Story of Naurus

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Republic of Nauru in the Western Pacific is one of the smallest states in the world. The island, which has only been known to Europeans for around two hundred years, has had an eventful history: initially owned by changing colonial powers, the island state rose to become one of the richest states in the world after gaining independence in 1968 thanks to its extensive phosphate deposits . Today, however, Nauru has severe financial problems and is considered a developing country .

Early history

The origin of the Nauruan people has not yet been finally clarified. It can possibly be explained from the last Malayo-Pacific migration (around 1200 BC), when Polynesian and Melanesian seafarers or shipwrecked people from New Guinea probably settled on the island; there was no native population, although the first ethnic group on Nauru were probably Micronesians, although the Micronesians in the western Pacific are partially mixed with the Melanesians.

The European explorer Naurus is considered to be the British captain John Fearn , who discovered the island with the whaling ship Hunter on November 8, 1798. Because of its attractive appearance, he called it "Pleasant Island" , and that name it kept for the next ninety years during which Great Britain owned the island. In the 19th century, Nauru was a notorious base for foreign sea and beach pirates.

At that time twelve tribes lived in Nauru: the Deiboe, Eamwidamit, Eamwidara, Eamwit, Eamgum, Eano, Emeo, Eoraru, Irutsi, Iruwa, Iwi and Ranibok. Each of these tribes had their own ancestry history. Before 1888 there was also no common head of all tribes. Today they are immortalized in the twelve-pointed star of the state flag , their descendants still live on Nauru, but no longer belong to the tribe but to the district in which they live. A specialty is the tribe Iruwa, whose ancestors immigrated from the Gilbert Islands only recently . Further exceptions are the Irutsi and Iwi tribes, of which there are no descendants. They are believed to have died out in Chuuk during the Japanese occupation of Naurus . It is a coincidence that these two tribes became extinct.

Colonial times

Before the First World War

Map of Nauru ( Ānā́ọĕṙọ )
(October 1910)
German colonial map of Nauru (1890/1914)
Armor of a Nauruan warrior in tribal war

The European immigration that began in 1830 , mainly through British emigrants, was not without consequences for the local population: Hitherto unknown diseases such as measles and influenza brought death to many Nauruians. In 1878 there was also the Nauruan tribal war , in which there were several armed conflicts between warring clans . This war reduced the population at that time by a third.

German annexation ceremony in Nauru; in the middle King Auweyida
Auweyida and Eigamoiya in the midst of their subjects

In April 1886, the German Reich and Great Britain signed two agreements in Berlin which regulated the division of spheres of interest in the western Pacific and guaranteed reciprocal free trade. According to this agreement, Nauru belonged to Germany's area of ​​interest. Thereupon Nauru was occupied on April 16, 1888 by troops of the German Empire, which ended the tribal war and on October 2, 1888 it was annexed to the German Protectorate of the Marshall Islands . The flag was raised by the commanding officer on behalf of the ship SMS Eber Leutnant zur See Emsmann. Germany acquired Nauru primarily for strategic reasons, in order to consolidate its colonial holdings in the Pacific. The conquest was co-financed by the Jaluit Society , which in return was granted far-reaching economic privileges, including the monopoly of guano extraction on Nauru and the Marshall Islands. However, this remained meaningless until the phosphate deposits were discovered. She also took over the administration of the island until 1906. The German commissioner appointed the chief of Boe , Auweyida , and his wife Eigamoiya as island rulers (king) as representatives of the emperor .

On July 14, 1908, a German post office was opened. It only used postage stamps from the Marshall Islands. These were used in Jaluit (Marshall Islands) until September 29, 1914 (day of occupation by Japanese troops), in Nauru until November 6, 1914 (day of occupation by Australian troops).

In 1900, phosphorus -containing phosphate deposits (around 1.9% fluorine) were discovered on Nauru and estimated at around 42 million tons, although this estimate was probably a far understatement. Developed by the deposition of guano (bird droppings), it was found in the form of thin, hard and brittle bark on the dolomite of the corals , but also on ordinary phosphate and was exported as fertilizer all over the world under the name “Nauruit” . Later the Nauruit was assigned to the rock phosphorite as a variety . Today the Nauruit is almost completely mined and there are only few deposits left.

In 1905, the Pacific Phosphate Company was founded in a German-British collaboration , which has been controlling the mining of phosphate deposits since 1906. For this purpose, foreign workers from China and the Gilbert Islands were recruited.

The first phosphate shipments took place in 1907. In addition to the facilities for phosphate mining, the Pacific Phosphate Company also built a hospital , a sewer system , a condensation system for obtaining fresh water in dry periods and a soda water factory as well as ice machines and cold rooms; also electric light could be produced. In addition, wide, well-tended paths were laid that connected the cleanly kept settlements. In 1913 46 ships were handled, which had a total of 138,725 tons of phosphate loaded.

In 1899, the Protestant Mission Boston sent the German-American Philip Delaporte to Nauru to support the Gilbertine missionary who had been active since 1887 ; from 1908 some evangelical missionaries were set up to Christianize the island, so that German became the school language; the Catholic Church also founded its first missionary station in Nauru in 1902. The polygamy previously permitted was replaced by Christian marriage . Traces of totemism were first detected around 1920 . Of the original 168 villages, 110 still existed at that time.

In November 1912, the German company Telefunken began setting up a radio station on Nauru. The construction work was hampered by accidents and storms. A truck fell into the water twice while it was being transported from the ship to shore because the crane chain broke one time and the hook of the ship's crane broke in two. The islanders Naurus were forced to work at the radio station by the German administration, sometimes under threat of punishment. On December 1, 1913, the station was opened in parallel with a similar facility on the Yap Islands . It was equipped with an umbrella-shaped antenna that was supported by a 120 meter high iron lattice tower. The range was about 3,400 kilometers to Yap. Additional stations with T-shaped air conductors existed for traffic with ships in the vicinity.

Nauru during the First World War

Raising of the British flag on Nauru, 1914
British makeshift postage stamp dating from 1916 depicting King George V

At the beginning of the First World War , Nauru, like the other German colonies in the Pacific, was surrendered without a fight and NAURU was not occupied by Australian troops until November 6, 1914; Australia administered Nauru after the war from December 17, 1920 on behalf of Great Britain and New Zealand as a mandate area and secured the rights to mine the phosphate deposits discovered in 1900, whereby the Australian administrators paid the Nauru chiefs only a few euros for it. The Pacific Phosphate Company was renamed the British Phosphate Corporation . German law remained in force until September 23, 1922, when it was replaced by federal, Queensland, and British New Guinea laws. In 1927 the first Nauruan political authority was formed with the "Council of Tribal Chiefs".

In 1919 Angam Day was proclaimed, the day on which the Nauruan population had numbered 1500 people. It was announced that at least 1500 Nauru people would have to live to free the Nauruan population from the fear of extinction. Angam Day was celebrated in 1932.

Nauru during the Second World War

Illustration of the bombed loading station on December 27, 1940

During the Second World War , Nauru was shelled on December 27, 1940 by a German warship, the auxiliary cruiser Komet ; the phosphate production facilities were then paralyzed for 10 weeks. The auxiliary cruiser Orion and the Komet Phosphalt transport ships sank off Nauru from December 6th to 8th . The attacks on Nauru led to a shortage of fertilizers in Australia and New Zealand, resulting in crop failures. Furthermore, merchant ships were escorted by warships, patrols were carried out and a small garrison was stationed. These attacks are considered to be the greatest success of the German auxiliary cruisers operating in the Pacific Ocean during the Second World War.

On December 8, 1941, news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor arrived . During the previous week, a Japanese plane bombed the island's telegram station. It was heard in Nauru that the Japanese were advancing faster than expected due to their occupation of the neighboring Gilbert Islands. Many foreign residents of Naurus began to feel unsafe.

The British Phosphate Society decided it would be best to evacuate the island. The French battleship Le Triomphant sailed from the New Hebrides to Nauru and took 61 Europeans, 391 Chinese and 49 members of the military garrison on board. The remaining 191 Europeans stayed behind in the hope of being evacuated later as well.

On August 26, 1942, 300 soldiers from the army of the Japanese Empire, allied with the German Reich , landed on Nauru. They immediately arrested the remaining Europeans. The Nauru people, who were born around 1850, had to do auxiliary services for the invaders. A number of artillery positions were built on the coast, as well as many bunkers along the coast and at strategically important points in the interior of the island, as well as an underground hospital.

Later, around 1,500 Japanese and Korean workers began building an airfield. Another 275 Nauru and Kiribati were used for forced labor. The airfield's runway was completed and put into operation in January 1943. This airfield is now the Nauru International Airport .

Nauru under attack by USAAF

While experts from Japan tried to resume phosphate mining, American planes bombed Nauru on March 25, 1943, destroying 15 Japanese planes and damaging the airfield. The Japanese then executed five British prisoners. The attempt to resume phosphate mining and export was unsuccessful, but Nauru remained an important location in the Japanese defense system in the Pacific, which is why the US Air Force increased its bombing. A period of drought in 1943 and 1944 led to a shortage of food. This was possibly one of the reasons why the Japanese deported 1200 Nauru people and two missionaries (including the Alsatian Alois Kayser ) to labor camps in Truk and other islands of the Caroline Islands , where they had to do forced labor.

Conditions on Nauru were tough. Torpedo supply ships and ongoing air strikes made survival dependent on means of subsistence. By the end of the war, around 300 Japanese had starved to death; many resorted to cannibalism in order to survive. Low morale and isolation dampened the minds of the Japanese. The Japanese declaration of extradition Naurus happened on September 13, 1945 on board the Australian warship HMAS Dimantina . 3745 Japanese and Koreans returned to their homeland; some Japanese have been tried before a war crimes tribunal for executing European and Nauruan prisoners. In January 1946, only 737 Nauru returned from the Truk labor camps. More than a third have died of malnutrition and bacterial diseases. This inevitably strong population decline made another Angam Day possible in 1949.

Nauru since independence

Phase of wealth

After the Second World War, Nauru fell back to Australia; In 1947 the UN approved Australia control of the island as a UN trust territory administered by Great Britain , Australia and New Zealand .

Raymond Gadabu (left) and Hammer DeRoburt (center)

In 1951 Hammer DeRoburt took over the chairmanship of the Local Government Council, a westernized form of the former "Council of Tribal Chiefs". In the 1930s he was one of the first Nauru to attend an Australian school, the Geelong Technical College in the Australian state of Victoria , and was deported by the Japanese on his return to Nauru. This experience shaped him strongly and made him want to fight for the independence of Naurus. In 1955 he began negotiations with the Royal Phosphate Society and the colonial power Australia as chief negotiator . Because of his Australian education, he became the preferred interlocutor for the Australian administrators.

In 1966 the gradual destruction and unusability of the island was already evident. Australia then offered Nauru one of the islands off Queensland . But the Nauruan electorate had opted for the independence recommended by DeRoburt in the corresponding referendum; Nauru was granted a high degree of internal autonomy, which enabled the establishment of the Nauru Local Government Council , the forerunner of today's Nauru Parliament . In 1967 Australia declared the Nauru Independent Act , which shortly heralded the end of the UN Trust Territory Statute. On January 31, 1968, Nauru was granted political independence and sovereignty under international law as a republic by the UN and Australia . Active and passive women's suffrage was introduced on January 3, 1968. DeRoburt became the first president. He remained president for a long time, but was then replaced by the young Bernard Dowiyogo . Dowiyogo made himself felt internationally by sharply criticizing France's nuclear tests .

Nauru has only been able to benefit from phosphate mining since 1970, when the Nauru Phosphate Society was founded and the British Phosphate Corporation took over. Thanks to the income from mining, the infrastructure could be equipped with the most modern technologies; a road system, which included an asphalt road around the island and a road to Buada and around the Buada lagoon , and two Australian electricity houses in Aiwo were built. Nauru became the second richest country in the world after Saudi Arabia (by GDP per capita). Every day, the phosphate was removed from the limestone soil with mechanical grabs and loaded onto the ships anchored in front of the reef in Aiwo via conveyor belts and a narrow-gauge railway , around 2 million tons annually. What remains is a desolate, uninhabitable lunar landscape made of coral remnants and rubble, as well as a 150 to 300 meter wide habitable coastal strip. The Australian Confederation has repeatedly reminded Nauru of the offer on that island off Queensland , but the government has so far refused; this would also mean a renewed loss of political independence.

Nauru sued Australia in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for the exploitation of phosphate before independence. On August 9, 1993, Australia pledged $ 107 million to restore Naurus. The renaturation program included, among other things, the filling of the coral ruins, which were left over after the phosphate mining, with imported humus . In some cases, many plants are already growing out of the coral landscape, but because of the large area, the project was abandoned and the money was used for the further modernization of the infrastructure. In return, Nauru decided not to pursue its lawsuit against Australia at the International Court of Justice (ICJ).

On October 9, 1997, the government signed a contract with the International Diabetes Institute (IDI) for a long-term project on diabetes research . The contract stipulates that Nauruer will be available for genetic examinations for a period of 20 years and that the state would be involved in commercially exploitable results of the study. On May 1, 1999, the Republic of Nauru became a full member of the Commonwealth , and on September 14th, it became a full member of the UN .

Corruption and financial crisis

In January 2000, Deutsche Bank and Bankers Trust , which transfer money around the world, suspended all US dollar payments to the Bank of Nauru . The G8 also considered sanctions against the tax haven for money laundering by the Russian mafia and South American drug cartels. Nauru had developed into a paradise for international drug traffickers and money laundering in the late 1990s . As the US State Department stated in its annual report on the control of drug trafficking in early March 2000, members of the Russian mafia in particular use Nauru to launder money from drug trafficking. According to the Russian central bank , around 80 billion US dollars flowed through banks in Nauru, mostly letterbox companies, in 1999. The island nation had established itself as a tax and financial haven and was only surpassed by the British Cayman Islands in terms of the number of financial institutions per capita. But while there were regulatory mechanisms in place on the Cayman Islands to curb the illegal flow of money, there was no control on Nauru. The United States of America therefore demanded that Nauru introduce an anti-money laundering law according to international standards. Following further pressure from the UN, Nauru had money laundering stopped, even if it was a profitable source of income for Nauru. On April 19, 2002, the OECD published a new black list of states that tolerate harmful tax practices; Nauru is also included on this list. Nauru has not been on this list since May 2004. However, until 2005, Nauru was entered on the FATF's blacklist of uncooperative states in relation to money laundering . In September 2004, new laws were passed to be removed from the list.

From DeRoburt's death to the present day, the political situation has been very unstable: Many votes of no confidence and frequently changing presidents as well as diverse views in parliament regarding the use of the great wealth have caused the financial situation to spiral out of control. The situation came to a head when the phosphate ran low: Between 1999 and 2003 there was a series of votes of no confidence and elections, after which René Harris and Bernard Dowiyogo led the country for different periods. Dowiyogo died during his term of office on 10 March 2003 in Washington, D.C. on diabetes mellitus ; his successor Derog Gioura suffered a heart attack. Ludwig Scotty was elected as the new president on May 29, 2003, and it seemed quite possible at the time that the years of political instability were drawing to a close. Meanwhile, in August 2003, there was another vote of no confidence. Harris regained support and was re-elected president. On June 22, 2004, Scotty regained the presidency after Harris was ousted by another vote of no confidence. Kinza Clodumar , one of the ministers under Harris, voted against Harris, thereby causing him to be voted out. Clodumar's reason for changing sides was that he wanted to avert the dissolution of Parliament threatened by Harris. He was reappointed Treasury Secretary by Scotty in recognition of his appreciation.

In 2001, the Harris government set up the Nauru Detention Center to counteract the economic collapse after the end of phosphate mining. The Australian government under John Howard held refugees here and paid Nauru very generously for them. However, this circumstance led to violent protests from the opposition and the population: In 2003, demonstrators burned the State House , Harris' residence. There were demonstrations at the airport on April 23, 2004 when Harris was flying to China for negotiations . Some parliamentarians from the opposition party Naoero Amo were present at these protests and were sentenced to 14 years in prison. These sentences were revoked when Scotty took office. In May 2004 , some Australian human rights activists started the Flotilla of Hope , a sailing trip for two Australian yachts from Sydney to Nauru, to peacefully protest against the Australian refugee camp in Nauru.
The new administration under Scotty is in a dilemma: It set itself the goal of closing the refugee camp, but Harris warned against this step shortly after his election, as otherwise there would be no more income. The economy would then be down, the state bankrupt. Harris, who remained a member of parliament, called for early parliamentary elections, because at that time an insecure parliamentarian was enough to turn the whole situation around. In June 2004, three Australian advisors were sent to Nauru to help the new government prepare a new state budget.

Reform and rehabilitation

In August 2004, an Australian study was published that said Nauru had two options: "Become a poor and sick beggar and leper in the Pacific, or choose a healthy and humble life". This is to be interpreted in such a way that Nauru should give up its sovereignty as a republic and become part of Australia , New Zealand or Fiji . The study author Helen Hughes , however, found Nauru to be done if drastic structural changes are not initiated, which are decisive in averting economic decline and restoring political stability.
Meanwhile, at the Pacific Islands Forum, the neighboring states agreed to financially support Nauru in the worst crisis in its history. In September 2004 it was discovered from soil investigations that there was far more phosphate in the mining area than previously assumed; further tests were arranged by the then UN ambassador Vinci Clodumar .

On October 1, 2004, Scotty declared a national emergency due to economic crises and at the same time dissolved parliament ; he put the new elections on the following October 23rd. He also suspended parliamentary speaker Russell Kun from his office in order to prevent further parliamentary actions until the new elections. Scotty and his liberal-reformist followers clearly won the parliamentary elections and achieved a historic majority of 16-2. Nauru is now well on the way to overcoming the political instability that has persisted for years and thus also to weather the economic crisis. In December 2004, a larger amount of phosphate was exported for the first time in months; the shipments to South Korea amounted to about 10,000 tons.

At the end of January 2005, Australian Science Minister Brendan Nelson announced that Australia would store its nuclear waste outside of its national territory. Nauru was considered a very suitable location for the construction of a repository . On June 15, 2005 Nauru joined the International Whaling Commission (IWC) ; Nauru may have been lured into membership by Japan , considered a major whaling nation, to help it vote on the resumption of commercial whaling , which took place in Ulsan , South Korea on June 20, 2005 ; however, the whaling supporters lost the vote. Naurus joining the IWC sparked controversy in Australia , whereupon the Australian government threatened diplomatic consequences; However, the Nauruan IWC envoy Marcus Stephen denied the allegations from Australia.

After the anti-money laundering law had been tightened again since 2004, whereby all banks registered in Nauru that existed as letterbox companies were canceled, Nauru was removed from the FATF's blacklist of uncooperative states in relation to money laundering in October 2005 . During a meeting of the member states of the Pacific Islands Forum , Scotty and Foreign Minister David Adeang announced that the remaining phosphate discovered in September 2004 would increase Nauru's export rate by 300 percent within six months; In addition, a National Development Strategy was drawn up with the support of the Pacific Islands Forum.

In December 2005, the American bank Export-Import Bank of the United States, as the owner of Air Nauru's only aircraft, demanded that it be returned. The People's Republic of China failed to deliver on its promise to take over the Nauruan airline's debts after it broke off relations with Taiwan . As a result, flight operations were initially discontinued, but resumed with Taiwanese help in September 2006 after Nauru resumed relations with Taiwan that had broken off in 2002. The airline, renamed Our Airline , flies a leased Boeing 737 from Brisbane to Nauru as well as Honiara , Tarawa and Majuro .

After the first regular legislative period without a vote of no confidence in a long time and without major political unrest, Scotty moved the elections scheduled for October two months forward in July 2007. In September 2007, Industry Minister Pitcher announced that he wanted to start the rehabilitation and renaturation programs newly developed by the reformist government by the end of the year. The gradual reversal of Naurus from the lunar landscape to the tropical island should take up to 20 years.

On August 25, 2007, the Nauruan people elected a new parliament; first reliable results are expected in early September. Despite Scotty's sometimes unpopular reform policies, Scotty won the elections clearly and won 15 of the 18 seats. On August 28th he was confirmed in office by the newly elected parliament. The opposition around ex-President René Harris , which had shrunk to three parliamentarians , first nominated Scotty's Vice David Adeang for the office, who refused on the grounds that it was not a game; then the opposition nominated Marcus Stephen , while Adeang nominated Scotty. Scotty finally won the election clearly with 14 to 3 votes. Scotty then nominated his usual cabinet of ministers before the election, with Adeang as foreign minister. After the election, there was criticism that some elected parliamentarians bought votes, directly or indirectly, through a Taiwanese monetary fund. The election observers at the Pacific Islands Forum , however, judged the elections to be "credible and harmless".

New crisis 2007-2008

On November 10, 2007, there was a crisis within the government. Three Scotty government ministers (Minister of Health Kieren Keke , Minister of Industry Frederick Pitcher and Minister of Justice Roland Kun ) resigned after falling out with Foreign Minister David Adeang . He and President Scotty have been criticized by supporters of the three for undermining the reform program and for not advancing it enough. According to New Zealand and Australian media reports, a vote of no confidence took place on November 13th against Scotty with Keke as the opposing candidate, which Scotty lost with seven to eight votes (with two absenteeism). However, nine votes would have been required for a successful vote of no confidence. Keke denied the reports on the following day that such a vote had already taken place in parliament, but announced one for November 16 and was confident of winning it, since Scotty would have no prospects without the votes of the opposition to archenemy René Harris Have success.

Finally, on December 19, 2007, Scotty was voted out of parliament by a vote of no confidence of ten to seven, his opponent Marcus Stephen was sworn in as the new president and appointed his new cabinet.

In November 2007, the Australian government of John Howard lost the general election and Kevin Rudd became Prime Minister. The change of power in Australia also meant the end of the Nauru Detention Center: In February 2008 the State House camp was closed after the last Burmese and Sri Lankan refugees were granted asylum in Australia. The first refugee camp , called Top Side , on the site of an old sports field, was closed in September 2004. The closure of the Nauru camps marked the end of the Pacific Solution .

On March 18, 2008, the deposed opposition around Scotty and Adeang tried to force another vote of no confidence. However, since the incumbent Speaker of Parliament, Riddell Akua , who chaired such a vote without participating in the vote, resigned immediately and none of the opposition agreed to take up this post, no vote was taken. On March 20, 2008, after numerous nomination attempts, David Adeang surprisingly accepted the office of Speaker of Parliament. After ongoing power struggles and stalemates between the groups Adeangs and Stephens, the latter declared a state of emergency on April 18, 2008 and subsequently dissolved parliament. In new elections on April 26, Stephen's government added three seats and now has a solid majority of twelve to six seats, with former President René Harris losing his seat. Stephen was confirmed as President, whereupon the latter appointed his trusted cabinet and Akua was re-elected as Speaker of Parliament.

Criminal law reform 2016

On May 27, 2016, with the Crimes Act 2016, Nauru abolished the death penalty , solitary confinement , sentencing to forced labor and the prosecution of practiced homosexuality at the same time . At the same time, rape in marriage was declared a criminal offense , while attempting suicide was declared unpunished.

literature

  • S. Ehrhart: Nauru. In: The South Seas, Island Worlds in the Pacific. Cologne 1993, p. 276 ff., ISBN 3-7701-2705-6
  • Luc Folliet: Nauru. The devastated island. How capitalism destroyed the richest country on earth. Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-8031-2654-2 .
  • P. Hambruch: III. The settlements. In: NAURU, 1st half volume Hamburg 1914, p. 56 f.
  • C. McDaniel / J. Gowdy: Paradise for Sale: A Parable of Nature. California 2000, ISBN 0-520-22229-6 .
  • A. Kayser (1936): Nauru Grammar. Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Melbourne, 1993 ( ISBN 0-646-12854-X ).
  • W. Kreisel: 9.3.3.3 The importance of phosphate mining for Nauru. In: The Pacific Islands. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1991, pp. 284 f., ISBN 3-534-02237-8 .
  • Hermann Mückler : The Marshall Islands and Nauru in German colonial times. Frank and Timme, Berlin 2016.
  • G. Thilenius / O. Rake: Results of the South Seas Expedition 1908–1910 . L. Friederichsen, Hamburg 1914

Web links

Commons : History of Naurus  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wikisource: Ordinance concerning the acquisition of property and the encumbrance in rem on the properties in the protected areas of the Marshall Islands. §. 6. - on Pleasant Island. From June 22, 1889 (German Empire)  - Sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Overview of the history of Micronesia, Dirk Spennemann, Charles Sturt University, Albury, Australia
  2. ↑ Wording of both agreements in German and English. In: Fabricius, Wilhelm: Nauru 1888-1900 . Shown on the basis of files from the colonial department of the Foreign Office from the holdings of the German Central Archives in Potsdam. Translated and edited by Dymphna Clark and Stewart Firth, published by: Division of Pacific and Asian History, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, Canberra 1992. ISBN 0-7315-1367-3 , pp. 130 ff.
  3. ↑ Time - From the South Seas idyll to the lunar landscape
  4. ↑ Mineral Department of de British Museum - A (seventh) list of new mineral names (PDF, Engl., P. 12; 806 kB)
  5. ↑ Reinhard Klein-Arendt: "Kamina calls Nauen!" The radio stations in the German colonies 1904–1918 . Cologne: Wilhelm Herbst Verlag, 1995, p. 229 ff., ISBN 3-923925-58-1
  6. ↑ Mandate for Nauru (Nauru Mandate), 1921 - wording as PDF file in the Unesco World Library
  7. ^ Albert Hahl: German New Guinea , Berlin 1936, p. 38.
  8. ^ Trusteeship Agreement for the Territory of Nauru
  9. ↑ Luc Folliet: Nauru. The devastated island. How capitalism destroyed the richest country on earth., Verlag Klaus Wagenbach, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-8031-2654-2 , pp. 33-35.
  10. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 270.
  11. ^ Phosphate Industry Finance Act 1968
  12. ↑ State of emergency on the South Sea island of Nauru declared , NZZ Online (April 18, 2008)
  13. ↑ Business as usual on Nauru after snap election , Radio Australia Online (May 1, 2008)
  14. ↑ Nauru legalizes homosexuality . queer.de on May 27, 2016
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on November 3, 2005 .