Turkey's foreign policy

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Turkey (green) and countries in which Turkey maintains a diplomatic mission (blue)
Turkey (green) and states that a diplomatic representation in Turkey talk

The foreign policy of Turkey is a fundamental and integral part of Turkish politics.

Main features of Turkish foreign policy

In the neighboring states in the Middle East , the Caucasus and the Balkans , the Ottomans ruled for centuries, so there are still resentments from this time, but also historically based friendships. In addition, there are still Turkish minorities living in the neighboring countries, for which Turkey feels responsible.

A principle of Ataturk's policy after the founding of the republic in 1923 was neutrality in foreign policy and the development of good neighborly relations with neighboring countries and, above all, European countries. Foreign policy neutrality was not maintained after the Second World War, in the wake of the looming East-West conflict. The western orientation of the republic became clear and especially after joining NATO in 1952 under Adnan Menderes and further strengthened.

The foreign policy constants for Turkey today therefore include the desired accession to the European Union , membership of the NATO defense alliance, ties to the West and the rejection of the establishment of an independent Kurdish state in order to prevent the Turkish Kurds from striving for independence.

The geostrategic importance of Turkey has risen sharply again since the attacks of September 11, 2001 (especially as a strategically favorable location for the NATO air force) after it fell sharply after the end of the East-West conflict (Turkey's direct border with the USSR ) or had become almost meaningless. In addition, Turkey is developing into an important transfer country for oil and natural gas.

Turkey also regards itself as the protective power of the Turks in the Balkans and the Turkmens in Iraq . In addition, Turkey is trying to take a leading role in the Turkic states ( Azerbaijan , Uzbekistan , Turkmenistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan ) in Central Asia.

What was unusual for a state inhabited by a majority of Muslims were the comparatively good relations between Turkey and Israel . In the course of Erdoğan's government, relations deteriorated noticeably and culminated in the Ship-to-Gaza incident . An economically motivated reconciliation followed in summer 2016.

The Turkish government defends itself against the classification of the historically indisputable mass deportations and the mass murders of hundreds of thousands of Armenians in 1915 as genocide (see Genocide of the Armenians ). Diplomatic resentment with France arose when the French parliament officially recognized the events of 1915 as genocide in 2006. In 2016, the German Bundestag also passed a resolution calling the extermination of the Armenian and Aramaic Christian minorities by the then Young Turkish government as genocide and calling on Turkey to recognize its historical responsibility in the events of that time and to reconcile with Armenia, which in turn was vehemently negative and partly triggered threatening reactions in Turkey.

Supranational organizations

Turkey has been a member of NATO since 1952 and an associate member in the predecessor organizations of the EU since 1963 and has been striving for full membership negotiations for over four decades, first in the EEC , later the EC and finally in the European Union. On 16./17. December 2004 decided European Council the opening of accession negotiations with Turkey on 3 October 2005. Previously, this had both the European Commission and the European Parliament endorsed. Although the negotiations began on time, opponents of the accession continue to oppose full membership of Turkey in the EU, the German CDU is instead promoting a privileged partnership - this is rejected by the Turkish side and viewed as inappropriate by many EU member states.

Since June 2004 Turkey has provided the Secretary General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).

In addition, Turkey is u. a. Member of the following supranational organizations:

United Nations

Turkey was aiming for a seat on the United Nations Security Council in the period 2009/10. She also received the seat on the Security Council in 2008, along with Uganda .

Alliance of Civilizations

The Alliance of Civilizations is a UN initiative led by Ban Ki-moon by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero with the aim of merging common approaches across different societies and cultures in order to combat extremism and to close cultural, religious and social barriers overcome, mainly between the western and the predominantly Muslim world.

Security policy

Turkey's security policy moves in the areas of tension between international terrorism, Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Near and Middle East and Central Asia.

Internally in particular, the Kurdish question is seen as the greatest security problem. Since the 1980s, the Turkish military and the secret service have been trying drastically to suppress the national aspirations of the Kurdish minority, some of which have turned against the Turkish state and the Turkish army through military and terrorist activities. This is expressed, among other things, in the fact that Turkey fights the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) as a terrorist organization with great severity, which it also demands in its foreign policy in allied countries and has often enforced. Turkey is accused of massive human rights violations in this fight, which has been fought again since 2015 after long truce unilaterally declared by the PKK in clashes in the south-east of the country, some of which are similar to civil war, and by PKK splinter groups, including attacks against members of the armed forces in the big cities.

On the basis of a secret military agreement, Turkey has for a long time carried out close security and military coordination and cooperation with Israel, which was primarily directed against the Assad regime in Syria, which is seen as a rival. Since the AKP under Erdoğan came to power in 2010, this cooperation has been massively reduced by Turkey under harsh criticism of Israel's approach to the Middle East conflict and especially after the Mavi-Marmara incident in 2011. Even after a formal apology from the Israeli government in 2015, this has nowhere near returned to the pre-2010 level.

After Turkey had massively intervened in the internal conflicts of Syria since 2011 and, as part of this policy, mainly supported Sunni resistance groups in Syria by delivering weapons, training, granting transit and tolerating safe retreats for foreign fighters, Islamic fundamentalists have recently increasingly carried out attacks in Turkey perpetrated, most recently in October 2015.

Relationship with Europe

See also: EU-Turkey Agreement of March 18, 2016

Bosnia Herzegovina

During the Bosnian War , Turkey supported an international settlement of the conflict. Turkish politicians tried to calm the domestic emotions in order not to promote a radicalization of the population. During the wars, Turkey took in numerous refugees from the region.

Many Turks of Bosnian origin have lived in Turkey since the Ottoman period and they feel very close to their relatives in Bosnia-Herzegovina . On the other hand, there was a feeling of solidarity between the Bosnians and the “Muslim brothers” in Turkey. In addition, there is a Turkish minority living in the region.

Turkey continues to be represented militarily by soldiers in Bosnia-Herzegovina as part of NATO's peace missions .

Bulgaria

The discrimination by the socialist regime in Bulgaria against the Turkish minority that remained from the time of the more than 500 years of Turkish rule over Bulgaria from 1393 to 1878 always caused tensions between the two countries, especially during the Cold War. Occasionally, in the course of the resistance, there were terrorist attacks by members of the Turkish minority against targets in Bulgaria (including a bomb attack on a train in 1985).

Today the conflict has largely calmed down and the governments of both countries maintain good relations, not least because of the economic importance of Turkey for Bulgaria.

Another open point in the relations between the two states is the compensation of the Bulgarians displaced by Turkey in the Second Balkan War (1913) .

Germany

Germany is Turkey's most important trading partner and the country with the largest Turkish community in Europe. Gerhard Schröder , Federal Chancellor from 1998 to 2005, was in favor of Turkey joining the European Union .

France

France is critical of Turkey joining the EU. France, together with Cyprus, is blocking many of the 30 or so negotiation chapters. On April 13, 2011 there was a "religious campaign between Turkey and France" in the Council of Europe. Erdoğan criticized the French full veil ban and accused France of restricting religious freedom. Erdoğan replied to a French MP who questioned the freedom of the press in Turkey: “You are not familiar with the situation in Turkey. In January 2018, Erdoğan met with President Macron in Paris and agreed to work together in the fight against terrorism and trade agreements on Airbus planes and missiles. Macron rejected full membership of Turkey in the EU.

Greece

Regional areas of conflict are areas of rule in the Aegean Sea and the Cyprus conflict . In the Aegean it is mainly about the course of the border between the two countries. The definition of the border line is very controversial because economic and military interests are at stake. In economic terms, it is about potential oil reserves that both countries want to exploit.

When Turkey joined the Western European Union (WEU) in 1992 , full membership was unsuccessful due to Greek objections and Turkey only became an associate member. Since the 1990s there has been an easing of tension between the two states, although the disagreements have not yet been resolved. After the severe earthquake in Turkey on August 17, 1999, Greece offered to help the Turkish victims. It came to a head when the Turkish Minister of Health at the time, Osman Durmuş , refused to accept the blood from Greece because, in his opinion, the help of other nations whose lifestyles are unknown was not needed. After this statement, he was also sharply criticized by Turkish newspapers. The newspaper Hürriyet , considered to be very nationally aware - the highest-circulation newspaper in Turkey - wrote "Schweig" on the front page. A rescue team from Armenia was also not allowed into the country at the instigation of the MHP , to which Durmuş belongs.

After further mutual confidence-building measures, the states came closer to one another. Greece has supported Turkey's accession to the EU . From 6 to 8 May 2004, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, a Turkish prime minister, visited neighboring Greece for the first time in 16 years. On January 23, 2008, after 49 years, a Greek Prime Minister, Kostas Karamanlis , visited Turkey again. In December 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan visited Greece and met with Greek Prime Minister Alexis Tsipras . It was the first such state visit since December 1952; then Celâl Bayar came . Erdoğan addressed the rights of the Turkish minority in Greece and advocated a revision of the border between Greece and Turkey established in the Lausanne Treaty .

Athens claims a twelve-mile zone in the airspace over the Aegean Sea, but Turkey only recognizes a six-mile zone, like at sea. Almost every day (as of April 2018) pilots from both countries engage in car chases and mock battles over the Aegean - with armed weapons. Military experts have warned that it is only a matter of time before these risky flight maneuvers lead to a crash or even being shot down.

Kosovo

Turkey was the third country to recognize the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on February 17, 2008. There are now diplomatic relations with Kosovo, whose independence from Serbia is internationally controversial.

Netherlands

Russia

Turkish relations with Russia are ambivalent . On the one hand, there are close economic relationships on both sides. Russia is one of Turkey's most important energy suppliers ( blue stream pipeline ), while Russians form an important group of tourists with around four million visitors a year . On the other hand, there is competition for areas of influence in the Caucasus and Central Asia as well as other questions of power and worldview .

In December 2004, after 31 years, Russian President Putin was the first Russian or Soviet head of state to visit Turkey. Erdoğan returned the visit in January 2005.

After a Russian fighter jet was shot down by the Turkish army near the Turkish-Syrian border on November 24, 2015, there was a dramatic deterioration in Turkish-Russian relations. On December 19, 2016, the Russian ambassador to Turkey , Andrei Karlov , was killed in an Islamist attack in Ankara .

In October 2016, Turkey and Russia signed a contract for the Turkish Stream gas pipeline project, which had previously been put on hold . The Russian atomic energy agency Rosatom was commissioned to build the first Turkish nuclear power plant, which is to be called " Akkuyu ". In addition, the Turkish government announced in November 2016 that it wanted to buy a Russian S-400 air defense system . After the loosening of mutual sanctions policies , trade relations between Turkey and Russia grew again slightly in January 2017 for the first time since 2014. In March 2017, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan traveled to Moscow to see Russian President Vladimir Putin in order to initiate talks on energy policy and a further relaxation of sanctions (e.g. visa requirements for Turks and import ban on Turkish food). Another issue is how to deal with Syria, a country with a civil war .

United Kingdom

Cyprus

There is disagreement about the Turkish soldiers stationed in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . Turkey is the only country in the world that does not recognize the Republic of Cyprus , instead it is recognized by Turkey as the "Greek Administration of Southern Cyprus" or "Greek Part of Cyprus" . The attempt by the Republic of Cyprus to station anti-aircraft missiles on the island almost led to war in the mid-1990s, and the missiles were ultimately not deployed.

Turkey seeks an agreement based on the Annan plan , but refuses prior recognition of the Republic of Cyprus.

middle East

Iraq

Turkey maintained good relations with Iraq during the reign of Saddam's regime . Iraq supplied oil to Turkey through a pipeline. In addition, both governments shared the rejection of an independent Kurdish state . However, there were always diplomatic crises because the Iraqi regime tolerated PKK fighters on its territory. The PKK attacked Turkish territory from northern Iraq.

In the second Gulf War , Turkey supported the Allied war against Iraq.

After the Turkish parliament refused to support the US in the Iraq war , bilateral relations between the two countries were severely strained. On October 7, 2003, at the request of the United States, the Grand National Assembly decided to send Turkish soldiers to Iraq. The project was stopped because of the Iraqi resistance.

Turkey saw a possible reason for war in the event of a victory for the Kurds in Kirkuk in the elections on January 30, 2005 and its integration into the autonomous region of Kurdistan in Iraq. The background is that the rich oil fields in Kirkuk make an economically viable and independent Kurdish state conceivable. There were fears that an independent Kurdish state in what is now northern Iraq would escalate the Kurdish conflict in Turkey again. Despite many disagreements, Turkish companies have seen a surge in investment in the Iraqi Kurdish region. Ankara has also opened a consulate in Erbil .

Turkey also fears that the Turkmen minority in Kirkuk and Mosul could be disadvantaged in the redistribution of power in Iraq.

On October 17, 2007, the Turkish parliament voted with a large majority in favor of military intervention against Kurdish rebels in northern Iraq. Prime Minister Erdoğan has the authorization to take action for a second year. The Iraqi President then appealed to Turkey not to invade, and the EU and the USA also warned Turkey of an escalation.

Iran

The relationship with Iran is u. a. disturbed because of the different state systems. While Turkey is a secular democracy, Iran defines itself as an Islamic Republic .

At the beginning of the 21st century, the relationship seemed to relax. Many Turkish companies received lucrative large orders in Iran. Iran is the largest natural gas supplier and the second largest oil supplier to Turkey.

In the nuclear dispute Turkey tries to find a diplomatic solution. She advocates the civil use of atomic energy , but strictly against military use. Due to the existential dependence on Iranian oil and natural gas , Turkey is not interested in an escalation .

Israel

Commemoration at the Be'er Scheva war memorial for the fallen Ottoman soldiers in the battle for Be'er Scheva during the First World War
( Be'er Scheva / October 31, 2007)

The Republic of Turkey has long had close ties with Israel . In 1948, under Ismet Inönü's government, Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognize Israel and establish diplomatic relations. Israel is an important ally for Turkey in the region. The strategic alliance is completed by the USA .

There is an additional secret military agreement between Turkey and Israel. According to observers, the agreement may a. directed against Syria . Both countries feel threatened by the supposed Syrian support for terrorist groups.

There are also contracts with Israel for extensive arms deliveries in order to modernize the Turkish military. In return, Turkey grants the Israeli military training in Turkey.

When President Recep Erdoğan described Israel's Palestinian policy as state terrorism , relations were strained.

The Med Stream , a pipeline for the transport of electricity, natural gas, crude oil and water, is planned between Ceyhan (Turkey) and Haifa (Israel) .

After Erdoğan and Israeli President Shimon Peres publicly accused Israel of war crimes in the Gaza War at the World Economic Forum in Davos in 2009, Israel was refused permission to participate in the international NATO military exercise that had been taking place since 2000, whereupon the USA withdrew its participation . Relations with Israel deteriorated further after the Ship-to-Gaza incident .

On March 22, 2013, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu apologized to Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan for the Ship-to-Gaza incident . Relations between Israel and Turkey are now relaxed.

Saudi Arabia

Relations with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are primarily of an economic and security nature. Both countries are skeptical of the newly formed government in Iraq. After the improved relations and mutual visits in 2006 and 2007, a number of economic and military agreements came into force.

Syria

Relations between the two countries were strained for a long time.

Syria claims Hatay Province and regards it as Syrian territory. Syria's open support for the PKK prompted Turkey to threaten Damascus with war in the late 1990s. Syria feels threatened by the close military cooperation between Israel and Turkey. There are also disputes over the water of the Euphrates . The construction of dams as part of the Southeast Anatolia project has led Syria to fear that Turkey might one day use water as an instrument of power.

The mutual state visits in December 2004 and January 2005 helped ease relations. Turkey mediated between Syria and Israel in order to create a lasting peace between the two states. Talks stalled because of the Gaza war. The first joint Turkish-Syrian military maneuver took place between April 27 and 30, 2009. Relations with the neighboring country are currently very tense again. Turkey recently imposed sanctions on Syria because of the harsh actions of Assad troops against the people in their own country. All accounts of people close to the regime were frozen and arms deliveries were prohibited.

Caucasus and Central Asia

Afghanistan

In Afghanistan , Turkey is in the country with a contingent for reconstruction. It has been ISAF VII's lead nation since February 2005 .

Armenia

The Armenian Foreign Minister Nalbandjan and the Turkish Foreign Minister Davutoğlu signing the (later failed) normalization agreements

Relations with Armenia remain strained.

According to the Treaty of Kars (1921), Armenia does not recognize the border with Turkey to this day.

Turkey still does not recognize the genocide of the Armenians and speaks in this context of the "consequences of acts of war" and mutual attacks. The representation of Turkey - also supported by a few international scholars - contradicts the accepted consensus in comparative genocide research . The relevant associations of internationally recognized genocide researchers (e.g. the International Association of Genocide Scholars) as well as leading researchers of the Jewish Holocaust such as Yehuda Bauer , Israel Charny and Stephen Feinstein have issued corresponding resolutions and clearly labeled the events as genocide . International organizations such as the Council of Europe and 24 individual states have passed resolutions, decisions or laws with which they officially recognized the events as genocide within the meaning of the 1948 UN Genocide Convention .

The occupation of the Nagorno-Karabakh region, which is part of Azerbaijan under international law, by Armenia strains relations with Turkey, as Turkey sees itself as the protecting power of Azerbaijan .

Relations have improved since the Armenian President sent Turkish President Abdullah Gül an invitation in September 2008 to watch the two countries qualify for the soccer World Cup in Armenia. On October 10, 2009, the Turkish and Armenian Foreign Ministers signed an agreement in Zurich on the normalization of relations between the two countries (opening of the common border) and on the establishment of diplomatic relations. The ceremony was attended by the US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton , who had previously acted as mediator, along with the Swiss Foreign Minister, the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov , the EU Foreign Minister Javier Solana and the French and British Foreign Ministers.

Because the parliaments of Armenia (because of the massive political pressure from the Armenian diaspora ) and Turkey (because of the massive political pressure from Azerbaijan ), also because of the negative public opinions of the people in both countries about this agreement, have not yet approved it , the two states still have no diplomatic relations with each other.

On April 22, 2010, Armenia froze the agreement, accusing Turkey of delaying approval for diplomatic relations. Only if Turkey first ratifies the agreement will Armenia then be ready to ratify the agreement in order to try to normalize it again.

Georgia

In contrast to Armenia, Turkey maintains good relations with Georgia , which are symbolized by the existing Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and the Kars-Akhalkalaki-Tbilisi-Baku railway that is currently under construction .

Turkic states

Turkey tries to expand its influence on the Turkic peoples in the Caucasus and Central Asia . There are close ties to these states in terms of culture, history, ethnicity and language.

In the mid-1990s, when relations with the EU were strained or made more difficult and accession was unlikely, a political union with the Turkic states was even seen as an alternative. Instead of such goals, economic priorities are set today. One of the goals is currently to lay crude oil and natural gas pipelines across Turkish territory. With this project, Turkey is in competition with Russia and Iran.

Azerbaijan

Relations with the Republic of Azerbaijan are considered to be the best compared to other Turkic countries. The Ottoman Empire recognized the Azerbaijani Democratic Republic as early as 1918 .

Turkey currently supports Azerbaijan both economically (with regard to the BTC pipeline ) and politically (with regard to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict with Armenia by training Azerbaijani soldiers).

Turkmenistan

Due to the foreign policy neutrality of Turkmenistan , the interest of the Turkmen government in close cooperation with Turkey is rather low. On November 17, 2006, the first summit of Turkic states took place in Antalya, Turkey. Uzbekistan stayed away from the summit, Turkmenistan was only represented by one observer. At the moment, Turkmenistan is mainly working more closely in the areas of energy and economic policy.

Uzbekistan

A conflict between Uzbekistan and Turkey that continues to this day concerns the riots in Andijon , in which the military shot more than 70 demonstrators. Turkey supported a US-tabled resolution at the United Nations. In it, the Uzbek leadership is heavily criticized for violating human rights. The Uzbek leadership now rejects any cooperation with Turkey.

Relations with Japan

There are around 10,000 Turks living in Japan today. Relations between Japan and the Ottoman Empire , later Turkey, developed slowly after the opening of Japan in 1868 and are now primarily of economic importance. Turkey has an embassy in Tokyo , Japan has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate general in Istanbul.

Relations with the USA

The portrait of Turkish President İsmet İnönü ( left ) and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ( right ) on an anniversary stamp of the Republic of Turkey, which was issued to celebrate the 150th anniversary of US independence.

Since World War II, Turkey has been the most important ally in the Middle East alongside Israel. After the attacks of September 11, 2001 , Turkey continued to gain in importance. The Turkish government at the time decided to join the coalition of the willing before the Iraq war initiated by US President George W. Bush . A majority of the Turkish population was against this accession or the Iraq war. On March 1, 2003, there was not a sufficient majority in the National Assembly to support the US's desire to station 62,000 American soldiers in Turkey in preparation for the Iraq invasion. Although a second resolution allowed the US to invade south-east Turkey, there was slight political tension between Turkey and the US.

On 10 October 2007, the foreign policy committee adopted the US Congress a resolution to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Armenians in the years 1915 and 1916 as genocide called. Turkish politicians said this was putting a strain on Turkish-American relations.

US President Obama delivered a historic speech in the National Assembly on April 6, 2009 .

Another foreign policy issue was Turkey's invasion of northern Iraq to combat PKK bases . The US pleaded against an invasion because northern Iraq was the only quiet zone in Iraq. An escalation could worsen the situation in Iraq. The Turkish government invoked its right to self-defense ; many PKK members withdrew to northern Iraq after attacks in Turkey. After a PKK commando killed 15 Turkish soldiers on October 7, 2007 , Prime Minister Erdoğan gave the go-ahead for cross-border military operations. He said on October 12, 2007: “Did you (the US) ask permission when you traveled over 10,000 km to invade Iraq? We don't need any advice from anyone! "

On January 8, 2008, Abdullah Gül and George W. Bush met at the White House. Bush affirmed that the US and Turkey's fight against their common enemy PKK would continue.

On April 7, 2009, US President Barack Obama visited Turkey as the end of his European tour. Obama gave a speech in the Turkish parliament and reiterated his wish for Turkey to join the EU . He later attended the meeting of the Alliance of Civilizations in Istanbul.

On May 16, 2017, there was a scandal at a meeting of the presidents of both countries in the United States .

Video recordings of the scuffle. Source: Voice of America

After President Erdoğan met with President Donald Trump in Washington DC and visited the Turkish embassy , after a verbal exchange, Turkish government officials attacked a demonstration against Turkish politics , which broke up into a scuffle between Turkish security officials and demonstrators. Since the incident was documented on video, this, in addition to extensive reporting and media presence, led to diplomatic tensions. Mutual accusations and accusations, official complaints, as well as summoning the respective ambassadors and demands by American politicians to expel the Turkish ambassador to the country were the result. Arrest warrants were issued for 12 Turkish officials following a decision by the House of Representatives , investigations by the Washington police and the FBI . President Erdoğan announced that he would challenge the prosecution rulings.

After the attempted coup in July 2016 , the American civilian and pastor Andrew Brunson was arrested in Turkey in October 2016 on the grounds that he had connections to the banned Kurdish Workers' Party PKK and the connection of the US-based preacher Fethullah Gülen , who was accused by the Turkish judiciary is to have organized the coup attempt remand taken.

After the pre-trial detention was converted into house arrest 1½ years later in July 2018, interim efforts between Turkey and the USA to resolve the case diplomatically had failed. As a result, in August 2018, in addition to sanctions against the two Turkish justice ministers and interior ministers involved in the case, US President Trump also raised tariffs on aluminum and steel from Turkey from 20 to 50 percent. President Erdogan assessed this as an economic war, called for a boycott of American products and ordered the increase of tariffs on vehicles, alcohol, tobacco, cosmetics, rice and coal from the USA.

See also

literature

  • Kubilay Yado Arin: The AKP's Foreign Policy, Turkey's Reorientation from the West to the East? Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-86573-719-9 .
  • Efe Çaman: Turkish foreign policy after the end of the East-West conflict: foreign policy continuity and reorientation between EU integration and new regional policy . 1st edition. wvb Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-86573-104-X .
  • Foreign policy of European states: from Albania to Cyprus . In: Wolfgang Gieler (Hrsg.): Text and study books of political science . Scientia Bonnensis, Bonn; Bahrain; Irvine 2007, ISBN 978-3-940766-01-4 .
  • Bibliography on Turkish-Israel Relations
  • Ahmet Davutoğlu: Stratejik Derinlik: Türkiye . 27th edition. Küre Yayınları, İstanbul 2008, ISBN 978-975-6614-51-8 (Turkish).

Web links

Commons : Turkey's Foreign Policy  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Regions & countries

middle East

countries

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Reconciliation after six years of the Ice Age ; Israel's deal with Turkey: "the deal is terrible"
  2. ↑ Candidacy of the Republic of Turkey for the UN Security Council ( Memento of May 9, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), Internet presence of the Republic of Turkey for the candidacy in the Security Council ( Memento of May 9, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on February 6, 2008.
  3. ↑ de.euronews.net
  4. ↑ Erdogan in the Council of Europe: “You are a French!” | euronews, Europe
  5. ↑ Macron receives Erdogan: first politely, then with clear text , Spiegel Online , January 5, 2018.
  6. ↑ ak 430: Turkey: Not only the earth trembles
  7. ↑ 49 yıl sonra Ankara'da tarihi fotoğraf ( Memento from April 18, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ), Zaman Online , accessed on January 23, 2008.
  8. ↑ spiegel.de: Must be
  9. ↑ Erdoğan had already visited Greece as Prime Minister in 2004 and 2010.
  10. ↑ sueddeutsche.de December 7, 2017: Greece and Turkey: friendly enemies
  11. ^ Zeit.de December 7, 2017: Visit to Greece: Erdoğan calls for revision of the Greek-Turkish border
  12. ↑ handelsblatt.com / Gerd Höhler April 10, 2018: Greece and Turkey are arming
  13. ↑ Türkiye Kosova'nın bağımsızlığını tanıdı , CNN-TÜRK ( memento of March 6, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on February 19, 2007.
  14. ↑ Pipeline project: Erdogan and Putin delighted the economy , FAZ.net , March 10, 2017.
  15. ↑ Erdogan meets Putin: The Tsar and the Sultan , FAZ.net , March 10, 2017.
  16. ^ Air defense - Turkey seeks protection from Iranian missiles . Handelsblatt , February 23, 2006.
  17. ↑ (Between Turkey and Israel: The crisis continues to smolder ) October 13, 2009
  18. ↑ Israel apologizes to Turkey . In: Zeit Online . 22th of March 2013.
  19. ↑ Latest News ( Memento of February 10, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
  20. ^ Sultan Meets Turkish Defense Minister ( Memento from June 16, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  21. ^ Kral Abdullah Ankara'da CNN Turk
  22. ↑ Kral Abdullah Türkiye'de. ( Memento from February 9, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ) Haberler (Turkish)
  23. ↑ Thomas Seifert: Syria's President Assad: “A suit of the brand peace”. In: http://diepresse.com/ . Die Presse , April 25, 2009, p. 1 , accessed on May 3, 2009 (interview with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad ).
  24. ↑ spiegel.de
  25. ↑ Recommendation 751 on the stability and security of the South Caucasus ( Memento of March 4, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 125 kB), Der Deutsche Bundestag , accessed on May 9, 2013.
  26. ↑ Diplomatic relations for the first time. Turkey and Armenia sign reconciliation plan faz.net, October 10, 2009 and a major step towards reconciliation . Deutsche Welle online, October 10, 2009.
  27. ↑ Armenia Freezes Peace Process With Turkey Institute for War & Peace Reporting (IWPR), April 25, 2010.
  28. ^ Azerbaijani foreign policy
  29. ^ Relations with the Turkic states ( Memento from January 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  30. ↑ Turkic summit regarding Uzbekistan ( Memento from January 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  31. ↑ Turkish Poker Game . Zeit Online , October 12, 2007.
  32. ↑ Endurance test: Turkey outraged by US Congress resolution on Armenia . Spiegel Online , October 11, 2007.
  33. ↑ a b Kurdish conflict: More and more Turks see the USA as an enemy . Spiegel Online , October 11, 2007.
  34. ↑ Turkish pinpricks - Ankara takes action against the United States . Wiener Zeitung , October 12, 2007; Retrieved November 6, 2013.
  35. ↑ Turkey keeps Iraq option open . washingtontimes.com , October 12, 2007.
  36. ↑ the last time before that, the then Turkish President Demirel and the then US President Clinton had met in the White House in March 1996 ( state.gov ).
  37. ↑ Bush-Gül görüşmesi gerçekleşti , CNN-TÜRK ( Memento of March 6, 2011 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on January 9, 2007.
  38. ^ Demonstrations in Turkey against the new US president
  39. ^ Events of the US visit to Turkey
  40. ↑ https://www.facebook.com/philip.bump : Analysis | What Erdogan personally involved in his bodyguards' attacks on protesters in DC? Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  41. ↑ https://www.facebook.com/philip.bump : Analysis | How the US can hold Erdogan's brawling guards accountable - and keep it from happening again. Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  42. ↑ Raw: Video shows Erdogan observing clashes in DC. Retrieved June 25, 2017 (English).
  43. ^ Fight Outside Turkish Ambassador's Residence in Washington Injures 9 . In: Pittsburgh Post-Gazette . ( post-gazette.com [accessed June 25, 2017]).
  44. ↑ US summons Turkey envoy for embassy brawl . In: BBC News . May 18, 2017 ( bbc.com [accessed June 25, 2017]).
  45. ↑ https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/washington-dc/articles/2017-05-17/9-hurt-2-arrested-in-altercation-at-turkish-embassy-in-dc . Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  46. ^ ABC News: ABC News. Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  47. ↑ Turkey "s Erdoğan slams US move to issue arrest warrants for bodyguards - DIPLOMACY. Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  48. ^ US Congress calls for charges over Turkey embassy brawl . In: BBC News . June 7, 2017 ( bbc.com [accessed June 25, 2017]).
  49. ↑ Spiegel online: Violence in front of the embassy in Washington: Erdogan wants to challenge arrest warrants against bodyguards. Retrieved June 25, 2017 .
  50. ↑ Attempted coup in Turkey: Erdogan offers imprisoned US pastor in exchange for Gülen . In: Spiegel Online . September 28, 2017 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  51. ↑ US pastor: Turkish court converts Andrew Brunson's detention into house arrest . In: Spiegel Online . July 25, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  52. ↑ Anna-Sophie Schneider, Vanessa Steinmetz: US sanctions against Turkey: A bromance breaks . In: Spiegel Online . August 2, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  53. ↑ House arrest for US pastor: USA impose sanctions on Turkey . In: Spiegel Online . August 1, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  54. ↑ Response to sanctions: Erdogan announces boycott of US electronics . In: Spiegel Online . August 14, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  55. ↑ Trade: Trump wants to double punitive tariffs against Turkey - Lira in free fall . In: Spiegel Online . August 10, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 14, 2018]).
  56. ↑ Retaliation: Turkey increases import duties on US products . In: Spiegel Online . August 15, 2018 ( spiegel.de [accessed August 15, 2018]).