlin 1936, p. 161.
- ↑ Item 5 of the constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen freedom movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 193. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ^ Item 4 of the constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen freedom movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 193. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ^ Adolf Dresler : Croatia . 2nd edition Essen publishing house, Essen 1944, p. 133 .
- ↑ Item 9 of the constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen freedom movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 194. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ↑ Item 10 of the constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen freedom movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, pp. 194–195. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ↑ Item 11 of the constitution of the Croatian Ustaschen freedom movement (1932). In: Emil Robert Gärtner: Croatia in Southern Slavia . Junker and Dünnhaupt Verlag, Berlin 1944, p. 195. Quoted from: Za Dom: Croatian correspondence for politics, economy and culture . No. 6-7. Zagreb June 2, 1941, p. 4 f.
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Hrvatski simboli (Croatian symbols). ALFA dd Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb 2010, p. 210 (Croat.) And 427 (English).
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Hrvatski simboli (Croatian symbols). ALFA dd Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb 2010, pp. 210–211 (Croat.) And 427 (English).
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Hrvatski simboli (Croatian symbols). ALFA dd Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb 2010, p. 210 with ill. 315.
- ↑ Ustaško-domobranski pokret: od nastanka do travnja 1941. godine (The Ustaša-Domombran movement. From its foundation to April 1941). Školska knjiga dd, Zagreb 2006, p. 114 (picture).
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Hrvatski simboli (Croatian symbols). ALFA dd Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb 2010, p. 210 with illus. 316.
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Ustaško-domobranski Pokret: od nastanka do travnja 1941. godine . [The Ustaša-Domombran movement: from its inception to April 1941]. Školska knjiga dd, Zagreb 2006, ISBN 953-060817-9 , p. 116-117 .
- ↑ Irislav Dolenec: Hrvatska Numismatika: od početaka do danas. Prvi hrvatski bankovni muzej Privredne banke Zagreb, Zagreb 1993, p. 87.
- ↑ Dragutin Oparić: Croatia: exile spending from 1934 to 1992. Self-published, Varaždin 2002, p. 1.
- ↑ Ladislaus Hory, Martin Broszat: The Croatian Ustascha State 1941-1945. 2nd edition, Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1965, p. 55.
- ^ Narodne Novine: Službeni list Nezavisne Države Hrvatske . No. 15. Zagreb April 30, 1941.
- ↑ Mario Jareb: Hrvatski simboli (Croatian symbols). ALFA dd Hrvatski institut za povijest, Zagreb 2010, p. 14 (Croat.) And 419 (English).
- ↑ Maja Brkljačić, Holm Sundhaussen: Symbolic change and symbolic change. Croatia's “cultures of remembrance”. In: Osteuropa 7 (2003), p. 941.
- ^ The FAME: Croatia - Independent State, 1941-1945 - Ustaska Mladez
- ↑ Koračnice (marches). In: Proljeće: Glazbeno Glasilo Ustaške Mladeži (Spring: The Organ of the Ustasha Youth). Zagreb 1942, pp. 3-4.
- ^ Adaptation from the Croatian by Alfred von Buttlar-Moscon . In: German newspaper in Croatia . Zagreb April 10, 1942, p. 9.
- ↑ Holm Sundhaussen: The Ustasha State. Anatomy of a system of rule. In: Österreichische Osthefte 37 (1995) 2, p. 497.
- Jump up ↑ basket: Mass violence of the Ustaša against Serbs, Jews and Roma in Croatia 1941–1945. P. 60.
- ^ Payne: History of Fascism. P. 498f and 504
- ^ Payne: History of Fascism. P. 504.
- ↑ Ladislaus Hory, Martin Broszat: The Croatian Ustascha State 1941-1945. 2nd Edition. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1965, p. 177.
- ^ Bauerkämper: Fascism in Europe 1918–1945. P. 165.
- ↑ Jovan Pavlović (ed.): Јасеновац - Мјесто натопљено крвљу невиних . Belgrade 1990, p. 352 (summary in English).
- ↑ Holm Sundhaussen : History of Serbia: 19.-21. Century . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-205-77660-4 , p. 316.
- ↑ Detlef Brandes; Holm Sundhaussen; Stefan Troebst: Lexicon of Expulsions: Deportation, Forced Resettlement and Ethnic Cleansing in Europe in the 20th Century . 1st edition. Böhlau Verlag, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2010, ISBN 978-3-205-78407-4 , p. 320 f .
- ^ Holm Sundhaussen: History of Serbia . Böhlau Verlag, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-205-77660-4 , p. 317 f .
- ↑ Klaus Buchenau: Orthodoxy and Catholicism in Yugoslavia 1945–1991 . Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2004, ISBN 3-447-04847-6 , p. 152 .
- ↑ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Era in Croatia: Jasenovac 1941–1945. Archived from the original on February 25, 2011 ; Retrieved March 29, 2011 .
- ^ Rob McCormick: The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941-1945. In: Genocide Studies and Prevention. University of Toronto Press, Volume 3, Number 1 / April 2008.
- ^ Shelah, Menachem: The Catholic Church in Croatia, the Vatican and the Murder of the Croatian Jews . In: Holocaust and Genocide Studies . tape 4 , no. 3 , 1989, pp. 337 .
- ↑ Money from the baron . In: Der Spiegel . No. 19 , 1969, p. 140-142 ( Online - May 5, 1969 ).
- ^ Greetings from Belgrade . In: Der Spiegel . No. 21 , 1971, p. 76 ( Online - May 17, 1971 ).
- ↑ The Parliament: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia and its Consequences , published by the German Bundestag. Retrieved December 1, 2014 .
- ^ Bette Denich: Neighbors at War: Anthropological Perspectives on Yugoslav Ethnicity, Culture and History . Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-271-01978-9 , pp. 52 .
- ↑ a b c Ljiljana Radonic: war for the reminder: Croatian past policy between revisionism and European standards . Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York 2010, p. 157 .
- ^ Gregor Mayer, Bernhard Odehnal: Aufmarsch - The right danger from Eastern Europe. Residenz Verlag, St. Pölten / Salzburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-7017-3175-6 , p. 222.
- ↑ Kurt Köpruner: Journeys in the land of wars. Diederichs, 2003, ISBN 978-3-7205-2413-1 .
- ↑ Berthold Seewald: How much Ustasha does Croatia's soccer player? In: welt.de. December 17, 2013, accessed February 14, 2014 .
- ^ Daily Week - International - Government Crisis: Croatia follows Poland and Hungary to the right
- ^ Wiener Zeitung : The past plays with ( Memento from 23 August 2016 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Die Welt: On a long journey with the Ustaša greeting
- ^ Zeit Online - Society - Catholic Church: Croatian Archbishop calls for referendum on fascist salute