Early Helladic

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The Early Helladic is the earliest of the three phases of the Helladic period , as the Bronze Age is called on the Greek mainland. Since it was accompanied by the introduction of knowledge about metalworking, it marks the transition from the Neolithic to the Metal Age . After the usual periodization, the Early Helladic is followed by the Middle Helladic , which in turn precedes the Late Helladic, the epoch in which the Mycenaean culture in Greece was the first advanced civilization of mainland Europe. Geographically, the term "Helladic" includes central Greece ( Phocis , Boeotia , Attica ), the Peloponnese ( Corinth , Argolis ), Thessaly and the Greek islands without the Cyclades . The dating of the Early Helladic is still uncertain; its beginning today is usually around 3100/3000 BC. It was set to end around 2000 BC. Thus, the Early Helladic corresponds to the Early Minoan epoch of Crete, the early phase of the Cycladic culture as well as Troy I – IV and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

Since the earliest Aegean written sources ( Linear A and Linear B ) from the 2nd millennium BC And the myths and early Greek literature by no means before 1200 BC. Were recorded, scientific findings on the Greek Early Bronze Age are based almost exclusively on archaeological methods. Archaeological research into the Early Helladic era began at the beginning of the 20th century. The most important excavated early Bronze Age settlements in Greece include Korakou , Zygouries and Tsoungiza in Korinthia, Aegina- Colonna in the Saronic Gulf, Lerna and Tiryns in the Argolis, Manika on Evia and Eutresis in Boeotia. Probably the most famous building of the entire era is the so-called House of Bricks in Lerna.

The early Bronze Age population of Greece lived in settlements, mostly not far from the coast, which were often fortified. She was engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and fishing, and there were contacts with other cultures in the Mediterranean, such as the Cyclades. Knowledge of blacksmithing is archaeologically proven. The thesis that has been recognized by archaeologists and ancient historians over generations that the Indo-Europeans immigrated to Greece in the Early Helladic II / III has been increasingly doubted since the 1990s. Some researchers consider immigration to be likely as early as the Neolithic period or in FH I.

Research history

At the end of the 19th century, German archaeologists in particular performed pioneering work in researching the Bronze Age on the Greek mainland: the first excavations were carried out in Olympia under the direction of Ernst Curtius and in Mycenae and Tiryns under the direction of Heinrich Schliemann . The main interest in this phase, however, was in classical antiquity and the late Bronze Age, especially since Schliemann intended to verify Homer's myths through his work . During his excavations, which aimed to get to the remains from the time of the Trojan War as quickly as possible , he often destroyed the layers of settlements from earlier epochs. In Tiryns, the later excavations under the direction of Wilhelm Dörpfeld , Kurt Müller and Georg Karo , which were carried out between 1905 and 1929, yielded further conclusions about the once outstanding importance of the city in prehistoric times. The excavations in Orchomenos (first Schliemann, then Heinrich Bulle ), Argos (Carl Wilhelm Vollgriff), Agia Marina in Phokis ( Georgios Sotiriadis ), Chaironeia ( Alan Wace , Maurice S. Thompson) as well as Gonia and Yiriza were also significant for the Helladic period in Corinthia .

Carl Blegen , Korakou excavator

The excavation of Korakous near Corinth in 1915–1916 under the direction of Carl William Blegens was a milestone for the archaeological research of the Early Helladic era. The first classification of the Helladic ceramic styles is based on it.

Further excavations of early Helladic settlements, for example in Zygouries (1921-1922), Asea Paleokastro (1930s) or Mastos in the Berbatital (1937) provided further information on the early Helladic epoch, especially on the architecture, but all remained in comparison to the Lernas excavation from 1952 to 1958 under the direction of John Langdon Caskeys took place, secondary. The Eutresis, which was excavated by Hetty Goldman in a first phase in 1924–1927 , and also by Caskey in a second phase in the 1950s, has also proven to be important. The results of the excavations of Lerna, in which Caskey differentiated a total of seven (sometimes also Neolithic) layers, had a lasting influence on the image of the epoch, especially since Caskey also used them to re-date the immigration of the Indo-Europeans to Greece (see controversy over Indo-European immigration ) .

While the necropolis of Manika (on Euboea ) was discovered at the beginning of the 20th century, it was not until 1953 that the associated settlement was located. In 1973 Adamantios Sampson discovered further buildings, and in the course of the following excavations Manika turned out to be the largest known early Helladic settlement with an area of ​​80 hectares.

chronology

The chronology used to this day for the Aegean Bronze Age goes back to the British archaeologist Arthur Evans , who constructed the first chronology of the Minoan culture during his excavations in Knossos ( Crete ). He mainly orientated himself on the stratigraphy - the successive settlement layers, which should indicate the order for the ceramic styles. Evans, who thought that the Minoan culture developed similarly to the Egyptian (which is considered to be refuted in today's research), divided the Minoan culture into three phases in analogy to the Old , Middle and New Kingdoms of ancient Egypt: Middle Minoikum and Late Minoikum. It was also Evans who first used the term "helladic" in his monumental work The Palace of Minos .

As a result of the Korakou excavations, Carl Blegen and Alan Wace, who carried out excavations in Mycenae , succeeded in classifying the ceramic styles of the pre-Mycenaean periods and working out the first Helladic chronology, according to which Evan's tripartite division of the Cretan Bronze Age was carried over to the mainland has been. Blegen and Wace published their results for the first time in 1918 in their article The Pre-Mycenaen Pottery of the Mainland; more detailed results came from Blegen's book Korakou , published in 1921 . A prehistoric settlement near Corinth. For the first time, Blegen used the finer division into the sub-levels FH I, II and III.

This relative chronology has persisted to this day and has been carried over not only to mainland Greece but also to the Cyclades, although there are problems with it, such as the fact that Evans gave ceramic styles and periods the same name, but the latter often overlap.

Up to the British excavations in Lerna, a more precise time delimitation of FH II and the subsequent phase FH III was not known. Likewise, until Caskey's excavation work in Eutresis in 1958, it was impossible to assign absolute dates to period FH I. As a result of further archaeological work in Lefkandi on the island of Evia in the mid-1960s , a settlement that was initially assumed to be parallel to the FH III period on the Greek mainland, Colin Renfrew developed in 1972 in his book The Emergence of Civilization: the Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC a new chronological system. He then classified the Early Helladic period - instead of Wace and Blegen according to time periods as before - according to the names of the individual cultural communities that existed in FH I, II or III. FH I corresponded to the Eutresis culture for him , FH II he called Korakou culture and FH III Tiryns culture. According to this scheme, Lefkandi I also corresponded to the Tiryns culture, a view that was refuted by Jeremy Rutter in 1979 . He found that the Lefkandi culture was actually more of the period FH II, i. H. Renfrew's Korakou culture would correspond. Since the mid-1970s, Renfrew's model has been increasingly rejected.

Absolute dating Classical chronology (Blegen, Wace) Renfrew model (slightly modified) Lerna (Caskey) Eutresis North Aegean
Late Neolithic Lerna I and II Eutreis I
3100 / 3000-2650 BC Chr. Early Helladic I Eutresis culture Eutresis II, III and IV Sitagroi IV, Dikili Tash III A
2650-2200 BC Chr. Early Helladic II FH II A Korakou culture (including Talioti subculture) Lerna III Eutresis V – VIII Sitagroi VA
FH II B (Lefkandi I culture?)
2200-2000 BC Chr. Early Helladic III Tiryns culture Lerna IV Eutresis IX Sitagroi VB

Material culture

Metal processing

Expansion of metal processing

The prevailing opinion is that knowledge of metalworking came to Greece from Anatolia or Mesopotamia . A number of objects found in the Aegean Sea seem to have been imported from the Troad : handled daggers, notched daggers and probably some of the awls and nails found on Syros (Cyclades) .

Local copper in the Early Bronze Age Aegean has only been found for Crete and the Cyclades. It can therefore be assumed that the early Helladic as well as the western Asia Minor settlements were dependent on imports of metal during this period.

In Sesklo in Thessaly, two copper axes with gold hangings were found that date from the late Neolithic period; however, not a single metal object is known of the entire period FH I. Metal vessels were very rare throughout the Early Helladic period, metal by no means was widespread and therefore generally very popular. In FH II the prevalence of metal objects increased visibly compared to the previous period: nails (including with a double spiral head), awls, tools, weapons and more valuable objects were widespread. Early Helladic blacksmiths discovered in Rafina and Asketario (Attica) prove that metal was worked by local craftsmen. In the White House in Kolonna-Aegina, arsenic bronze appears to have been smelted in FH III , while in Kotopi (Attica), it seems, copper was smelted in FH II B. But stones and bones were still used as materials. At the latest for the beginning of FH II there are finds of ( tin ) bronze in the Cyclades; in Lerna and Lithares (Boeotia), however, bronze objects have only been documented for FH III B.

Agriculture

As in the Neolithic, the basis of life for the early Helladic population was agriculture and livestock. Researchers have long assumed that the introduction of the plow in the FH II had brought about a notable technical innovation. The discovery of clay bull figures in pairs around 1990 in Tsoungiza supports this thesis. The technical innovation - if it actually existed - increased agricultural production considerably and was part of the "secondary product revolution" (Andrew G. Sheratt), i. H. the use of animals for multiple purposes. Cattle, donkeys, mules and from FH III also horses were used as draft animals. The cultivation of barley, einkorn, emmer, beans and lentils has been documented for the early Helladic Lerna, and remains of grain and field crops have also been found in many other settlements. The widespread cultivation of olives and vines, which is documented for the early Bronze Age Crete, is considered unlikely for the mainland; According to studies, the slopes of the time were hardly terraced. However, the wood of the olive tree was used to build houses in Lerna.

Settlement structure

Both the number and size of the settlements increased in FH I compared to the previous late Neolithic, mostly the Neolithic settlements continued to be inhabited, only rarely abandoned. With a few exceptions, the settlements were either on a hill or on peninsulas or both at the same time. Just like the relatively frequent fortifications, this is an indication that the different defensive options, depending on the location, were decisive when choosing the settlement site. Most of the settlements were also close to the coast, which suggests that the inhabitants were active as seafarers. There may have been piracy , which is documented for the Cyclades from FK II. This would also explain the usual securing of coastal settlements by walls, which was mainly used from FH II B: While Thebes is the only early Bronze Age settlement with a wall in the interior, z. B. for the coastal towns of Asketario (Attica), Rafina, Kolonna- Aegina , Perachora , Vayia (Korinthia), Lerna and Vassa ramparts.

FH II was characterized by a lower settlement growth rate than FH I, in some regions there were even fewer settlements than in FH I. However, the individual settlements seem to have grown further and from FH II onwards, settlements with an urban character emerged. It is estimated that early Helladic settlements had between 90 (ascetic) and 13500 (Manika on Evia) inhabitants. Larger centers were Manika, Thebes, Eutresis, Tiryns, Rafina and Lerna.

This development was accompanied - at least in part - by social differentiation. For this speak z. B. cultural achievements such as the use of seals, the construction of corridor houses and the consolidation and expansion of the settlements. In the Argolida there were strong indications that hierarchies existed between the individual settlements.

architecture

House of bricks in Lerna: remains of the stairs

The house shape characteristic of early Bronze Age Greece is, as everywhere in the Aegean, the rectangle.

Buildings with a curved floor plan, whether round or apse-shaped, were not widespread before FH III. A FH-II round building of monumental size, which the excavator Klaus Kilian interpreted as a granary, stood in the upper castle of Tiryns. Other archaeologists consider it more likely to function as a watchtower.

Particularly noteworthy for the developed, late FH II are two-story, freestanding large buildings with a rectangular floor plan, which belong to the type of the so-called corridor house. Corridor houses have been proven for Akovitika in Messenia, Kolonna-Aegina, Thebes and Lerna, and other buildings of this type could have stood in Zygouries, Perachora, Asea, Heraion (Argolis) and Eutresis. The most important corridor houses are the White House in Kolonna-Aegina and the megaron-like house of bricks in Lerna, which is probably the most famous building of the entire epoch and was named after the countless bricks that fell from its roof and were discovered during the excavation. A large number of clay seals were found in the latter. The corridor houses were often in an isolated location (as in Zygouries, Kolonna-Aegina and Thebes) and bordered directly on the settlement walls (as in Lerna, Kolonna-Aegina, Thebes and perhaps also Akovitika). In Lerna, Kolonna-Aegina and Akovitika there were successor buildings that took over the function of an earlier corridor house and were located in the same area. Most of these features are interpreted to mean that the corridor houses were used for administrative purposes and that their residents belonged to a privileged social class. As the analysis of the floor plans showed, a distinction can be made in the architectural structure between a public and private area. Although there are differences in the interior design between the House of Bricks in Lerna and the White House in Kolonna-Aegina, on the other hand the two buildings are so similar, for example in terms of the room layout, that contacts between the two settlements were concluded is.

The usual roof shape of the early Helladic era was the flat roof. Tiryns was hit twice by fire disasters during FH II. The brick house in Lerna was also destroyed by fire at the end of the FH II and was not rebuilt afterwards; instead, his remains were piled up at the end of FH III to form a hill surrounded by stones.

Another remarkable find are the sixteen terracotta bull figures from a room in House Z in Lithares (known as the "sanctuary of the bulls"); However, since almost nothing is known about the early Helladic religion, one should be careful with interpretations.

Ceramics and handicrafts

The potter's wheel was used for the first time in Lerna in the Early Helladic, but was not in general use before the Middle Helladic, and even in the Middle Helladic, hand-made goods made up a not insignificant proportion of all ceramics.

Characteristic for phase FH I was the so-called Talioti pottery , which is named after its location, the Talioti valley southwest of Lefkakia near Nafplio in the Argolis. It was a polished ceramic, which is partially provided with incised decoration and which has a red or red-brown coating. Talioti ceramics from FH II have also been identified for most of the sites. Further ceramic styles from FH II were the so-called original varnish ceramics , which had a noticeable gloss, and a yellow-spotted product. The clay slip, which was used to manufacture the original varnish ceramics, was invented in the Neolithic period. Adolf Furtwängler coined the term "original varnish ceramics" for the ceramic finds in Orchomenos . For FH III, glossy goods of lesser quality, a type of ceramics in the light-on-dark style and a decrease in the amount of yellow-spotted goods compared to the previous period were characteristic. Miny ceramic , actually a ceramic style of the Middle Helladic, has already been proven in Lerna for FH III.

Known forms of vascular Frühhelladikums are Pithoi , Saucieren ( "sauceboats"), jugs, (beak) Pots, amphora , pyxides , pans, bowls, kantharoi and Askoi .

Altogether only two Early Helladic gold vessels are proven, both of which come from the Peloponnese. In addition, only one FH II ivory object was found on the mainland. This is a knob from Thebes. While all the other ivory objects from the Aegean were used as grave attachments, only this find and four other objects from the East Aegean came from settlements. In the Middle Helladic, handicrafts, with the exception of ceramics, declined compared to the previous period.

External contacts and trade relations

Cycladic idol, formerly “Spedos type”, Goulandris Museum Athens

Contacts between settlements on the Greek mainland, between settlements on the mainland and the Cyclades, and between settlements on the mainland and the Balkans have been archaeologically proven.

The discovery of obsidian from Milos (Cyclades) on the Greek mainland proves that contacts with the Cyclades already existed in the Neolithic. Colin Renfrew went so far as to speak of an "international spirit" because of the widespread finds in the Aegean Sea in the early Bronze Age II.

Cycladic idols, marble figures that perhaps go back to Syrian models, were found mainly in Attica and Euboea.

Finds of handles , so-called “pans”, which, with the exception of three stone objects found, were made of clay, are documented for numerous early Bronze Age settlements on the Greek mainland: For Asea, Corinth, Eutresis, Lithares, Manesi, Nemea, Tiryns, the richer graves of the Necropolis of Manika and Agios Kosmas . While the finds from Manika are viewed as locally manufactured goods, other items are believed to be imported from the Cyclades. Overall, it is assumed that the pans originally came from the Cyclades and that the goods made there served as a model for the mainland pans. In Tsoungiza, FH-I pans with barred handles were found, which were rarely found on the mainland, but are characteristic of the Cyclades, which gives rise to the assumption that these pans are imported items from the Cycladic Kampos culture.

While Renfrew assumes a political and economic independence from Melos , Curtis Runnels and Teerd van Andel take the view that the island was economically dependent on the Argolis.

The original varnish pottery typical of the mainland has also been proven for the Cyclades, which could indicate commercial trade.

The pottery finds in Lerna IV strongly suggest that there were contacts with Euboea, Aegina, Corinthia, the north-eastern Aegean and probably also with the Cyclades.

On the “burial mound of Amphion and Zetus” in Thebes in Boeoti, three gold pendants were found that seem to depict papyrus flowers and thus suggest an Egyptian origin. The excavator Theodoros G. Spyropoulos even saw it as an indication of an Egyptian colonization of Boeotia. To confirm this thesis, however, a significantly larger number of finds of Egyptian objects would be necessary.

Controversy over Indo-European immigration

The thesis that the Indo-Europeans immigrated to Greece in the Early Helladic period II / III is now considered to be refuted, but was the predominant opinion among ancient historians and archaeologists for decades and up until the 1990s. Initially it was based primarily on arguments from the history of the language, and since 1960 increasingly on archaeological ones.

Linguistic arguments

Written documents that were undoubtedly written in a Greek language or at least one of the forerunners of Greek have only been documented for the Mycenaean epoch: These are the documents in Linear B, which date from the 15th century BC. Come from BC. In 1952 Michael Ventris and John Chadwick succeeded in deciphering Linear B; In contrast, the even older linear script A from the Minoan culture of Bronze Age Crete has only been deciphered to a rudimentary degree and could not yet be assigned to any known language family. Most likely, however, seems to be the hypothesis according to which the inhabitants of the pre-, old- and late-palatial Crete spoke Luwish , a southwestern Anatolian language.

As early as 1896, the linguist Paul Kretschmer had pointed out in his introduction to the history of the Greek language that some place names in Greece with the endings “-nthos” and “-ssos” could not be interpreted as Indo-European and thus not originally Greek, but pointed rather a commonality with Anatolian and thus (according to the state of research at the time) non-Indo-European language endings; therefore Kretschmer concluded that a pre-Greek language substrate was contained in Greek, which indicates the presence of what he believed to be a non-Indo-European population in ancient Greece.

The excavations led by Hugo Winckler in Boğazkale (Turkey) at the beginning of the 20th century, which could be identified as Ḫattuša , the capital of the Hittite empire , as early as the 1890s on the basis of two documents found in Amarna (Egypt) , nourished the city This was followed by doubts about the previously unquestioned view that the Anatolian languages ​​were a non-Indo-European language form. As early as 1902, the Norwegian philologist Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon pointed out similarities between the language in the two Amarna letters and Indo-European. In the period that followed, the Czech Bedřich Hrozný succeeded in essentially deciphering Hittite. He first published his results in 1915 in the essay The solution of the Hittite problem in the communications of the German Orient Society , followed two years later by the publication of the book The language of the Hittites, their structure and their affiliation to the Indo-European language tribe, which intended to prove that Hittite is essentially an Indo-European language. The German Indo-Europeanist Ferdinand Johann Sommer confirmed Hrozný's results in 1920. Palaic and Luwian could be assigned to the same language group as Hittite , the so-called Anatolian languages. In 1940 the Lycian language was also identified as Indo-European by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen , and in the 1950s Emmanuel Laroche demonstrated a close connection between Lycian and Luwian. The Lydian language also turned out to be Indo-European. After research by John D. Ray also seems Kara to the Anatolian languages to include. Although all of this research refutes the thesis of the existence of a non-Indo-European, prehellenic language substrate, its significance did not penetrate the specialist community for a long time.

In his 1928 essay The Coming of the Greeks (in collaboration with J. Haley), Blegen was the first to suggest that period FH III had been accompanied by a cultural break, and he assumed - mainly arguing in terms of linguistic history - at the beginning of the Middle Helladic Indo-European peoples invaded Greece. For this thesis spoke u. a. that innovations such as horse and carriage were only proven for the Mycenaean period. More recent research results, however, suggest that the tamed horse appeared for the first time in FH III in Lerna.

Archaeological arguments

Up until the excavation of Lernas by Caskey in the 1950s, most of the experts shared Blegen's opinion. Caskey, on the other hand, dated such a break in his essay The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid in southern Greece to the time between FH II and FH III, while he set another turning point in central Greece for the end of FH III. He argued that the archaeological material indicated destruction at around the same time in Lerna, Tiryns, Asine, Zygouries, Agios Kosmas and perhaps in Corinth. For a long time, the archaeological finds were generally interpreted as evidence of an invasion of Indo-European peoples to Greece. In the 1980s in particular, the place of origin of the Indo-European immigrants was discussed controversially. In 1987 Renfrew assumed that Indo-Europeans had immigrated from the Middle East as early as the Neolithic. Others, especially German researchers, however, believed that immigration from the north was more likely. Caskey had already pointed out that the novelty of the apse buildings, which is manifested in Lerna IV, speaks for influences from the north and could have been brought by immigrants from this direction. The American-Lithuanian archaeologist Marija Gimbutas was an advocate of the thesis that people of the Kurgan culture immigrated to Europe in the Neolithic.

Caskey's arguments for Indo-European immigration in FH II and FH III are now considered to be refuted. For example, in her 1992 study The Twilight of the Early Helladics , Jeanette Forsén's analysis of 89 archaeological sites in the Peloponnese and east-central Greece came to the conclusion that the destruction in these places was neither temporally nor spatially unified. Newer hypotheses blame climatic changes or soil degradation for the findings. According to Michael B. Cosmopoulos and John Evander Coleman, the Indo-Europeans came to Greece as early as the Neolithic or FH I, so the arguments they developed essentially support the thesis already put forward by Renfrew. Cosmopoulos used myths from early Greek sources in his argument, such as those of the Pelasgians in Herodotus' histories and those of the Carians .

Archaeological sites from the early Helladic period (selection)

Southern Greece

Central Greece

Northwest Greece

  • Chalkis (Etolia)
  • Steno on Lefkada (Ionian Islands), necropolis

Northern Greece

  • Argissa Magoula (Thessaly)
  • Dikili Tash near Philippi (Macedonia)
  • Doliana (Thessaly)
  • Kriaritsi in Chalkidiki (Macedonia), necropolis
  • Pevkakia Magoula (Thessaly)
  • Servia (Macedonia)
  • Sitagroi Magoula in Drama (East Macedonia)

literature

Overview works

  • Michael B. Cosmopoulos: The early bronze 2 in the Aegean. Åström, Jonsered 1991, ISBN 91-7081-019-2 (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology 98).
  • Oliver Dickinson: The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-45664-9 .
  • Oliver Dickinson: The Origins of Mycenaean Civilization. Gothenburg 1977.
  • J. Lesley Fitton: The Discovery of the Greek Bronze Age. London, British Museum Press, 1995. Archaeological Institute of America, 2001, ISBN 978-0-9609042-5-9 .
  • Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). (Very good introduction, summarizes the current state of research).
  • Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford u. a. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. (Good introduction, summarizes the current state of research).
  • Jeremy B. Rutter: Review of Agean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 97, No. 4 (October 1993), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 745-797 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  • Hope Simpson and Oliver Dickinson: Gazetteer of Aegean Civilization in the Bronze Age 1: The Mainland and Islands. Gothenburg 1979, ISBN 978-91-85058-81-5 .
  • Fritz Schachermeyer: The pre-Mycenaean periods of the Greek mainland and the Cyclades. (Mycenaean Studies 3) (session reports of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Philosophical-Historical Class 303) Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna 1976.
  • Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 volumes, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 . (Detailed archaeological find report, sorted geographically).

Excavation reports

  • Carl William Blegen : Korakou. A prehistoric settlement near Corinth. American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Boston and New York 1921 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) .
  • Carl W. Blegen: Zygouries. A prehistoric settlement in the valley of Cleonae. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1928, (online, accessed April 16, 2016) .
  • Florens Felten and Stefan Hiller : Research on the Early Bronze Age on Aegina-Kolonna 1993–2002. In: Eva Alarm-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2. Series, Research Report 1975–2002, 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 vols, publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 .
  • Hetty Goldman : Preliminary Report on the Excavations at Eutresis in Boeotia. In: Notes (Fogg Art Museum), Vol. 2, Special Number: Excavations at Eutresis. President and Fellows of Harvard College on behalf of Harvard Art Museum 1927, pp. 3–91 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Erik J. Holmberg: The Swedish Excavations at Asea in Arcadia. Acta Instituti Romani Regni Sueciae, Lund and Leipzig 1944.
  • Gosta Sa'flund: Excavations at Berbati, 1936-1937. Stockholm Studies in Classical Archeology 4, Almqvist and Wiksell, Stockholm 1965.
  • Hara Tzavella-Evjen: Lithares: An Early Bronze Age Settlement in Boeotia. Cotsen Institute of Archeology 1985, ISBN 978-0-917956-56-0 .
  • James C. Wright: Excavations at Tsoungiza (Archaia Nemea). In: Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. 51, No. 4 (October - December 1982), pp. 375-397 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).

Lerna

  • John Langdon Caskey: Lerna in the Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 72, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 313-316 (online, accessed April 13, 2016) .
  • John L. Caskey: Excavations at Lerna. In: Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
  • John L. Caskey and Elizabeth G. Caskey: The Earliest Settlements at Eutresis Supplementary Excavations, 1958. In: Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. 29, No. 2 (April – June 1960), pp. 126–167 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Lerna: A Preclassical Site in the Argolid: Results of Excavations Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Princeton
    • Vol. III = Jeremy B. Rutter: The Pottery of Lerna IV. 1995.
    • Vol. IV = Martha Heath Wiencke: The Architecture, Stratification, and Pottery of Lerna III. 2000.
    • Vol. VI = EC Banks: The Settlement and Architecture of Lerna IV. 2013.

Tiryns

  • Imperial German Archaeological Institute in Athens: Tiryns. The results of the institute's excavations. 2 volumes, Athens 1912.
  • German Archaeological Institute in Athens (ed.): Tiryns. The results of the institute's excavations. Third volume. The architecture of the castle and the palace, by Kurt Müller, with plans and drawings by Heinrich Sulze. Benno Filser, Augsburg, 1930.
  • Georg Karo: Guide through Tiryns. 2nd edition, Athens, German Archaeological Institute 1934 online in the catalog of the libraries of Heidelberg University, accessed on April 25, 2016 .
  • Hans-Joachim Weisshaar: Excavations in Tiryns, report on early Helladic ceramics. In: American Journal of Archeology. Archaeological Institute of America.
    • 1978, 1979. 1981, pp. 220-256.
    • 1980. 1982, pp. 440-466.
    • 1981. 1983, pp. 329-358.

To the chronology

  • John L. Caskey: Aegean Terminologies. In: Historia: magazine for ancient history. Vol. 27, H. 3, Franz Steiner Verlag 1978, pp. 488-491 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Sturt W. Manning: The absolute chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: archeology, radiocarbon and history. Sheffield Academy Press, 1995, ISBN 1-85075-336-9 .
  • Daniel Pullen: Asine, Berbati, and the Chronology of Early Bronze Age Greece. In: American Journal of Archeology. 91, No. 4 (Oct. 1987), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 533-544 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Erika Weiberg and Michael Lindblom: The Early Helladic II – III Transition at Lerna and Tiryns Revisited: Chronological Difference or Synchronous Variability? In: Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. 83, No. 3 (July – September 2014), pp. 383–407 ( online as PDF file, accessed April 17, 2016 ).

On Indo-European immigration and the question of its dating

  • Carl W. Blegen: The Coming of the Greeks: II. The Geographical Distribution of Prehistoric Remains in Greece. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 32, No. 2 (April-June 1928), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 146-154. (Outdated state of research, but an important publication in terms of research history).
  • John Evander Coleman: An Archaeological Scenario for the “Coming of the Greeks” ca. 3200 BC In: The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1 & 2, Spring / Summer 2000, pp. 101–153 ( online as PDF file, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  • Michael B. Cosmopoulos: From Artifacts to Peoples. Pelasgoi, Indo-Europeans, and the Arrival of the Greeks. In: R. Blench, M. Spriggs (Eds.): Archeology and Language, III: Artefacts, Languages, and Texts. One World Archeology 34, Routledge, London 1997, pp. 249-256.
  • RA Crossland: Bronze Age migrations in the Aegean. Archaeological and linguistic problems in Greek prehistory; proceedings of the 1st boarding school. Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory, Sheffield, organized by the British Assoc. for Mycenaean Studies and the Departm. of Greek and Ancient History of the Univ. of Sheffield. Noyes Press, Park Ridge 1974.
  • Robert Drews: The Coming of the Greeks. Indo-European conquests in the Aegean and the Near East. Princeton University Press, 1989.
  • Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece Towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 . (From an analysis of 89 archaeological sites Forsén concludes that there was neither a temporally nor geographically uniform phase of destruction in FH II / III and thus refutes Caskey's thesis).
  • Margalit Finkelberg: Anatolian Languages ​​and Indo-European Migrations to Greece. In: The Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States (Ed.): The classical world. Vol. 91, No. 1 (September – October 1997), pp. 3–20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  • Paul Kretschmer: Introduction to the history of the Greek language. Vandenhoeck, Göttingen 1896, p. 401 as a PDF file online, accessed on April 17, 2016 . (Meanwhile refuted, but important work in terms of research history).
  • Nicholas I. Xirotiris: The Indo-Europeans in Greece. An Anthropological Approach to the Population of Bronze Age Greece. Journal of Indo-European Studies 8 (1-2), pp. 201-210, 1980.

Further special studies

  • Jan Bouzek: The Aegean, Anatolia and Europe. Cultural interrelations in the 2nd millennium BC Åström, Göteborg 1985 (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology 29).
  • Hans-Günther Buchholz and Peter Wagner: Too early Bronze Age connections between the Balkans and Hellas. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 121-136.
  • Gerald Cadogan (Ed.): The end of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean. Brill, Leiden 1986, ISBN 90-04-07309-4 .
  • John L. Caskey: The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid. In: Hesperia (The American School of Classical Studies at Athens) 29 (3), pp. 285–303, 1960, (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) . (Partly outdated state of research, for example the thesis of the immigration of the Indo-Europeans at the end of FH II / beginning of FH III is controversial, nevertheless an influential publication in the history of research).
  • John E. Coleman, "Frying Pans" of the Early Bronze Age Aegean. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 89, No. 2 (April 1985), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 191-219 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  • Robin Hägg (Ed.): Early Helladic architecture and urbanization. Proceedings of a seminar held at the Swedish Institute in Athens. Åström, Gothenburg 1985.
  • Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 53-120.
  • Naoise MacSweeney: Social Complexity and Population. A Study in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Papers from the Institute of Archeology 15, 2004, pp. 52–65 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) .
  • Joseph Maran : Cultural change on mainland Greece and the Cyclades in the late 3rd millennium BC Studies on the cultural conditions in Southeast Europe and the central and eastern Mediterranean area in the late Copper and early Bronze Ages. (= University publications on prehistoric archeology 53). Habelt, Bonn 1998. ISBN 3-7749-2870-3 (= habilitation thesis).
  • RA McNeal: Helladic Prehistory through the Looking-Glass. In: Historia . Vol. 24, H. 3, Franz Steiner Verlag 1975, pp. 385-401 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Kurt Müller : The original varnish ceramics. (= Tiryns. Vol. 4, ZDB -ID 800564-3 ). Bruckmann, Munich 1938 (reprint by Zabern, Mainz 1976, ISBN 3-8053-0014-X ).
  • John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Colin Renfrew : The Emergence of Civilization, The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC. Methuen, London 1972; reissued and prefaced by John Cherry, Bannerstone, Oakville, Conn. 2010 and Oxbow, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-9774094-7-1 .
  • Colin Renfrew: Cycladic Metallurgy and the Aegean Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 71, No. 1 (January 1967), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 1-20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  • Martha H. Wiencke: Change in Early Helladic II. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 93, No. 4 (October 1989), pp. 495-509 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).
  • Malcolm H. Wiener: "Minding the Gap". Gaps, Destructions, and Migrations in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Causes and Consequences. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 117, No. 4 (October 2013), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 581-592 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ).

Web links

References and comments

  1. ^ Compare Philipp B. Betancourt: Book Reviews: The Absolute Chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: Archeology, Radiocarbon and History, by Sturt W. Manning. In: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. No. 301 (February 1996), pp. 94-95 ( online, accessed on April 16, 2016 ): "The range of suggested dates for the beginning of the period go from approx. 2300 BC to approx. 4000 BC, with 25 intermediate positions between these extremes. [...] From the statistics Manning compiled, the Early Bronze Age begins about 3100–3000 BC and ends about 2000 BC "
  2. ↑ a b c Compare Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford u. a. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. Here p. 53.
  3. ^ Compare with Sturt W. Manning: The absolute chronology of the Aegean Early Bronze Age: archeology, radiocarbon and history. Sheffield Academy Press, 1995, ISBN 1-85075-336-9 , pp. 79-91.
  4. ↑ Compare, for example, for the case of Lerna Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 611.
  5. ↑ Compare, for example, for Messenia Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 653.
  6. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 , p. 10.
  7. ↑ Compare Carl W. Blegen: Korakou. A prehistoric settlement near Corinth. American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Boston and New York 1921 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) , p. 1.
  8. ^ Compare Carl W. Blegen: Zygouries. A prehistoric settlement in the valley of Cleonae. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1928, (online, accessed April 16, 2016) , pp. Vii.
  9. ^ Compare I. Unkel, A. Schimmelmann, C. Shriner, J. Forsén, C. Heymann and H. Brückner: The environmental history of the last 6500 years in the Asea Valley (Peloponnese, Greece) and its linkage to the local archaeological record. In: Journal of Geomorphology, Supplementary Issue. ( online, accessed on April 16, 2016 at 5:50 p.m. ), p. 3.
  10. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece Towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 , p. 11.
  11. ↑ Compare John L. Caskey: Lerna in the Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 72, No. 4 (October 1968), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 313-316 (online, accessed April 13, 2016) , p. 313.
  12. ↑ a b Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 19.
  13. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 25.
  14. ^ Compare John L. Caskey: The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid. In: Hesperia (The American School of Classical Studies at Athens) 29 (3), pp. 285–303, 1960, (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) , p. 216.
  15. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 703 f.
  16. ^ Compare J. Lesley Fitton: Die Minoer. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 978-3-8062-1862-6 , pp. 22-32.
  17. ^ A b Compare John L. Caskey: Aegean Terminologies. In: Historia: magazine for ancient history. Vol. 27, H. 3, Franz Steiner Verlag 1978, pp. 488-491 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 489.
  18. ↑ Compare Lesson 3 (accessed on April 12, 2016 at 11:22 pm): “In 1918 Wace and Blegen, in imitation of Evans' tripartite scheme for Crete, divided the Mainland Greek Bronze Age into Early, Middle, and Late [ ...] "
  19. ^ Compare RA McNeal: Helladic Prehistory through the Looking-Glass. In: Historia . Vol. 24, H. 3, Franz Steiner Verlag 1975, pp. 385-401 ( online, accessed on April 16, 2016 ), pp. 386 f.
  20. ↑ Compare Carl W. Blegen: Korakou. A prehistoric settlement near Corinth. American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Boston and New York 1921 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) , p. 14.
  21. ↑ Compare Lesson 3: “Until the excavations of Caskey at Lerna between 1952 and 1958, the distinction between the cultures of the Early Helladic (EH) II and III chronological periods was not very clear. Likewise, it was not until Caskey's supplementary excavations at Eutresis in 1958 that EH I culture became easily distinguishable from those of the preceding FN and the succeeding EH II periods. "
  22. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: Asine, Berbati, and the Chronology of Early Bronze Age Greece. In: American Journal of Archeology. 91, No. 4 (Oct. 1987), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 533-544 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 534.
  23. ↑ a b Compare Daniel Pullen: Asine, Berbati, and the Chronology of Early Bronze Age Greece. In: American Journal of Archeology. 91, No. 4 (Oct. 1987), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 533-544 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 533: “The most crucial element in the debate is the position of the Lefkandi I assemblage within the relative sequences of the later EBA Aegean. […] Rutter has effectively demonstrated that Lefkandi I is to be assigned to the late EB 2 , for the Lefkandi I assemblage occurs in association with EH II ceramics and stratigraphically falls below levels where 'standard' early EH III material occurs […] "
  24. ↑ a b Compare Lesson 3.
  25. ↑ Compare John L. Caskey: Lerna in the Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 72, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 313-316 (online, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 314. Here Caskey writes on the one hand that in Lerna there were no layers that could be dated to FH I, but on the other that two ceramic vessels were found at the very top in layer II, which are of the same type as objects from Kephala on Kea , for a 1966 radiocarbon dating 3021 (± 58) v. Chr. Revealed. Caskey claims in the following that it is probable that the layer can still be assigned to the late Neolithic period, although according to today's absolute chronology the year 3021 BC. BC clearly falls into the Early Helladic. However, Weiberg and Lindblom (2014) also adopt these dates (compare Erika Weiberg and Michael Lindblom: The Early Helladic II – III Transition at Lerna and Tiryns Revisited: Chronological Difference or Synchronous Variability? In: Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Vol. 83, No. 3 (July – September 2014), pp. 383–407 ( online as PDF file, accessed on April 17, 2016 ( memento of the original from April 17, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info : The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ). Here p. 384.). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.arkeologi.uu.se
  26. ↑ a b c d e f Compare John E. Coleman: An Archaeological Scenario for the “Coming of the Greeks” approx. 3200 BC In: The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1 & 2, Spring / Summer 2000, pp. 101–153 ( online as PDF file, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 124.
  27. ↑ Compare John L. Caskey: Lerna in the Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 72, No. 4 (Oct. 1968), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 313-316 (online, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 314: “PERIOD III. This coincides with the middle stage of the Early Helladic period, EH II, [...] "
  28. ^ A b Compare Colin Renfrew: Cycladic Metallurgie and the Aegean Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 71, No. 1 (January 1967), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 1-20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 14.
  29. ↑ Compare Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 53-120. Here p. 69.
  30. ↑ Compare Colin Renfrew: Cycladic Metallurgie and the Aegean Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 71, No. 1 (January 1967), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 1-20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 15.
  31. ↑ a b c Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 2.
  32. ↑ Compare Colin Renfrew: Cycladic Metallurgie and the Aegean Early Bronze Age. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 71, No. 1 (January 1967), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 1-20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 17.
  33. ↑ Michael B. Cosmopoulos: The early bronze 2 in the Aegean. Åström, Jonsered 1991, ISBN 91-7081-019-2 (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology 98), p. 71.
  34. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 561.
  35. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 546.
  36. ↑ Compare Wolfgang Schiering : Greece, II. Prehistoric Cultures, [3] Early Bronze Age. In: Lexicon of the Old World. Artemis-Verlag, Zurich-Munich 1990, unaltered reprint of the one-volume original edition from 1965, ISBN 3-7608-1034-9 , p. 1142.
  37. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 30.
  38. ^ Compare Malcolm H. Wiener: "Minding the Gap". Gaps, Destructions, and Migrations in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Causes and Consequences. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 117, No. 4 (October 2013), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 581-592 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 586.
  39. ^ Compare Martha H. Wiencke: Change in Early Helladic II. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 93, No. 4 (October 1989), pp. 495-509 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 500.
  40. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: Ox and Plow in the Early Bronze Age Agean. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 96, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 45-54 ( online, accessed April 22, 2016 ).
  41. ↑ a b Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 611.
  42. ^ Karl-Wilhelm Welwei : Greek history: From the beginnings to the beginning of Hellenism. Verlag Ferdinand Schöning, Paderborn et al. 2011, ISBN 9783506773067 , p. 18.
  43. ↑ a b Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 22.
  44. ^ Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 1.
  45. ↑ Compare Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 53-120. Here p. 65.
  46. ^ Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 2.
  47. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 31.
  48. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 26.
  49. ↑ Compare Naoise MacSweeney: Social Complexity and Population. A Study in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Papers from the Institute of Archeology 15, 2004, pp. 52–65 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 57.
  50. ↑ Compare Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. 1987. p. 81: “Similar to Palestine and Syria, in the Aegean Sea during the Early Bronze Age - here in Stage II - the transition to a way of life that can be described as urban. The settlements got bigger. At least in places, a social differentiation became apparent, which presumably corresponded to a commercial specialization […] ”.
  51. ↑ Compare Naoise MacSweeney: Social Complexity and Population. A Study in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Papers from the Institute of Archeology 15, 2004, pp. 52–65 (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 53.
  52. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 27.
  53. ^ Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 3.
  54. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 . P. 588 f.
  55. ↑ Compare Joseph Maran: Cultural change on the Greek mainland and the Cyclades in the late 3rd millennium BC. Studies on the cultural conditions in Southeast Europe and the central and eastern Mediterranean area in the late Copper and early Bronze Ages. (= University publications on prehistoric archeology 53). Habelt, Bonn 1998. ISBN 3-7749-2870-3 (= habilitation thesis), p. 194.
  56. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 28.
  57. ^ Compare John L. Caskey: Exvacations at Lerna 1952–1953. Pp. 23 and 39.
  58. ↑ Compare Joseph Maran: Cultural change on the Greek mainland and the Cyclades in the late 3rd millennium BC. Studies on the cultural conditions in Southeast Europe and the central and eastern Mediterranean area in the late Copper and early Bronze Ages. (= University publications on prehistoric archeology 53). Habelt, Bonn 1998. ISBN 3-7749-2870-3 (= habilitation thesis), p. 195 f.
  59. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 614.
  60. ^ Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 4.
  61. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 593 f.
  62. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46. Here p. 36.
  63. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 615.
  64. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. P. 28.
  65. ↑ Compare Jeremy B. Rutter: Review of Agean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 97, No. 4 (October 1993), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 745-797 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 767.
  66. ↑ Compare Maria Choleva: The first wheelmade pottery at Lerna. Wheel-Thrown or Wheel-Fashioned? In: Hesperia . Volume 81, No. 3 (July-September 2012), pp. 343-381. Here p. 344.
  67. ↑ Compare Lesson 9. ( Memento from May 17, 2011 in the Internet Archive ). Accessed April 12, 2016.
  68. ↑ Compare Hartmut Matthäus : Tiryns. Research and reports (review). In: Gnomon 67 (1995), CH Beck, pp. 86-87. Here p. 86. ( online, accessed April 22, 2016 ).
  69. ↑ Compare Eva Alarm-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2. Series, Research Report 1975–2002, 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 vols, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , pp. 602 and 608.
  70. ↑ Compare Wolfgang Schiering : Urfirnis. In: Lexicon of the Old World . Artemis-Verlag, Zurich-Munich 1990, Unchanged reprint of the one-volume original edition from 1965, ISBN 3-7608-1034-9 , Volume 3, p. 3167. ISBN 3-7608-1034-9 .
  71. ↑ Compare Blegen and Wace: The Pre-Mycenean Pottery of the Mainland. P. 176.
  72. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece Towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 , p. 16.
  73. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2. Series, Research Report 1975–2002, 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 vols, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 559.
  74. ↑ Compare, for example, Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2. Series, Research Report 1975-2002, 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 vols, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 622.
  75. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2. Series, Research Report 1975–2002, 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. 2 vols, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , p. 593.
  76. ^ Compare Carl W. Blegen and Alan Wace: The Pre-Mycenean Pottery of the Mainland. P. 178.
  77. ↑ Compare Michael B. Cosmopoulos: The early bronze 2 in the Aegean. Åström, Jonsered 1991, ISBN 91-7081-019-2 (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology 98), p. 100 f.
  78. ↑ Compare Seen Hemingway: Art of the Aegean Bronze Age. (= The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. Volume 69, No. 4.) ( online, accessed April 23, 2016 ), p. 41.
  79. ^ Compare, for example, Jeremy B. Rutter: Review of Agean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 97, No. 4 (October 1993), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 745-797 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 769.
  80. ↑ a b Compare Oliver Dickinson: The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-45664-9 , p. 239.
  81. ↑ Compare Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 53-120. Here p. 68.
  82. ↑ Compare John E. Coleman, "Fryiing Pans" of the Early Bronze Age Aegean. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 89, No. 2 (April 1985), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 191-219 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 200.
  83. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 22.
  84. ^ Compare Martha H. Wiencke: Change in Early Helladic II. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 93, No. 4 (October 1989), pp. 495-509 (online, accessed April 16, 2016). Here p. 501.
  85. ↑ Compare Oliver Dickinson: The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-45664-9 , p. 240.
  86. ↑ Compare Oliver Dickinson: The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-45664-9 , p. 241.
  87. ↑ Compare Olaf Höckmann: Early Bronze Age cultural relations in the Mediterranean area with special consideration of the Cyclades. In: Hans-Günter Buchholz (Ed.): Aegean Bronze Age. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1987, ISBN 3-534-07028-3 , pp. 53-120. Here p. 80 f.
  88. ↑ Compare e.g. J. Lesley Fitton: Die Minoer. Theiss, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 978-3-8062-1862-6 , p. 140.
  89. ↑ Compare Margalit Finkelberg: Anatolian Languages ​​and Indo-European Migrations to Greece. In: The Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States (Ed.): The classical world. Vol. 91, No. 1 (September – October 1997), pp. 3–20 ( online, accessed on April 17, 2016 ), p. 3: “[…] that parallels to the endings in question can be found in the endings -ssa and -nda of the languages ​​of Anatolia. Since the Anatolian languages ​​attested in the classical period (to the exclusion of Phrygian, which is not an Anatolian language proper) were generally considered not to belong to the Indo-European family of languages, Kretschmer's conclusion was that the pre-Hellenic substratum he discovered should be identified as non-Indo-European. In the course of time this view became generally accepted. "
  90. ↑ Compare Paul Kretschmer: Introduction to the History of the Greek Language. Vandenhoeck, Göttingen 1896, pp. 401–409 as a PDF file online, accessed on April 17, 2016 .
  91. ^ Compare Colin Renfrew: Archeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987, p. 50.
  92. ↑ Compare Bedřich Hrozný: The solution to the Hittite problem. In: Communications from the German Orient Society in Berlin. No. 56, December 1915 online on the website of the Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen, accessed on April 25, 2016 .
  93. ^ Compare Leonard William King: Note on the Hittie Problem. In: Egypt Exploration Society (Ed.): The Journal of Egyptian Archeology. Vol. 4, No. 2/3 (April – July 1917), pp. 190–193 online, accessed April 24, 2016.
  94. ^ Compare George A. Barton: The Present Status of the Hittite Problem. In: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 65, No. 3 (1926), pp. 232-243.
  95. ↑ Compare Margalit Finkelberg: Anatolian Languages ​​and Indo-European Migrations to Greece. In: The Johns Hopkins University Press on behalf of the Classical Association of the Atlantic States (Ed.): The classical world. Vol. 91, No. 1 (September – October 1997), pp. 3–20 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ), pp. 4–8.
  96. ↑ Compare John E. Coleman: An Archaeological Scenario for the “Coming of the Greeks” approx. 3200 BC In: The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1 & 2, Spring / Summer 2000, pp. 101–153 ( online as PDF file, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 104.
  97. ↑ Compare Jeremy B. Rutter: Review of Agean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 97, No. 4 (October 1993), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 745-797 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 766.
  98. ^ Compare Malcolm H. Wiener: "Minding the Gap". Gaps, Destructions, and Migrations in the Early Bronze Age Aegean. Causes and Consequences. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 117, N. 4 (October 2013), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 581-592 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ), p. 117.
  99. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: Ox and Plow in the Early Bronze Age Agean. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 96, No. 1 (January 1992), pp. 45-54 ( online, accessed April 22, 2016 ). Here p. 48.
  100. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 39.
  101. ^ Compare John L. Caskey: The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid. In: Hesperia (The American School of Classical Studies at Athens) 29 (3), pp. 285–303, 1960, (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 301 f .: "The data cited in the foregoing account suggest strongly, I think, that a foreign invasion created widespread havoc in this region and brought to an end the bright flowering of human society which has left its traces in the material remains of the second Early Helladic period. [...] Then came another impulse, presumably again from abroad, this time fully establishing the well-known features of Middle Helladic culture [...] ".
  102. ↑ Compare John L. Casey: The Early Helladic Period in the Argolid. In: Hesperia (The American School of Classical Studies at Athens) 29 (3), pp. 285–303, 1960, (online as PDF file, accessed April 13, 2016) . Here p. 301 f.
  103. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece Towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 , p. 14.
  104. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: The Twilight of the Early Helladics. A Study of the Disturbances in East-Central and Southern Greece Towards the End of the Early Bronze Age. Paul Åström, University of California 1992, (= Studies in Mediterranean archeology and literature. Vol. 116), ISBN 978-91-7081-031-2 , p. 18 f.
  105. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 36.
  106. ↑ Compare Jeremy B. Rutter: Review of Agean Prehistory II: The Prepalatial Bronze Age of the Southern and Central Greek Mainland. In: American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 97, No. 4 (October 1993), Archaeological Institute of America, pp. 745-797 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ), p. 764.
  107. ↑ Compare John E. Coleman: An Archaeological Scenario for the “Coming of the Greeks” approx. 3200 BC In: The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 28, No. 1 & 2, Spring / Summer 2000, pp. 101–153 ( online as PDF file, accessed April 17, 2016 ). Here p. 101.
  108. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 40.
  109. ↑ a b c d e Compare Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). P. 58.
  110. ↑ a b Compare John C. Overbeck: Greek Towns of the Early Bronze Age. In: The Classical Journal. Vol. 65, N. 1 (October 1969), pp. 1-7 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 6.
  111. ↑ comparisons Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. Here p. 59.
  112. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 23.
  113. ↑ a b c d Compare Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. Here p. 57.
  114. ↑ comparisons E. Hatzipouliou-Kalliri: An Early Helladic II Tomb by Lake Vouliagmeni, Perachora. In: The Annual of the British School at Athens. Vol. 78 (1983), pp. 369-375 ( online, accessed April 17, 2016 ).
  115. ↑ a b c d Compare Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. Here p. 56.
  116. ↑ Compare Daniel Pullen: The Early Bronze Age in Greece. In: Cynthia W. Shelmerdine (Ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-81444-7 , pp. 19-46 ( online, accessed April 16, 2016 ). Here p. 32.
  117. ↑ Compare Eva Alram-Stern: The Aegean Early Period: 2nd Series, Research Report 1975–2002, Vol. 2: The Early Bronze Age in Greece, with the exception of Crete. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 2004, ISBN 978-3-7001-3268-4 , pp. 703–714.
  118. ↑ a b c d Compare Jeanette Forsén: Mainland Greece. In: Eric H. Cline (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (approx. 3000-1000 BC). Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 53-65. Here p. 55.