Christmas worldwide
Christmas around the world describes Christmas celebrations and customs in different countries around the world.
Central Europe
Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein
Christmas is a traditional festival that is prepared by the Advent season . The usual course of the festive season includes visiting the Christmas market , Christmas decorations (in the form of fir greenery, window pictures, poinsettia , candles and lights, etc.), baking cookies in the run-up to Christmas , the nativity scene, the Christmas tree , giving presents and attending church services and church concerts (especially the performance of a Christmas oratorio ). The Christmas traditions vary regionally, between the Christian denominations and also from family to family.
Luxembourg
In Luxembourg , a shoe is traditionally placed in front of the front door on the evening before December 6th, which "Kleeschen" (Nikolaus) and his assistant "Houseker" fill with sweets and fruit. On Christmas Eve, black pudding with mashed potatoes and apple sauce is usually eaten with family and good friends. Presents under the Christmas tree may only be unpacked after midnight mass.
Poland
The Christmas season begins in Poland with the first Advent . The Advent season is a time of fasting that only ends on Christmas Eve ( Wigilia ).
In Poland, Christmas is usually celebrated with extended families. The Christmas dinner ( wigilia ) does not begin until the first star has appeared in the sky (gwiazdka). There is always one more place setting than required. It is intended for unexpected visitors and a sign of hospitality. With each place setting there is an Oplatek, which is printed with a picture (usually images of saints). Before everyone starts to eat, everyone takes their wafer to each other family member in turn, gives a piece of their wafer and breaks a piece from the other. They wish each other good luck for the next year.
The Christmas dinner traditionally consists of twelve dishes - in memory of the twelve apostles - and is vegetarian, apart from the fish (mostly carp). The dishes also include beetroot soup or mushroom soup, Maultaschen and the "Sernik" (cheesecake). The presents are only unpacked after dinner. Then the whole family goes to church for midnight mass ( Pasterka ).
Czech Republic
On Christmas Eve (December 24th), the Štědrý večer , or the Štědrý den (the Generous Evening, the Plentiful Day), gifts are given in the Czech Republic . They are said to come from Ježíšek , the Christ Child . One should fast before the Christmas meal and the subsequent unwrapping of presents. It is said that in the evening you can see a zlaté prasátko , a golden pig (a traditional symbol of good luck ) if you really haven't eaten all day.
Other Czech Christmas traditions include various popular interpretations of the future. Apples are cut crosswise: if a star appears in the core, there is a good year ahead, if a cross appears, there will be a bad year. Girls throw shoes over their shoulders to see if they are about to get married. This should occur when the toe of the shoe points towards the door. Also, the lead casting belongs to this tradition.
The traditional festive meal on Christmas Eve is Christmas carp with potato salad . The chosen carp is bought alive and its last days in the bathtub are lovingly petted as a pet . Non-Christian families also like to attend midnight mass on Christmas Eve.
Slovakia
Numerous Christmas markets take place in Slovakia during Advent . On December 4th, the Slovaks celebrate St. Barbara's Day . On this day, young girls put cherry branches in the water. If they bloom on Christmas Eve, that means happiness in the next year for them. On December 12th, women's groups go from house to house to scare men. On Christmas Eve, “Ježiško” (Christ Child) brings Christmas presents. The Christmas dinner usually starts at dusk, usually there is mushroom soup, fish, sauerkraut and various pastries. Then you visit the midnight mass. On December 25th, there is a celebration in family circles and on December 26th in circles of friends and acquaintances.
Slovenia
In Slovenia , the Christmas season begins on November 13th with a festive meal that is supposed to usher in the pre-Christmas Lent. The focus is on the "Jaslice" (Christmas crib), which is mostly homemade in the house. A typical feast is Christmas bread baked with rye, buckwheat and wheat, which is said to have magical powers. On Christmas Eve one often attends the midnight mass; the following day there is Christmas dinner and the gift giving. On this day, guests are a sign of misfortune for the next year. In religious families, the house is blessed on Christmas Eve, New Year's Eve and Epiphany. The Christmas season ends with the feast of the Presentation of the Lord on February 2nd.
Hungary
In the Hungarian pre-Christmas season, December 13th has a special meaning as "Luca Day" (Luca napja). It is the same day that Lucia is celebrated in Sweden . On this day, people used to start building a "Luca chair" (Luca széke) in rural areas. Only a small amount of the work was done each day, so the chair was just finished on Christmas Eve. You had to go to Christmas mass with the chair and stand on it. It was said that one could see the witches from above and drive them away. It was also customary on December 13th to sow wheat in a small pot. There was a superstition that there were various methods of predicting the future spouse of an adolescent girl on this day.
In Hungarian families, fish soup made from carp is traditionally eaten on Christmas Eve (Szenteste) , followed by fried fish as the second course. At Christmas (Karácsony), especially on Christmas Day, it is customary to eat stuffed cabbage that has been prepared a few days in advance.
A Christmas tree is also set up in Hungary. A specialty is the " szaloncukor " (salon sugar), a piece of sugar originally wrapped in tissue paper that is used as a tree curtain. Nowadays these are mostly industrially produced Christmas sweets that are coated with chocolate and are available in a wide variety of flavors, such as "zselés szaloncukor", salon candy with fruit jelly filling. The name indicates the place of the Christmas tree in old bourgeois households: it was customary to have the Christmas tree in the drawing room. For the poorer households, however, only the name remained so elegant, they had to make their own salon candy. The children also get salon candy after the afternoon nativity play in the church on December 24th.
The Christ Child, called "Jézuska", comes to the children. At the time of communism attempts were made to replace “Jézuska” with Santa Claus “Télapó” (cf. the Russian Дед Мороз ). "Télapó" was also the substitute for Nikolaus (Mikulás), who - like in German-speaking countries - visits the children on December 6th (Mikulás napja) and puts presents in their polished shoes.
Around Christmas it is common for children to go to families and play a nativity play for poor people in exchange for a small donation, similar to what the carol singers do in German-speaking countries . This custom, which is also widespread in the country and should be superseded at the time of communism, is called "betlehemezés" (Betlehemspiel). Traditional Hungarian Christmas carols are “Kis karácsony, nagy karácsony” (Little Christmas and Big Christmas) and “Mennyből az angyal” (Angel from Heaven).
Western Europe
Netherlands
“Sinterklaasavond” (Saint Nicholas Eve ) remains more important than Christmas in the Netherlands , although the Dutch have also started celebrating Christmas Eve with Santa Claus in recent years. This creates a bit of controversy every year about when it is appropriate to celebrate Christmas. Shop owners start the lucrative Christmas season immediately after St. Nicholas Day (decorations usually hang beforehand), while others fear that the “strange” and “commercial” Christmas will affect the St. Nicholas celebrations too much.
France
The French Santa Claus is called "Père Noël". Unlike the American Santa Claus, he does not appear in a jacket and pants, but wears a long, red robe with a pointed cap. He doesn't carry his presents in a sack but in a box on his back. The children put their shoes in front of the door. A popular Christmas song among French children is “Petit Papa Noël”.
In eastern France, especially in Alsace and Lorraine , Nicholas arrives on December 6th accompanied by his helper in black, the " Père Fouettard ". Some families also attend midnight mass and decorate their houses with a nativity scene, to which figures of saints are also placed. A long “réveillon” (Christmas dinner) is held in France and in many French-speaking regions (such as Wallonia , Belgium , parts of Switzerland , Québec and the Aosta Valley in Italy ). Oysters, lobsters, snails, foie gras and other things are usually eaten, and wine is also drunk. Another traditional food is turkey with walnuts. Bûche de Noël is often eaten as a dessert, and Provence has around 13 desserts, most of which contain “pompe à l'huile” (a flavored bread), dates and other things.
Monaco
In Monaco oversized stars shine in mid-November in all the streets. During this time, people like to eat roasted almonds and hot chestnuts and the city is partly covered with artificial snow.
United Kingdom and Ireland
The Christmas traditions in the British Isles were also adopted from their former colonies in North America , Australia or New Zealand . On Christmas Eve, the presents are delivered under the Christmas tree by Santa Claus, who is called "Father Christmas" here. To the British, their designation for Santa Claus appears more formal than the American version of Santa Claus. On Christmas Day, families and sometimes friends come together for a traditional Christmas meal. TV is watched more often at Christmas than the average time of year, and for many TV stations, Christmas Eve is the quoted busiest day of the year. Many Britons attend the Queen's annual Christmas address . One of the most listened to radio broadcasts is the afternoon service “ Nine Lessons and Carols ” from King's College, Cambridge , which has been broadcast live for decades . The celebrations will continue on December 26th: Boxing Day in the United Kingdom is an extension of Christmas.
Northern Europe
Denmark
During the Advent season, a calendar candle (calendar lys) is often set up in the evening, the day sections of which are burned down day by day until December 24th. It was launched in 1942 by the Copenhagen candle factory Asp & Holmblad. The Advent wreath spread from Schleswig across the country at the beginning of the 20th century. Self-made advent calendars are also common. On December 13th, the children celebrate the Lucia Festival - following the Swedish model . In the factories, the adults often come together for a joint Julefrokost . Among other things, lesbleskiver is eaten and mulled wine ( Glögg ) or the somewhat stronger Danish Christmas brew (Julebryg) is drunk. Danish Christmas cookies (Klejner) and gingerbread (Pepperkager) are baked within the family .
Christmas Eve (Juleaften) the living room is festively decorated. In the afternoon, many families watch the Christmas television program together. Then goose, duck or roast pork with red cabbage and potatoes glazed brown with sugar are served. For dessert, almond milk rice (ris à l'amande) is eaten with an almond stirred in . The person who discovers the almond in their portion will receive a small gift ( almond gave ). Light Wichtel beer (Nisseøl) is often drunk for dessert. A bowl of porridge is in the attic or at the door the Christmas nisse (local and Nis Puk ) left. Nisser are Nordic gnomes who “work for Santa Claus”. After dinner, Christmas carols are sung and people dance hand in hand around the decorated Christmas tree . The Christmas tree is often decorated with woven Christmas hearts (Julehjerter) or small paper bags (Kræmmerhuse). While the decorated tree - based on the German model - was first documented in Denmark in 1808, the Christmas hearts were created around the middle of the 19th century: It is uncertain whether they go back to Hans Christian Andersen or Friedrich Fröbel .
The graphic artist Frederik Bramming had the so-called “kravle nisser ” printed on cut-out sheets for the first time in 1947 : small, colorful cardboard or paper gnomes that are placed on shelves and picture frames for decoration.
Setting up a Julebuk is also common. Then the presents lying under the tree are distributed. In the afternoon, many families go to a Christmas service.
Estonia
In the run-up to Christmas, children in Estonia put slippers on the windowsill; the slippers are then filled with sweets by “päkapikud” (Christmas elves). Estonians celebrate Christmas on December 24th, known as jõululaupäev (Christmas Saturday). Christmas is a public holiday in Estonia. Every year the Estonian President proclaims the Christmas peace and attends a Christmas service. This tradition was introduced by the Swedish Queen Christina in the 17th century. The children are visited on Christmas Eve by “jõuluvana”, old Santa Claus, and have to sing songs or recite poems before they receive the presents. Dinner usually consists of pork with sauerkraut, baked potatoes, white sausage and black pudding, potato salad with beetroot and pate. There is gingerbread and marzipan for dessert. Beer and mulled wine are usually drunk. The leftover Christmas dinner is left overnight because it is believed that the ghosts of relatives, acquaintances and friends come to visit and eat something. It is also common to visit cemeteries to light candles for the deceased. December 25th is called "jõulupüha" and is mostly used for relaxation, where you also visit relatives.
Faroe Islands
Christmas is celebrated in the Faroe Islands from December 24th for 21 days. The Faroese celebrate the "Tjúgundahalgi" (holy twentieth day); thus the Faroese are the only ones who have preserved the Nordic Christmas custom, in which people dance to the Christmas sweep on January 13th. Before Christmas, the Faroese hang a poinsettia on the window. The children make Christmas decorations themselves until they are around 16 years of age. Lard biscuits, pepper nuts, speculoos and vanilla wreaths are baked. On the last day of school, the whole school meets in the auditorium and dances around the Christmas tree while singing. Then a Santa Claus distributes gifts.
On December 24th, the Christmas tree is decorated in the evening and the youngest member puts on the top. Some read the Gospel of Christmas at home, while others attend evening services. In the afternoon or evening you eat the Christmas dinner, which consists of roast goose, duck or pork or fish or sheep meat. There are also potatoes, vegetables, lettuce, brown potatoes, pineapple, red cabbage, brown and white sauce. For dessert you eat rice pudding with an almond. Then the Christmas tree is lit and people dance and sing around the tree. The next day, the “Jóladagur” is celebrated, when some people go to the morning service. In the afternoon you visit the graves and decorate them with home-made decorations. On December 26th they visit relatives and friends. In the evening there is a traditional dance. January 6th is “Trettandi” (the thirteenth), on which they hold a dance evening. There is also a public dance evening at Tjúgundahalgi.
Finland
|
|
|
|
The typical Finnish Christmas decoration " Himmeli "
|
Luminous candles on a grave in the Malmi Cemetery in Helsinki on Christmas Eve
|
"Joulupukki" (Christmas ram) is the Finnish name of Santa Claus. This refers to the Yule goat . This expression comes from a time when it was customary to dress up as a yule goat with goat skins after Christmas dinner. Today “Joulupukki” is an ordinary Santa Claus, but with a few special features. His place of residence is on the Korvatunturi in Finnish Lapland . He doesn't crawl down the chimney, but knocks on the apartment door on Christmas Eve. When he enters, his first words are always: “Onkos taällä kilttejä lapsia?” (“Are there any good children here?”) He wears red, warm clothes and uses a walking stick. He drives to the houses on a reindeer sleigh. One of the reindeer is called "Petteri Punakuono" and was the model for "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer". Joulupukki even has a woman named “Joulumuori” who can prepare fine Christmas porridge.
The traditional Christmas dinner includes Christmas ham , potato and turnip casseroles and rosolli salad ( beetroot salad). "Piparkakut" ( gingerbread ) and "Joulutortut" are common pastries . The latter are star-shaped puff pastries that are filled with plum jam. Also is common Glögi , a Christmas punch , which is produced according to taste with or without alcohol and is usually served with raisins and almonds.
Iceland
In Iceland , Christmas is celebrated from Christmas Eve to Epiphany. Because of the lack of trees in the country, trees used to be built from pieces of wood, painted green and decorated with evergreen branches and Christmas decorations. Today, fir trees are mostly imported from the mainland to Iceland.
On Christmas Eve, “Jolaar” (Christmas lamb), smoked meat, sausages and home-brewed beer are usually consumed. As in Denmark, there is the ritual with the rice porridge and the hidden almond. The thirteen Christmas gnomes from the mountains , who look like Santa Claus, bring the children the presents. The first comes twelve days before Christmas Eve and the thirteenth on Christmas Eve. Accordingly, the first disappears on Christmas Day and the last on Epiphany.
Latvia
In Latvia , Christian and pre-Christian customs have been mixed up at the winter solstice. On Christmas Eve, an oak beam is drawn from house to house, which is burned in the last courtyard to destroy the evil and to give the sun new strength. Many children also go from door to door disguised as animals, sun or death to chase away evil spirits. The Christmas tree is often decorated with straw stars and dried flowers. The Christmas dinner is usually black pudding, sauerkraut, peas, beans, pearl barley, “pírági” (bacon cake), roast pork or fish. Anyone who eats it nine times should be rich and happy next year. Russian Orthodox Latvians do not celebrate Christmas until January 6th.
Lithuania
In Lithuania , Christmas is celebrated very quietly and with families. Christmas Eve is the highlight of the holidays as it is believed that the following year will be like Christmas Eve. For this reason, you bathe or go to the sauna that day. In the mornings, children decorate the Christmas tree, which found its way into the living rooms of wealthy citizens as a German import at the beginning of the 20th century, with straw stars, handicrafts, toys, apples, nuts and pastries. The Christmas dinner begins when the first star can be seen in the sky. A twelve-course menu is eaten with reference to the twelve months of the year or the twelve apostles. Before the meal, people pray together and a cake of God is passed around. Mostly fish, poppy seed milk soup, vegetables, salad, fruit, cereal porridge, compote, mushrooms, bread, pastries and wine are eaten, meat and dairy products are not eaten on Christmas Eve. Then you pull straws out from under the tablecloth. Long, thick ones give hope for a good year; thin or broken bring bad luck. After the meal there is no covering so that the souls of the deceased relatives can also eat. In other circles, however, food is placed on the window ledge for them. After the meal, the presents that Santa Claus brought are unwrapped. From December 25th you start eating meat again and on December 26th you often visit friends.
Norway
In the run-up to Christmas, many employers organize a " Julbord ", a kind of buffet as an extensive Christmas dinner. Elegantly dressed you can enjoy good food and drinks. Although December 24th is a legal working day in Norway until 4 p.m., shops usually close early. In the evening the traditional Christmas meal awaits, consisting of pork or lamb ribs with potatoes, Norwegian sauerkraut and turnips.
In Norway, too, watching TV together in the early hours of Christmas Eve is of particular importance. If children are present (and they have been good in the last year), the " Julenissen " pays a visit, otherwise the presents are placed under the Christmas tree and distributed by the youngest present. Many churchgoers, including irregular ones, attend the services.
December 25th is a calm and quiet day in Norway, while on December 26th, cinemas, bars and nightclubs are filled with partygoers enjoying Christmas cookies and sweets. There are also fatty and tasty dishes. Children dress up as " Julebukk " and ask for sweets, following the same pattern as American children on Halloween . The Christmas season ends on January 6th.
Sweden
The Swedish Christmas season begins on the first Sunday in Advent . As in other Nordic countries, Santa Claus brings the gifts on Christmas Eve .
As everywhere in Sweden, the focus is on food: Almost every family celebrates on December 24th with a Christmas “ Smörgåsbord ”, the “ Julbord ” with the special Christmas ham (julskinka). The “Julbord” is also a popular meal in the Advent season and can be ordered in many restaurants. Companies often invite their employees to Julbord. Various sweets are associated with Christmas in Sweden, including toffee, crisp and chocolate, but also nuts and fruits such as oranges , figs and dates . A Scandinavian specialty is " Glögg ", a kind of mulled wine with almonds and berries, which is served in small cups.
The Yule goat has traditionally been part of the Christmas season in Scandinavia since pre-Christian times . Originally it embodied the fertility of the earth given by the gods and was able to assert itself for centuries as pagan custom in many forms of representation, even in Christianized Scandinavia. In Sweden he brought gifts until the 19th century. Today "Jultomte" - Santa Claus - is responsible for this and the Yule goat has only survived as a popular Christmas decoration made of straw.
A special feature of the Swedish Christmas is that Christmas Eve starts at 3 p.m. with a Donald Duck show in front of the traditional Julbord. After Christmas dinner, the presents are usually unwrapped under the Christmas tree. Early in the morning at 6 or 7 a.m. on December 25th, many Swedes go to church for early mass, the last part of the celebration.
Eastern Europe
Russia
In Russia and some other Slavic countries in Eastern Europe, the tradition of "Djed Moros" (Дед Мороз - Father Frost ) is known, accompanied by his granddaughter " Snegurochka " (snow maiden, snow maiden). According to a legend , he rides in a troika , a sleigh pulled by three horses that brings presents to the children.
Christmas in Russia is celebrated on January 7th (which corresponds to December 25th in the Julian calendar). After decades of communist repression, Russian Christmas has been revived since 1992. It revolves around the “holy meal” on Christmas Eve, which consists of twelve dishes, one for each apostle of Jesus. Moving Christmas customs, including Father Frost and Snow Maiden visits to New Year's Day, kept them alive. Many Russian Christmas customs, such as the Christmas tree (ёлка jolka ), go back to the travels of Peter the Great in the late 17th century. The children get the presents on New Year's Eve.
Transnistria
In the Russian Orthodox churches of the country, Christmas is still celebrated on January 7th (which corresponds to December 25th in the Julian calendar) according to the old, unchanged date. It is customary on this day to visit the godparents with Kulitsch and Aschkuchen (raisin tartlets with icing and sprinkles).
Ukraine
In Ukraine, December 25th and January 7th are both official Christmas holidays.
Southeast Europe
Albania
"Krishtlindjet:" Christmas is celebrated in Albania on December 25th and is a public holiday. The festival is celebrated by both Christian and non-Christian Albanians.
Bulgaria
The Bulgarian Christmas "Koleda" or "Rozhdestvo Khristovo", will take place on 25 December. The festival marks the end of a Lent of the Orthodox Church that begins on November 15th . The celebrations begin the day before. An odd number of dishes are prepared on Christmas Eve, usually seven, nine, or thirteen. The dishes should not contain any animal products (such as meat, milk, eggs, etc.), as Advent fasting ends after Christmas mass. Typical dishes are peppers stuffed with beans, rice wrapped in vine leaves, bean soup, pastry sheets stuffed with pumpkin (tikvenik). At the beginning of the feast, a special round bread, in which a coin is hidden, is shared between all family members (also one piece each for God, Saint Mary, the house or also for the pet). Anyone who receives the coin will always be healthy and very lucky for the next year. The eldest member of the family goes through all the rooms with incense to keep evil away from the house.
From midnight until sunrise on Christmas Day, singing young men, the "Koledari", move from house to house. They wish health, happiness and prosperity and pat the back of the people with decorated sticks made of cornel cherries . With their songs they should chase away the evil spirits. People give the Koledari pretzels, wine or money. On the night of the 24th to the 25th, Santa Claus, "Djado Koleda", brings gifts for everyone who was good during the year. There are no traditional dishes for Christmas, but there is plenty of food: dishes made with pork and poultry, pasta sheets filled with cheese, cakes. December 25th and 26th are national holidays.
Greece
In Greece the children go from house to house for Christmas and sing the so-called Kalanda; They are rewarded with raisins, figs and pastries. The giving of presents does not take place on December 24th, but on December 31st for the feast of St. Vassilius. The traditional Christmas biscuits are, on the one hand, a butter cookie with almonds and powdered sugar, the kourambiedes, and, on the other hand, a biscuit with honey, melomakarona.
Kosovo
On Christmas Eve, a family member gets up at 4 a.m. to cut four small branches of a walnut tree. In the evening, cut both ends of the branches at an angle and coat them with beans, cream, cheese, schnapps and wine, as these are nature's foodstuffs. Then tie the branches into a cross. At around 9 p.m. everyone - except for the oldest man - left the house. Then one asks: “(Grand) father, would you like to have a visit with the cross and the food that God has made?” The answer is usually: “You are all very welcome, just come in!” There is usually Christmas dinner Beans, pite with pumpkin, salads, fish, wine and other items. On Christmas Day you get up at 5 a.m. and go into the garden with freshly baked bread, pretzels and wine, where the eldest puts a large circle of straw around the family and a cross in the middle. Then you pray and finally rockets are shot up.
Croatia
The predominantly Catholic Croats maintain the Advent custom of Barbara wheat , the beginning of December (often at St. Barbara , December 4) as Tellersaat of grain is created. The germinated seeds are covered with candles on Christmas Eve. On this day (“Badnjak”) the Croatians prepare for the “coming of Jesus”. A late festive dinner often consists of fish, after which many go to church for midnight mass (“polnoćki”). Gifts are unwrapped on Christmas Day. Christmas calls and visits are a token of appreciation and affection.
North Macedonia
The Orthodox Church in Macedonia celebrates Christmas on January 7th. On Christmas Eve, a loaf of bread with a coin hidden in it is shared among family members. It is believed that the finder of the coin will be lucky in the following year. The Christmas dinner is usually fish, baked beans, sauerkraut, walnuts and red wine, as no meat is eaten because of the fast . For dessert there are mostly apples and dried fruit.
Romania
As in other Eastern European countries, in Romania on December 24th, the "Moș Ajun", fasting into the evening hours. One of the traditional dishes that are then served is “ Sarmale ” with “ Mămăligă ” (cabbage rolls with corn porridge), which is often washed down with Țuică , a strong plum brandy. “ Ciorbă ”, a hearty tripe soup, or homemade pork sausages, so-called “carnați”, are also popular. A special ritual at Christmas is the baking of the "holy bread", which can be decorated with a cross made of dough. Clergymen carry icons from door to door on Christmas Eve, announcing the coming of the Lord. The children look forward to the "Moș Crăciun", Santa Claus, with his gifts.
Singing Christmas carols is an important part of Romanian Christmas celebrations. On Christmas Day, singers ("colindători") roam the streets of towns and villages. They are holding a star made of cardboard and paper on which scenes from the Bible are depicted. Children go from house to house during the Christmas season reciting poems and Christmas carols. The leader of the group carries a wooden star covered with metal and decorated with bells and colored ribbons. An image of the birth of Christ is seen in the center of the star and the whole artwork is attached to a broomstick or long stick.
Serbia
The Serbian Orthodox Church adheres to the old Julian calendar. Like the Russian Orthodox Church, it celebrates the birth of Christ thirteen days later, on January 6th and 7th.
Christmas is a public holiday and is celebrated on January 7th according to the Gregorian calendar .
Christmas Lent begins 40 days before Christmas. Believers should purify their bodies in order to celebrate Christ's Incarnation appropriately. During this time no meat is eaten, strictly speaking, no dairy products and no eggs, but fish on special days.
Badnji dan
January 6th is the holy day before Christmas. The head of the family leaves the house early in the morning to cut an oak branch or a young oak ("badnjak"). In rural areas, this ceremony begins with a gunshot. During this time, the men take care of the suckling pig or the roast pork ("odojče / pečenica"), while the women prepare a cake from wheat flour ("česnica)" in which a coin is hidden.
Badnje veče
Christmas Eve is celebrated in the church. Oak twigs and straw are consecrated, which are then brought into the house. The person distributing the straw yells “Kvo, kvo, kvo” like a hen, the children answer “Piju, piju, piju”, like the chicks. Dinner is strictly according to the rules of fasting. The bread is broken by hand, no fat, but fish or nuts and dried fruit. In some areas like Vojvodina , children (so-called "korinđaši") start a "korinđanje", going from house to house and singing Christmas carols. For this they are often rewarded with sweets or money.
Božić
Christmas Day begins with the arrival and greeting of the first guest, the “Položajnik”, also known as “Polažajnik”. He enters the room with his right foot and sprinkles grain over the family. Then he says the words: "Hristos se rodi" (Christ is born), the family replies: "Vaistinu se rodi" (Truly, he is born). Božić is the diminutive of Bog and means "child of God".
Southern Europe
Italy
|
.jpg)
|
|
|
Nativity scene in Naples (Italy)
|
Italian panettone
|
Modern traditions combined with remains from Roman times characterize the celebrations of "Natale", the Italian Christmas. On December 8th, the feast of the Immaculate Conception is celebrated ; From this day on it is festively decorated and the Christmas tree and cribs are set up. On December 13th, the feast of St. Lucia , the patroness of Sicily.
You go to Christmas mass on Christmas Eve and you don't eat meat on that day. The Christmas dinner consists of seafood, sweets such as “ pandoro ”, “ panettone ”, “torrone”, “panforte”, struffoli , “caggionetti”, “Monte Bianco”. December 25th is celebrated with a family dinner with different types of meat, cheese and sweets.
In some parts of Italy gifts are brought by the Christ Child on Christmas Eve, in others only by the " Befana ", an old widow, on Epiphany. “Babbo Natale”, a version of Santa Claus, has become more common lately. St. Stephen's Day is celebrated on December 26th , which is a public holiday in Italy.
Malta
Christmas Day is a public holiday and a family festival in Malta. The Christmas dinner usually includes turkey with potatoes and vegetables. A local specialty is the honey ring, which is mainly eaten at Christmas time.
Portugal
|
|
|
|
"Cozido à Portuguesa"
|
A commercially produced "Bolo de mel"
|
Christmas (December 25th) is a public holiday in Portugal and is celebrated as a family festival. The streets and houses, especially the shopping streets and shops, are decorated. The presents are brought by the “Pai Natal” (“Papa Christmas”, meaning Santa Claus), in some places also the baby Jesus ( Port. Menino Jesus ). Traditionally, Christmas presents are given on Christmas morning (December 25th).
After the “Missa do galo” (“cock mass”) there is a late dinner on Christmas Eve (Portuguese: Noite de Natal, literally: Christmas night), the “Ceia de Natal” (“Christmas meal”). Traditionally the stew "Cozido à Portuguesa" (cooked Portuguese style ) is eaten, but more often a dish with bacalhau (dried stockfish), but also octopus with boiled vegetables or other variants. The Christmas dinner usually ends with the milk rice dish “Arroz doce” (“sweet rice”) or a deep-fried dessert, for example the “Filhó” from the rural areas, often made with pumpkin in egg-flour batter and sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon, or the “Sonho de Natal” (Christmas Dream), which is made from wheat flour, milk, eggs, lemon peel and salt and then fried. In northern Portugal, especially Minho and Trás-os-Montes, “Formigos” are a traditional dessert of the festive season. You will u. a. made from white bread slices, eggs, pine nuts, port wine, sugar, milk and grated almonds, fried in the pan and served in layers and garnished with dried fruits. The "Broa Castelar", a firm cake made from corn and wheat flour, sweet potatoes, coconut and grated orange peel, is another Christmas specialty, as is the "Rabanadas", slices of white bread in milk that are fried and sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon, but also exist in variants with bread slices placed in wine or sugar water. From Christmas to Epiphany , the traditional “Bolo Rei”, the Epiphany cake made with candied fruits and nuts, is served, which is preferably enjoyed with sparkling wine (Champanhe) or port wine.
The streets are also decorated in Madeira . A traditional Christmas dish on the island is “Carne de Vinha d'Alhos” (meat with wine and garlic). Here pork is marinated in white wine, garlic, bay leaf, thyme, pepper and salt for at least two days and then cooked in the marinade. Before the feast, it is fried in lard and served with bread that has been fried in the same lard. Traditionally, the “Bolo de mel” ( honey cake ) is served as a dessert in Madeira at Christmas . This is usually made on December 8th from flour, yeast, sweet grass, nuts and almonds, etc. a. with sweet grass, Madeira wine , oranges, cinnamon and cloves as spices. On the same day, the last saved “Bolos de mel” from the previous year are eaten. The term "honey" refers to the liquid cane sugar used, which is called "Mel de Cana" (sugar cane honey).
Spain
The Christmas season begins with the traditional drawing of the Christmas lottery on December 22nd. Christmas Eve (Nochebuena) is traditionally the day of a family dinner and the subsequent midnight mass “Misa de Gallo”. Christmas holidays (Navidad) are December 25th and 26th. Christmas Day is traditionally celebrated with a family lunch. On December 28th, the Festival of the Innocent Children, there is a custom of fooling others with fabricated or falsified stories. It is also common in Spain that the media spread false reports that are as original and credible as possible on this day. In Spain it is traditionally the Three Wise Men ( Reyes Magos ) who bring the children Christmas gifts instead of Santa Claus or the Christ Child on January 6th, whereby the naughty children receive only pieces of coal instead of gifts. For this purpose, the arrival of the three kings is celebrated in many Spanish cities in the form of a parade (Cabalgata de los Reyes) on January 5th. The three kings often come ridden on camels. The children have to put bread and water in front of the door for them and find presents for them on the morning of January 6th.
In Spain, Christmas trees are traditionally not set up, but the apartments are decorated with Christmas cribs . In the streets, fairy lights or star decorations hang between the blocks of houses. Cribs are also set up in many shop windows, cafes or in public places.
Since the 1980s, however, Central European and Anglo-Saxon traditions such as the Christmas tree and the giving of presents on December 24th have increased. Another reason for the gifts from Santa Claus on December 24th is that Spanish schoolchildren receive their gifts at the beginning of the holidays and have time to play, which is less the case with a gift from the Three Wise Men on the last day of the holiday.
Catalonia
In addition to giving presents on Epiphany, Catalonia also has the tradition of Tió de Nadal . The "Tió", a large block of wood (actually a basket filled with gifts), is covered with a cloth. Then they hit this block with sticks while singing the song “Caga tió” so that it gives out the presents for the small and big children. Another special feature is the presence of the " caganer ", a small figure with his pants down in the Christmas cribs. Another beautiful Catalan Christmas carol is El Cant dels Aucells , in which over thirty small and large birds sing about the birth of Christ.
Basque Country
In the Basque Country , the Olentzero brings Christmas presents on December 24th. It is the figure of a charcoal burner who comes to the villages and towns for Christmas. This custom has existed since the beginning of the 20th century.
North America
Greenland
Christmas has only been celebrated in Greenland since the first half of the 18th century. The customs are similar to those of the Danes due to their political affiliation. However, Christmas trees are imported from the south many months before Christmas. Finally, it is decorated with candles, julehjers, paper flowers, Greenlandic and Danish flags, small presents and other ornaments. The larger gifts are placed under the Christmas tree. On Christmas Eve you go to Christmas mass. The children go from house to house and sing Christmas carols. On this day, the men exceptionally spoil the women by bringing them coffee. Seal, whale or reindeer meat is usually eaten. But also “mattak” (whale skin) and “kiviak” (meat dish with fat, blood, herbs and berries that is wrapped in seal skin and preserved by freezing) and halibut or smoked salmon. Santa Claus brings the presents with a dog sled.
Mexico
The Mexicans begin the Christmas celebrations on December 15th during the nine-day " Posadas ". This time symbolizes Mary and Joseph's search for a hostel. The innkeeper invites you into his house, a “ piñata ” is smashed, “ ponche ” is drunk, a hot drink that resembles a punch and is prepared with typical Mexican fruits, and buñuelos are eaten. If it is celebrated on Christmas Eve, dinner consists of: turkey or cod , romeritos and other specialties that vary from house to house. At midnight the baby Jesus is placed in the manger to symbolize that he was born. Only then will the presents be opened.
In addition, there are the traditional pastorelas in the run-up to Christmas , an often comical representation in churches, schools and theaters of the shepherds' migration to the newborn baby Jesus. On the way they meet the devil who wants to tempt them, but the Archangel Michael guides them on and they reach their goal. Each of these pastorelas is different, shaped by the originality of the writer.
United States
In the United States , Christmas ("Christmas", often also called " X-mas " or "Yule") is an important part of American culture, although, due to the multicultural nature of the country, great importance is attached to being politically correct and if possible only to send general greetings to the festival ("Season's Greetings" or "Happy Holidays"). There are frequent attempts by trade and industry to combine other winter festivals (e.g. the Jewish Hanukkah or the African-American festival Kwanzaa ) with Christmas.
In a survey by the American broadcaster FOX in 2004, 96% of the population said they celebrate Christmas, so the festival is an important date on the calendar. Both religious and secular symbols combine to create diverse American Christmas traditions, which are also reflected in themed films, series specials, and television shows. These traditions include “ Santa Claus ” coming from the North Pole , Christmas trees , Christmas cards , Christmas carols , Christmas cribs , electric fairy lights , gifts and kisses under the mistletoe .
Latin America
Argentina
In Argentina the children receive their gifts on Epiphany when they leave their shoes under their bed so that they can be filled with sweets by the three wise men on the way to Bethlehem.
Brazil
December 25th is a protected holiday in Brazil . The traditions are similar to those in Europe and North America, such as the Christmas tree, the elves and the sending of Christmas cards. The houses and other buildings are also decorated with electric lights and the crib. Despite the warm weather, winter decorations are also used, for example with artificial snow. In some cities like Curitiba, there are decoration competitions. Christmas Eve is the most important day for Brazilians. At midnight the churches celebrate the "Missa do Galo" (mass of the rooster).
El Salvador
In El Salvador , children and adults put on fireworks in the streets. Traditionally, sauteed turkey sandwiches are eaten in a baguette with lettuce leaves and radishes and sweet bread for dessert. Most people drink hot chocolate, pineapple juice, Salvadoran horchata and coffee.
Guatemala
In Guatemala , people wear a purtina for Christmas, a fancy hat that is used to dance a dance with friends and acquaintances.
Colombia
In Colombia Christmas gifts are given by “El Niño Jesus” or “Niño Dios” ( Baby Jesus), in Chile by “Viejo Pasquero” (old shepherd), in other Spanish-speaking countries also by “Papá Noél” (Santa Claus) and in Brazil with the “ Papai Noel ”(Santa Claus).
Peru
Christmas cribs are very important in South America. In areas with a high proportion of indigenous people, such as Peru , the nativity figures are carved by hand according to a centuries-old pattern. As in Mexico, processions are also frequent here , the figures of which reproduce the events surrounding the birth of Christ.
Asia
Armenia
Christmas (arm. Surp Dznunt ) is splendidly celebrated in Armenia. The Armenian Apostolic Church has special pre-festive church services on the day before (poor. Nachadonag ) of the two important men's festivals - before Christmas and before Easter. The evening services on these two days are known as Jrakaluytz . In the vernacular they are also called Chètum. The first Jrakaluytz of the year is always on January 5th, as the Armenians always celebrate Christmas on January 6th. And the second Jrakaluytz is always on Easter Saturday, between March 22nd and April 28th.
On Jrakaluytz day, after sunset, the evening Holy Mass takes place in an impressive atmosphere. In the religious sense, the feast of the birth of the Lord begins. That is why the choirs in the Armenian churches sing the hymn: "Christ was born and appeared" (poor. Christos dznav yev haytnetzav).
The eve of the festival is called Jrakaluytz because it was and is a custom for the faithful to carry oil lamps or candles in their hands during the evening service. "Jrakaluytz" is an Armenian word that is a combination of two words: "Jrak" and "Letznel". It literally means: "Fill the lamps with oil". It is a custom to leave an oil lamp or candle lit in the house during this night. This tradition reminds us of the star that shone in the sky on the night of the birth of Jesus and led the shepherds to the manger of the Lord through the burning lamp. The burning lamp symbolizes Jesus Christ, who said of himself: "I am the light of the world".
In many places this evening is also called "Tatachman Gisher" (evening of immersion). The oldest male family member takes the host (poor. Neshchar) brought from the church especially for that evening, breaks according to the number of family members present and shares it out. Everyone takes their part, dips it into the wine and eats. That is why it is called Tatachman Gisher or Tatachman Entrik. To this day, this custom is particularly widespread among the Iran-Armenians.
In some places the youth groups or the choir members of the church visit the houses and apartments of the parishioners after the Christmas Eve Mass, sing Christmas carols and congratulate the party. The families look forward to these singing groups with joy, they are happy to open their doors and receive them and give out small gifts.
Bangladesh
Christmas is a public holiday in Bangladesh . Bengali Christians celebrate the day as “Borodin” (big day) and greet family members, friends and acquaintances with “Shubbo Boro Din” (greetings of the big day).
People's Republic of China
December 25th is not a public holiday in the People's Republic of China . Christians, on the other hand, celebrate Christmas unofficially and privately on this day.
On the other hand, December 25th is a public holiday in both Hong Kong and Macau . Both are former colonies of European sea powers with a Christian background.
Despite this distinction, it must be mentioned that Christmas decorations are increasingly appearing in major urban centers in mainland China in December, due to the growing interest in this western phenomenon and marketing concepts.
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Christmas is not officially celebrated in the Republic of China in Taiwan . By coincidence, December 25th is the 1947 Constitutional Remembrance Day of the Republic of China, the official Constitutional Day . This official holiday is considered by many to be Christmas. So that there are not too many work breaks in the course of the year, Constitution Day is no longer free, but this does not deter many people from unofficial Christmas parties.
Georgia
In Georgia , Christmas is celebrated on January 7th. You go to the “Alilo” on the street, where you congratulate each other on the holiday. Children are given presents by older people.
India
Christmas is an official holiday in India . The celebrations were very much influenced by the consumption of American media, so that Santa Claus and consumption have also found their way there. Devout Christian believers attend the service. In Christian mission schools, Hindu children also take an active part in the celebrations, e.g. B. through nativity plays, chants, etc.
The Indian President celebrates Christmas in Rashtrapati Bhavan . These go over to the New Year celebrations. Most Indian educational establishments know the Christmas holidays, which start shortly before Christmas and last until a few days after the New Year.
Indonesia
Christmas is a public holiday in Indonesia , although Christians make up only 8% of the population, the festival is also very popular there with non-Christians.
Japan
Christmas celebrations are very common in Japan . Unlike New Year's Day, Christmas (jpn. Kurisumasu) is not an official holiday. Often one includes Santa Claus (Santa Kurôsu). Especially since the 1980s, the “Christmas Eve” has offered many couples an opportunity to get to know each other; Lovers give each other presents, have a special date and stroll past Christmas lights. Families and friends also exchange gifts. The Christmas cake, white and often decorated with strawberries, belongs to Christmas.
First Christmas was celebrated by Jesuits with locals in 1549. After the reopening of the country and the introduction of religious freedom (1868/1873), Christian churches held their Christmas masses. At the turn of the 20th century, American-European influence made it common for the upper class to hold parties and exchange gifts. At first the custom spread in the larger cities. During World War II , Christmas only played a role for the few Christians. However, since 1945 it soon became a popular festival. Religious components played a subordinate role.
While the current Emperor Akihito's birthday on December 23rd is a national holiday, work is done on Christmas Day.
Korea
South Korea is the only East Asian country where Christmas is a national holiday. Celebration rituals such as giving gifts, sending Christmas cards and decorating Christmas trees are part of the Christmas festival. The children receive presents from Santa Claus, called "Santa Haraboji" (Grandfather Santa). Radio stations play Christmas music and cartoons and Christmas films are shown on television. In addition, numerous shops and buildings are decorated for Christmas.
Christian Koreans have the option of attending special celebration services. After the Christmas mass , younger parishioners go singing to the homes of older parishioners, where they are served warm drinks and snacks.
Lebanon
Christmas Day is a public holiday in Lebanon . Quite a few Lebanese Muslims also celebrate Christmas - mostly with Christian friends and neighbors. A survey has shown that around two thirds of Lebanese people celebrate Christmas, even though less than half of the population are Christians. Many families, including Muslims, decorate their houses and streets with Christmas trees, nativity scenes and lights during the Christmas season. Christmas trees are set up before Christmas Eve, the nativity scene only after Christmas. Many family members live in Europe, Australia or America, which is why people like to send Christmas postcards with European motifs such as winter landscapes (although no snow falls on the country's coast - only in the mountains). People dress festively. Christmas dinner is a mix of western and local foods such as turkey and wine. Immediately after the multi-course feast, the gifts are distributed. The families go to midnight mass, where the birth of Jesus is celebrated with a mass.
Pakistan
In Pakistan , Christians usually celebrate Christmas as the “big day”. Christianity is the second largest religious minority in Pakistan after Hinduism. The number of Christians was estimated at 2,800,000 or 1.6% in 2008, half of them Roman Catholic, the other half Protestant. Christians celebrate there by going door to door, singing Christmas carols and collecting donations for charity.
Philippines
The Philippines have the longest Christmas season in the world. Traditionally, the festival begins with a novena , during which evening masses known as "gift masses" are celebrated. On the evening of December 24th, the "noche buena", after attending midnight mass, the family will be served Christmas dinner made from cheese balls and ham.
Singapore
Christmas is a public holiday in Singapore . The famous shopping street "Orchard Road" is decorated for Christmas from the beginning of November to the beginning of January.
Africa
Egypt
The Coptic community in Egypt celebrates Christmas on the 29th day of the Coptic month "Khiakh", which corresponds to January 7th in the Gregorian calendar . On this day the Copts prepare traditional dishes, the “zalabya” (a pastry) and the “bouri” (a fish dish). January 7th is also a public holiday in Egypt.
After midnight mass, the Copts celebrate with a large banquet and eat sweetened biscuits decorated with crosses, the "kahk". A fortnightly fast begins after the banquet .
Ethiopia
The Ethiopian Orthodox Christians of Coptic style celebrate Christmas on the 29th day of the Ethiopian month Taḫśaś, in the Gregorian calendar January 7th. The festival begins with the Orthodox Christians celebrating midnight mass on the night of January 7th . On this day, people in Ethiopia prepare the typical Injera bread and eat them with various dishes made from beef, lamb, poultry and veal. The Orthodox Christmas is in Ethiopia a holiday, which is celebrated by more than half the population.
Australia and New Zealand
In these two English-speaking countries in the southern hemisphere , Christmas falls in the middle of summer. Winter iconography similar to that used in Great Britain and North America is used for the Australian and New Zealand Christmas imagery . In the middle of a hot summer, this leads to contrasts with fur-wearing Santa Clauses on sleds, the Christmas carol Jingle Bells or snow scenes on Christmas cards and decorations. In the metropolises, large Christmas trees are traditionally set up in central places, for example in Sydney on Martin Square or in Melbourne on Federation Square .
In Melbourne, on Christmas Eve 1938, a large group of people came together for the first time to sing Christmas carols by candlelight. The tradition called Carols by Candlelight has caught on in other cities in Australia and New Zealand, which host their own main events in the days leading up to Christmas, which usually include prominent artists. Many suburbs and schools host their own smaller events. The proceeds from the performances usually go to charities. Families spend the evening outdoors with picnics, blankets and mosquito repellent and listen to the Christmas wise men.
On the morning of Christmas Day , the first day of Christmas, the presents with the presents placed under the Christmas tree are given. The Christmas dinner at noon on December 25th is often traditionally European, often with turkey or whole ham ( Christmas ham ) from the oven. Seafood such as shrimp and oysters are also popular . Favorite fruits for Christmas include mangoes and cherries . A happy cooked traditional Christmas dessert is the Pavlova (one filled with cream and fruit cake on meringue base are), other dessert classic Christmas pudding or mince pies . Since the 1990s, the trend has been towards dishes with seasonal ingredients from the region, which are often prepared at an outdoor barbecue .
The second Christmas Day, the Boxing Day , is for those interested in Australia under the sign of the Boxing Day Test , a televised Cricket Match brought organize the many throughout their daily routines. On this day, the boxing day sale begins in the shopping centers, which from this day offer their goods in a seasonal sale with discounts.
Christmas parade in Australia
Christmas Ham
Pavlova
Cricket Australia v England , Melbourne, Boxing Day 2010
.jpg)
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ faz.net
- ↑ Liselotte Mygh: Danish Christmas - German inspired . In: Manfred Glaser: Not just sauerkraut and smørrebrød! Germany and Denmark in the 19th and 20th centuries ( Kulturforum Burgkloster , Lübeck, from August 18 to October 2, 2005) / Ikke kun smørrebrød og sauerkraut! Danmark and Tyskland i det 19th and 20th århundrede (Naestved Museum, Helligåndshuset, from October 15 to November 27, 2005), translated by Alken Bruns. Kulturforum Burgkloster (= exhibitions on archeology in Lübeck , Volume 8). Schmidt-Römhild, Lübeck 2005, ISBN 3-7950-1270-8 (German / Danish) pp. 230-234.
- ↑ Liselotte Mygh: Danish Christmas - German inspired , p. 233.
- ↑ Liselotte Mygh: Danish Christmas - German inspired , p. 230 f.
- ↑ Liselotte Mygh: Danish Christmas - German inspired , p. 233.
- ↑ The Verkhovna Rada has recognized December 25 as an official holiday in Ukraine ( memento of the original from December 29, 2018 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Official website of the Zhytomyr Oblast Administration; accessed on December 29, 2018 (Ukrainian)
- ↑ Christmas in other countries. Retrieved October 18, 2016 .
- ^ Günter Wiegelmann, Mathias Zender, Gerhard Heilfurth: Volkskunde. An introduction. Volume 12 of Fundamentals of German Studies. Erich Schmidt Verlag, 1977, ISBN 3-50300-578-1 , p. 146.
- ↑ Walter Baumgartner : To the Old Testament and its environment. Brill Archive, 1959, p. 261.
- ↑ Croatian Christmas Customs - Customs also in Osijek. In: German-Croatian Society Pforzheim
- ↑ Ranka Keser: Reise Know-How KulturSchock Croatia: Everyday culture, traditions, rules of conduct, ... Reise Know-How Verlag Peter Rump, 2017, ISBN 3-83174-917-5 , p. 83.
- ^ Romania - Christmas . In: Weihnachtsbuero.de
- ^ Birgitta Gabriela Hannover Moser: Romania: Art treasures and natural beauties . Trescher Verlag, 2015, p. 59.
- ^ Joscha Remus: Travel Know-How. KulturSchock Romania: everyday culture, traditions, rules of conduct, ... Reise Know-How Verlag Peter Rump, 2016, ISBN 3-83174-621-4 , p. 192.
- ↑ [ Sărbătorile de iarnă. Cum prepari cei mai fragezi carnați de casă. Secretul care dă toată savoarea. ] In: realitatea.net of December 18, 2017.
- ^ William D. Crump: The Christmas Encyclopedia. McFarland, 2001, ISBN 0-78646-827-0 , p. 347.
- ↑ Veselin Čajkanović: " Бадњак ". Речник српских народних веровања о биљкама - Rečnik srpskih narodnih verovanja o biljkama . edited and supplemented by Vojislav Đurić (= Sabrana dela iz srpske religie i mitologie . Volume 4 ). Srpska književna zadruga, Belgrade 1994, ISBN 86-379-0283-9 , p. 268–271 (Serbian, French title: Dictionnaire des croyances populaires serbes sur les plantes).
- ^ Clement A. Miles: The Yule Log. Christmas in Ritual and Tradition. Forgotten Books, 2008, ISBN 978-1-60506-814-5 , pp. 192–199 (English, Textarchiv - Internet Archive - first edition: 1912).
- ↑ Milan T. Vuković: Божићни празници. Народни обичаји, веровања и пословице код Срба (Serbian folk customs, beliefs, and sayings) . 12th edition. Sazvežđa, Belgrade 2004, ISBN 86-83699-08-0 , p. 77 ff., 81–85 (Serbian).
- ↑ Ian McMaster: Nobody's Perfect: "All the Christmas greetings you find suitable". In: Der Spiegel Online, December 22, 2011.
- ↑ survey
- ↑ Laila Ellmoos: Christmas in Martin Place. In: dictionaryofsydney.org, 2014.
- ↑ Christmas Square at Federation Square. In: whatson.melbourne.vic.gov.au, 2019.
- ↑ a b Carly Jacobs: 7 Aussie Christmas traditions we all love. In: REA Group of December 11, 2018.
- ↑ Michele Lobo, Fethi Mansouri: Migration, Citizenship and Intercultural Relations: Looking through the Lens of Social Inclusion Studies in Migration and Diaspora in the Google book search Routledge, 2016, ISBN 1-31709-631-2 , p. 40.
- ↑ a b How to do an Australian Christmas . In: The Guardian of December 23, 2014.
- ↑ Monique La Terra: A Guide To Australian Christmas Foods. In: theculturetrip.com from 2018.
- ^ Christmas in New Zealand. In: whychristmas.com
