Road Safety History
The history of road safety deals with the historical development of the hazard potential and corresponding countermeasures to protect the participants in road traffic and the movement of goods . The measures are constantly being further developed and adapted to the new findings with constant observation of their effects and statistical processing, especially in the areas of traffic policy, urban planning, vehicle technology, legal and traffic education. The historical representation in this list begins with the onset of motorization and essentially refers to the German national territory from 1900 to 2015.
Representation in decades
Before 1900
The regulation of road traffic through numerous legal norms and comprehensive jurisprudence , accompanied by concrete measures for traffic safety, essentially emerged only in the course of the twentieth century; the process continues to this day. Previously there was the greatest possible freedom of movement on the streets, although accidents have occurred since time immemorial. This is mainly due to the fact that with increasing technology, the probability of suffering an accident and the probability of being seriously damaged in the process have risen dramatically. Initially it was only pedestrians who could collide with each other or against obstacles, later horses were used as riding or draft animals and thus formed potential sources of danger. The steam-powered railroad was the first means of transport that could significantly exceed the speed of pedestrians and horses (so-called "biogenic speed") and thus created a risk that was often difficult to calculate when crossing the tracks. With the invention of the automobile , the danger spread to a large part of the traffic routes.
1900
The automobile opened up the possibility of motorized individual transport , which gradually larger parts of the population could participate in. As early as 1938, 1.2 million cars, 1.6 million motorcycles and 400,000 trucks were registered in the German Reich. Due to the massive spread of motorized vehicles that move in the same traffic area as pedestrians, cyclists, horses and wagons, the probability of accidents has increased sharply. The high speeds of motorized vehicles also increased the likelihood of accidents and the risk of serious damage. La Jamais Contente already reached over 100 km / h in 1899. Between 1900 and 1903 the first country-specific stipulations for warning signs were made in imperial Germany in ministerial decrees and higher presidential ordinances. Due to the dramatic damage caused by accidents in road traffic, considerations arose very early on to reduce the risk of accidents and thereby standardize and thus regulate automobile traffic. The state itself initially saw no need for action in Germany and left the regulations to the states. The multitude of measures taken there proved to be successful in the long term. Nevertheless, in 1907 the risk of dying in road accidents in relation to the number of vehicles was 62 times as high as it was a hundred years later.
In the Prussian provinces, on September 6, 1906, a police ordinance on the traffic with motor vehicles was enacted, in which the setting up of boards for speed limits was made possible. This ordinance came into force on October 1, 1906 and replaced an existing ordinance of November 13, 1901. Schleswig-Holstein held a special position, where the first “modern” traffic signs came into effect on January 26, 1906.
At the initiative of the German automobile clubs, after a test run in 1907, an imperial decree issued from 1908 for the first time seven uniform warning signs with symbols that had to be financed by the automobile clubs. Also in 1908, the Leipzig doctor Paul Streffer, as part of the 1st International Congress for Rescue Services in Frankfurt am Main, called for medical accompaniment to ambulance transports and the use of ambulance doctors for first aid on site and during the transport.
1910
In 1910, the first German Motor Vehicle Act, the forerunner of the Road Traffic Act and the Road Traffic Licensing Act, came into force. In addition, the International Agreement on Motor Vehicle Traffic of October 11, 1909 , which was adopted in Paris and ratified by the German Reich , was introduced, which, among other things, replaced the tables that were only issued in 1908 with a first international regulation. These new signs were also mostly financed, installed and maintained by the local automobile clubs.
- The first internationally valid warning signs, 1909
Transverse channel
Curve
Intersection
Railroad Crossing
With the first amendment to the automobile traffic regulations of February 3, 1910, three new signs were introduced in the German Reich. A black and blue rectangular board for speed limits and two more for traffic bans. Also in 1910 it was regulated by law in Germany that motor vehicles no longer had to reduce their driving speed to less than 15 km / h within localities. Local police authorities were only able to prescribe lower inner-city speeds for vehicles over 5.5 tons.
In addition to these official signs, the automobile clubs also set up their own warning signs before the First World War. This included self-designed place -name signs .
Also in 1910 the development of applied traffic psychology began in the United States of America by establishing an aptitude test for tram drivers. Gradually, further road safety measures were taken in the USA. In 1912, for example, the first electrical traffic signal with red and green lamps was installed. The established on August 5, 1914 traffic lights in Cleveland is considered the first regular traffic light in the world. In 1917 the first automatic traffic signal was patented in the USA and the first traffic control tower was installed at an intersection in Detroit .
Many areas, including traffic safety as well as environmental and health pollution, were topics in Reichstag sessions even before the First World War . In March 1912, for example, the central politician Michael Krings made an inquiry about the harmful dust nuisance caused by rail and car traffic. The then director of the Reich Office of the Interior, Theodor Lewald, replied to the question that the main cause was the poor German road conditions and that an improvement could be achieved through construction work. He also wants to initiate a discussion at one of the next international transport congresses in order to discuss this topic.
In 1919 it was established in Germany that trucks with rubber tires with internal combustion engines should not exceed a maximum speed of 15 to 16 km / h. For trucks as towing vehicles , 12 to 14 km / h were to be aimed for. For rubber-tyred trucks with electric drive , practice in the same year had shown that a top speed of 18 km / h was realistic.
1920
The idea of providing streets with lane markings was first implemented in the small English town of Sutton Coldfield in 1921 and served to defuse a hotspot of accidents. The first three-color traffic lights (red, yellow and green signal lamps) were put into operation in 1920 in New York City and Detroit . France and Germany adopted the idea only a little later. In 1922, the first European traffic lights were installed in Paris .
The traffic tower at Potsdamer Platz in Berlin, which was put into operation on December 15, 1924, achieved fame with Germany's first traffic light system. The light signals were initially operated manually, but were controlled centrally by the police headquarters as early as 1926 and placed in a coordinated light signal sequence (" green wave "). From 1925, centrally suspended four-sided traffic lights with automatically switched red-yellow-green signals were installed at many intersections. Crossing the lane for pedestrians was supported by white lane markings at intersections.
From March 1, 1923, a imperial ordinance allowed a speed of 30 km / h in urban areas. However, the higher administrative authority was able to increase the limit to 40 km / h.
In 1924, the Deutsche Verkehrswacht was founded, an association which, with the support of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development and the economy, has endeavored to promote road safety to this day. For this purpose he conducts traffic education and traffic information.
However, it soon became apparent that these first developments in the field of road safety were not sufficient. The number of road deaths was still rising sharply. While in Prussia there were still 223 in 1910, there were already 2376 accident victims in 1927.
With the ordinance on warning signs for motor vehicle traffic of July 8, 1927 , new, triangular warning signs in the colors red and white were introduced in the German Reich, the symbols of which were still based on the signs from 1910. In addition, two new, important road safety signs were introduced. This ordinance was the last forerunner of the bill first mentioned in the 1934 version of the " Reichs-Straßenverkehrs -ordnung (RStVO)". The law on motor vehicle traffic of July 21, 1923 , however, remained in force.
During the entire era of the Weimar Republic , as in the German Empire, numerous non-standardized warning signs continued to be set up by the automobile clubs.
1930
In 1930, the Prussian minister of education institutionalized what is known as school "traffic instruction". The focus was on imparting knowledge of the rules and providing information about the risk of accidents. The basis of this everyday technology-oriented teaching, which only developed into modern traffic education in the context of a science-based traffic education in the 1970s , was the misconduct of individual road users, who were to be disciplined by the principle of deterrence.
In 1931 the League of Nations in Geneva passed the "Agreement on the Standardization of Road Signs". It was ratified by eighteen states, but not by Germany. The regulations at that time were far removed from today's standards, for example there were no stipulations about road markings.
The first pedestrian traffic light in Europe was erected in Copenhagen ( Denmark ) in 1933 , and in Germany in 1937 at the Kleiner Stern in Berlin .
With the road traffic regulations that came into effect on October 1, 1934, under "Fig. E 4", rectangular curbstones were also included in the traffic sign catalog to delimit the lane. Already in the 18th century these stones were used to equip difficult routes. On the first autobahn in Germany, the Cologne-Bonn highway , which was opened under Konrad Adenauer on August 6, 1932, these stone curbstones were embedded in relatively short intervals to the left and right of the edge of the road. The stone was painted white and tarred black on its head. In addition, a continuous white center line and wide shoulder fastened with light foam lava ensured safe lane guidance even in bad weather.
By about 1935, the division of the traffic area between pedestrians on the one hand and vehicles on the other hand was in fact complete. The first " Reichsstraßenverkehrsordnung " ( Reich Road Traffic Regulations ) from 1934 gave motor vehicles priority for the first time and lifted all speed restrictions. "At intersections and junctions ... motor vehicles ... have the right of way over other road users." (§ 27, RGBl. 1934 I, p. 463). Motor vehicles with engines up to 200 cm³ could be driven by anyone aged 16 and over without a license. As early as 1937, the road traffic regulations had to be revised due to the lack of road safety. Not only harming others, but “endangering traffic” was now a criminal offense. It was also stipulated: “Pedestrians must use the sidewalks. ... lanes ... are to be crossed on the shortest path across the direction of travel with the necessary caution and without stopping. ”(§ 37 RStVO, RGBl. 1937 I, p. 1188, cf. today § 25 StVO ). Children's games on the road were expressly forbidden (§ 43 RStVO). The Road Traffic Regulations (StVO) of 1937 - with important changes in 1956 and 1960 supplemented and brought up to date - remained in force until 1971.
Before the Second World War , there was systematic research on vehicles in accident situations. As early as 1937, Auto Union carried out a theoretically based and empirically shaped program of crash tests .
With the new StVO, which came into force on January 1, 1938, the curbstones fell off the list of traffic signs. The development and application of lane markings as well as the securing of traffic areas were not subject to the conditions of the road traffic regulations, like the standardization of motorway signage, but was developed by external bodies. Among other things, the curbstones - now called guide stones - were regulated by the preliminary guidelines for the expansion of rural roads (RAL 1937). In addition to the motorways, only very few streets were provided with lane markings, such as the non-public AVUS . As with the Cologne-Bonn road, these lane markings consisted of a solid line. This was designed either as a white paint application or as a black tar tape. These lines were only intended to separate the lanes from each other; To secure the edges of the road, either the expensive guide stones or the cheaper wooden guide posts - some with reflectors - were set up. In addition, wooden guardrails painted black and white were also used. The banks of the freeways were also clearly highlighted. They were designed as small cobblestone paving or as a white, solid line, sometimes combined. The cobblestones made the driver aware of the fact that he had left the lane through the shaking in the car and the acoustic difference; the white line emphasized this visually.
After increasingly serious accidents led to increased speed controls in the 1930s, tachographs or tachographs were installed in trucks , the function of which was initially to refute the alleged speed limit. On October 15, 1936, the Reich Tariff Regulations relieved the burden on drivers by recording driving and rest times.
As an amendment to the StVO from 1938, two new images were added to the traffic sign catalog in November of the same year: The stop sign and the marking of a road on which the right of way had to be observed.
In 1938, Professor Kirschner, a surgeon in Heidelberg, demanded, analogous to Streffer's request from 1908, that the doctor must come to the (emergency) patient and not the other way around. For cost reasons, the maxim of fast patient transport to the (accident) doctor remained.
1940
On April 24, 1940, another amendment to the StVO was passed, the main parts of which were in effect from October 1, 1940. She devoted herself to the technical equipment of bicycles. Red tail lights, which could also be operated electrically, were now compulsory, and new bikes had to have yellow reflectors on the pedals.
The first oil crisis struck Germany from 1939 to 1945 and led to a series of legislative measures. So in 1939 - in order to save petrol - speed restrictions were reintroduced, also valid on the new motorways. From September 20, 1939, private car journeys were only permitted in exceptional cases. From August 1943, cycling was also allowed on the motorways.
The extraordinarily rapid technical development in aircraft construction before and during the Second World War was the reason for researching the resilience of the human body under extreme acceleration (e.g. catapult launches and landings on aircraft carriers , rescues using the ejector seat and in the event of accidents) and to secure the occupants with seat belts . The first crash test dummy " Sierra Sam " was developed in the USA in 1949 for tests on ejection seats and their belt systems.
After the Second World War , there was extensive military and scientific research into accidents in the United States, first in aircraft and then in motor vehicles, after it was found that more soldiers were killed in car accidents than by enemy troops in the Korean War .
The United Nations Conference on Road and Automobile Transport took place in Geneva in 1949 . It ended with the signing of an Agreement on Road Traffic and a Protocol on Road Signs.
The pedestrian crossing or zebra crossing appeared internationally for the first time on September 19, 1949 in the Geneva Protocol on Road Signs. The idea came from England in 1947 . The first zebra crossings were marked in Germany in 1952. It was not until 1964 that pedestrians were given priority at zebra crossings. As a result, the first zebra crossings were removed again in order to maintain the flow of traffic in the cars.
1950
| year | Number of cars | Accidental deaths |
|---|---|---|
| 1938 | 1,200,000 | 8000 |
| 1946 | <200,000 | ? |
| 1955 | 1,750,000 | 14,500 |
| 1966 | 20,800,000 | 21,000 |
At the beginning of the 1950s, mass motorization began in the Federal Republic of Germany .
During a lecture at the Conference of American Broadcasting Technicians (IRE National Convention) in New York in 1950, an engineer designed the scenario to help avoid future car accidents by installing electronics. One reporter wrote: "The main thing is that automobile bumpers are fitted with devices that do not pass warning signals on to the driver, but transmit them directly to the brakes - and much faster than the driver would be able to." This idea contained a key element of the fully automatic braking , which was only introduced in series 60 years later , when the radar and camera provide the appropriate signals.
In 1951 the technical inspection of motor vehicles was introduced by the " TÜV ". Regular general inspections for motor vehicles have been mandatory in Germany since December 1, 1951 . On January 1, 1961, the sticker that is still used today was introduced on the license plate.
The increasing number of accidents led to the establishment of the Medical-Psychological Examination (MPU), which is supposed to test drivers who have become suspicious of their suitability for participation in road traffic.
On September 1, 1953, another amendment to the Road Traffic Regulations from 1938 came into force in West Germany, according to which, among many other things, all road markings were included in the traffic sign catalog. All the markings presented at that time are still valid today, including the dashed line and a simplified form of the stop line compared to 1938.
In the Federal Republic of Germany there were no speed restrictions for cars and motorcycles from January 23, 1953 to August 31, 1957 . It wasn't until September 1, 1957, that a limit of 50 km / h was reintroduced in town, accompanied by a highly emotional debate about speed limits , which basically continues to this day.
After 1950, a team of scientists at Cornell University in the USA began empirically evaluating car accidents in close collaboration with accident stations, automobile clubs and police stations.
After he had submitted extensive research on seat belts in aircraft, combined with a patent for a 3-point seat belt for aircraft occupants, the American engineer Hugh De Haven published a report in 1952 on the problem of "second collision" in motor vehicles related to the concept of the "packaging of car occupants" through seat belts. He puts the safety of car occupants on the same level as the transport of loose eggs in steel containers (“The level of safety which we accept for ourselves, our wives and our children is, therefore, on a par with shipping fragile valuable objects loose inside a container ").
The insurance company Liberty Mutual Insurance Company founded the Research Center for Safety in 1954. In cooperation with Cornell University , the Survival Car I and II are developed in 1959 and 1961. The main focus is on the design of the interior in order to minimize the consequences of the "second accident" in which the occupants collide with the interior of the vehicle.
In 1956, the GDR followed the developments of the time with a new version of the StVO, whereby many things ran parallel to the updated international regulations. Road markings were not part of the traffic sign catalog and were still regulated externally. Due to the significantly lower volume of traffic in the area of influence of the Soviet Union , the effort for traffic safety was also less intensified.
In 1957 the magazine “Auto, Motor und Sport” reported from the USA: “In a… test series in the laboratory of 'Consumers Reports'… of 190 safety belts from 39 different companies, just over two thirds had to be described as 'inadequate' . "
In Sweden, Nils Bohlin , coming from aircraft safety research , developed the three-point seat belt for motor vehicles in 1958 , which was immediately installed in series in all new Swedish vehicles. At the same time, Volvo began an extensive research project on accident evaluation in order to empirically prove the safety benefits provided by seat belts. The evaluation of 28,000 accidents was published in 1967 and impressively demonstrated the benefits of seat belts.
Independently of the research in the USA, the engineer Béla Barényi worked from 1939 to 1946 and again from 1948 at Daimler-Benz in Germany to improve the protection of occupants in the event of accidents. He developed the 1952 patented concept of the "rigid passenger cell, surrounded by crumple zones at the front and rear". He also called for the safety steering column, which does not penetrate the interior like a spit and fatally injures the driver. Barényi designed the safety steering wheel with an impact absorber that gives way when a person hits it. Side impact protection and additional upholstery in the interior at critical points rounded off his work. From 1955, the results of Cornell research in the USA were evaluated at Daimler-Benz.
The calculation of the crash behavior of vehicles using the finite element method (FEM) began in the 1950s. The method was based on the work at Daimler-Benz in Stuttgart, which used the self-developed FEM program ESEM (electrostatic element method) long before computer-aided design (CAD) was introduced in the early 1980s . The results were implemented for the first time in the Mercedes-Benz W 111 series (type 220S) from 1959 and tested in crash tests.
In England, in 1961, a newly established International Association for Seat Belts urged governments in various countries to make seat belts compulsory for passenger cars, pointing out that in Sweden 77% of all new cars were already fitted with seat belts. Since 1959, Volvo and Saab have been installing three-point seat belts as standard in their new Swedish vehicles.
As early as 1960, the essential principles and concepts of occupant protection in passenger cars were known. The Rover P6 Model 2000 from 1963 was considered the first series security car.
The "Verkehrssicherungsgesetz" (law to secure road traffic) of December 19, 1952 wrote the tachograph in Germany a. a. for trucks over 7.5 tons. New trucks and buses had to be equipped with the tachograph since March 23, 1953, and all other trucks and buses since December 23, 1953, according to Section 57a StVZO .
Even in the 1950s, the aim of “traffic instruction” was to adapt the children to road traffic: “The child should be brought up to be a person ... who loves and seeks order on his own initiative ... and therefore fits into an orderly structure, as it represents the road traffic legislation, willingly incorporated. "
At the International Police Exhibition in Essen in 1956, emergency call systems were presented with which the population could alert the police at any time free of charge. The light green police call column, the "iron policeman", quickly became a familiar sight in the cities.
In the 1950s, isolated emergency doctors began to support the ambulance service. However, this remained limited to "leisure activities" and retained the character of local activities until the late 1960s. The so-called “rearview mirror rescue” remained the rule: the driver was alone in the car with the patient. A deterioration in the condition that was visible to the driver did not lead to immediate treatment, but to an increase in driving speed in order to reach the hospital more quickly.
In February 1957, a touring bus (the Clinomobil) converted into a mobile operating theater with medical staff was used as an emergency vehicle at the University of Heidelberg. The vehicle turned out to be unsuitable because of its size. Also in 1957, the first West German ambulance was used on a test basis in Cologne . The Cologne NAW went into permanent service on June 3, 1957.
The central traffic register in Flensburg began in 1958 with the recording of all criminal judgments in traffic matters and provisional withdrawals of the driving license. In 1961 "guidelines for the treatment of multiple offenders" followed, the preventive " points system " not until 1974.
Telefunken GmbH presented the first traffic radar device for speed monitoring of the type VRG 2 in September 1956 at the International Police Exhibition in Essen. The first tests under the auspices of the Ministry of the Interior of North Rhine-Westphalia followed in January 1957. In 1958 the world first “Made in Germany” went into series production at Telefunken and on February 15, 1959 the first mobile “radar trap” was used in the Düsseldorf area.
1960
In the early 1960s, the British government commissioned a commission chaired by Colin Buchanan to take stock of urban transport planning to date and to develop proposals for new planning concepts. The Buchanan report “Traffic in towns” from 1963 named pioneering concepts: “To be safe, to feel safe at all times, not to be afraid that your spouse or children will have a traffic accident, are certainly basic requirements for a civilized life. Compared to this standard ... the living conditions in our cities, which are characterized by motor traffic, leave a lot to be desired. ” Buchanan was one of the first to differentiate between necessary motor traffic (commercial and business traffic) and any motor vehicle traffic. Since, in his opinion, the majority of traffic problems result from the extreme increase in random traffic, this should be consistently limited. He also made the suggestion of an environment-dependent capacity and speed limit. He proposed drastic restrictions for areas worthy of protection (“environment zones”). The quality of the street space for pedestrians and residents should have absolute priority here. An expert commission of the German Bundestag came to similar results in 1965. However, the concept developed by Hans Bernhard Reichow in 1959 was much more effective : "The car-friendly city - a way out of the traffic chaos" .
Also around 1960 one began to realize new concepts in road construction. Highways received guard rails on the median. The rescue service has been improved. The entire road traffic infrastructure was optimized from a safety point of view.
In 1961, the traffic psychologist Karl Peglau invented the red-green pedestrian traffic light including the traffic light man in the GDR .
" Suicide doors " hung on the back were no longer permitted on new vehicles since July 1, 1963.
Pedestrians were given priority in 1964 at the zebra crossings, which had been widespread in the Federal Republic of Germany since 1952. The dismantling of the zebra crossings began immediately in many places in order to secure the uninhibited flow of traffic from the vehicles. Zebra crossings were noticeably replaced by traffic lights when the road was expanded. In 1967 there were more than 700 zebra crossings in West Berlin, in 1990 there were 79 (plus 85 in East Berlin), in 2006 there were again 240 in all of Berlin.
The Road Construction Financing Act of 1963 made the funds available by earmarking the mineral oil tax .
The subject of vehicle safety did not become the subject of a broad public and political debate until 1965 with Ralph Nader's bestseller “ Unsafe at any speed ”.
From 1966 onwards , “ The 7th Sense ” addressed aspects of road safety on German television . The first- aid kit has been compulsory in vehicles (not motorcycles) since January 1966 .
In 1966 the USA passed the "National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Law", which authorizes the government to develop and set safety standards for motor vehicles, even against the opposition of the automotive industry.
Since 1967 work has been carried out in the USA and Europe on the development of airbag systems ready for series production . The plan passed in 1969 to require automatic occupant protection systems for new vehicles in the USA by January 1, 1973, was postponed to January 1, 1976 because of the technical problems of the airbag.
The US American Transportation Authority (DOT) started a program to develop experimental safety vehicles (ESV) in 1968 and initiated the international "Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles" (ESV). The conference takes place every two years today, the 21st conference in 2009, for example, was held in Stuttgart .
In 1968, type testing of seat belts was prescribed in Germany. At this point in time, the results of empirical accident research from the USA , Sweden and England were available, but not from Germany. Auto Motor und Sport reported: "That seat belts are a successful precaution has been proven by both statistics and tests."
Fritz B. Busch, on the other hand, stated : “The safest thing about seat belts seems to me to be without a doubt the business that is being done with them at the moment!” And “I am against making the driver even more afraid. He's already afraid enough. ” He also warned of the “ seat belt psychosis ” .
Since May 1, 1968, cars and trucks have had to carry a warning triangle ( Section 53a StVZO).
Eight-year-old Björn Steiger died on May 3, 1969 after being run over and critically injured on the way home. His parents then set up the Björn Steiger Foundation . The situation in 1969:
- The emergency numbers 110/112 were only available in a few large cities.
- There were no emergency calls on federal, state and district roads.
- The telephones on the German autobahns were not installed for emergency calls.
- There was no area-wide emergency transport around the clock. It was largely carried out by committed, volunteer, but poorly trained helpers.
- The "rearview mirror rescue" was the rule. The driver observed the patient's condition in the rearview mirror because he was mostly alone in the vehicle.
- There were no rescue control centers.
- There were no ambulances.
- Emergency doctors were only available by the hour at a few locations.
- There wasn't even a plan for an emergency reporting system.
- There were no state responsibilities.
- There were no laws or regulations governing emergency assistance.
- But there were around 20,000 road deaths each year.
The German Road Safety Council (DVR) was founded in June 1969 and started the long-term campaign “Climate Change in Traffic” for responsible, cooperative behavior. The aim was to put people at the center of traffic. The DVR's best-known slogan was: “Hello partner - thank you” .
On April 1, 1969, Regulation (EEC) 543/69 was the first to issue a joint regulation on driving and rest times in the EEC .
1970
From 1953 to 1982 a total of 442,669 people died in traffic accidents in West Germany . A large part of them were pedestrians and cyclists . The peak was reached in 1970: 19,193 road deaths and 531,795 injuries were counted. More than 9,000 died in town. The number of motor vehicles had increased to 20.8 million.
The number of accidents on the way to school increased particularly sharply : In the 1960s and 1970s, accident statistics in Germany showed the highest number of accidents involving children in all of Europe. Many parents and educators recognized that their children were only able to behave to a limited extent in a “car-friendly” manner and thus “safe for traffic”. Many gave up in the face of the growing dynamism of motorized road traffic and the increasing number of accidents on the way to school, called for more state measures such as speed limits or looked for alternatives such as transporting the children by car.
With the KMK recommendation of July 7, 1972 , "traffic instruction" subsequently reached schools and universities as a nationwide, compulsory educational mandate. It was a matter of integrating traffic education and the personal responsibility of children and young people more closely into traffic-related initiatives for more road safety . The traffic didacticist Siegbert A. Warwitz introduced the pedestrian diploma , the “driver's license for children”, to qualify the particularly endangered school starter in traffic pedagogy as part of his newly oriented traffic education, based on the child and his experience horizon . In the ministries, specialist lectures were set up, at the universities Senate assignments, and in the schools traffic officers were appointed to represent and promote the new area of responsibility in theory and practice. The universities were given the task of developing modern and forward-looking traffic didactics that could meet the new educational requirements.
The new pedagogical approaches to traffic combined with other traffic-related and traffic-political measures ultimately led to the upward trend in the number of accidents being halted and transformed into a gradual downward trend: until 1978, the number of children involved in accidents had risen steadily up to a high of 72,129 increased, with the gradual implementation of the combined measures, a continuous backward trend began, in which in 2015 only 28,235 accidents with children under 15 years of age had to be registered.
From January 1, 1970, hazard warning lights were mandatory for newly registered multi-lane motor vehicles . Older cars had to be retrofitted accordingly by 1973.
In 1970, the European Enhanced Vehicle Safety Committee (EEVC) was founded as a European counterpart to the US ESV to coordinate all national European research and development activities and to make the best use of the available resources when participating in the ESV program to pull.
From 1970 to 1973 a large number of “ Experimental Safety Vehicles ” (ESV) were presented worldwide and discussed at international congresses. All ESV were too big, too heavy and too expensive for series production, but provided important new concepts and elements.
In practice, the difference between the snooze roll and the safety headrest was recognized. In rear-end collisions (40% of accidents on motorways), the headrest is designed to prevent the neck from breaking. An ADAC test of headrests from production cars and the accessories trade encountered an unexpected problem in 1970: “During preliminary tests ... most of the production car seats collapsed. Neither the floor anchoring nor the backrest lock could withstand an impact speed of 28 km / h. ” You had to use the most stable seat and reduce the impact speed by a third. Even so, most of the headrests failed. In the United States, headrests on the front seats have been mandatory since 1969.
The ADAC made its first attempts with chartered helicopters in 1967 and put "Christoph 1", the first German rescue helicopter , into service in Munich on November 1, 1970 . In 2008 there were around 100 rescue helicopters in Germany.
Until the early 1970s, roads outside of built-up areas were accessible to all road users and allowed to drive at any speed. However, due to the steadily increasing number of road deaths up to 1970 , the safety speed 100 km / h was introduced on all roads with effect from October 1, 1972 and, as a large-scale test limited to December 31, 1975 . The only exceptions were motorways, non-directional roads outside of built-up areas without overtaking lanes in both directions and specially marked roads outside built-up areas. The introduction of the generally permissible maximum speed outside of built-up areas then followed in 1976. After the federal election in 1972, in which the SPD became the strongest parliamentary group for the first time, the federal government announced a U-turn in transport policy. The town planning minister Hans-Jochen Vogel declared: “The car is killing the big city. With every billion that we invest in road construction, we bring the city closer to death ” . While the federal government at the time wanted to extend the speed limit , the Federal Council opposed this plan. Finally, it was repealed and in 1974 a recommended speed of 130 km / h was introduced instead for motorways and non-directional roads outside built-up areas and for non-directional roads outside built-up areas with continuous overtaking lanes in both directions . This was accompanied in the summer of 1974 by an advertising campaign ("Recommended speed. Our chance!") By the German Road Safety Council in the major German magazines, such as B. the mirror, where you were asked, among other things, to adhere to the recommended speed.
In June 1973, Federal Transport Minister Lauritz Lauritzen presented a course book with the title “Man has right of way” . The program primarily opposed the further spread of cars in metropolitan areas.
In July 1973, the 0.8 per mil limit was introduced. On September 23, 1973, the “ Notruf 73 ” concept was adopted and it was implemented by the federal and state governments by 1980.
The increasing pressure from aid agencies, hospitals and the Björn Steiger Foundation led to the first innovations in the rescue (see history of the ambulance and ambulance ):
- Introduction of vehicle radio,
- Two-man crew with paramedic training,
- Possibility of calling in an emergency doctor to the scene,
- the maxim of first aid to ensure safe transportability.
The first oil crisis from November 1973 to March 1974 put pressure on the speed and performance. From November 24, 1973, Tempo 100 was applied for four months on motorways and Tempo 80 out of town. Driving bans were in effect on four Sundays from November 26 to December 16, 1973 , alternating between even and odd number plates. A heated public debate ensued to prevent permanent speed limits on motorways. The speed limit of 130 km / h envisaged by the then Federal Transport Minister Lauritz Lauritzen could not be enforced despite a cabinet decision. The Federal Council rejected the proposal with a majority of one vote. Instead, a “trial” introduction of a recommended speed of 130 km / h came into force in March 1974. A large-scale test with a speed limit of 130 km / h should also be carried out.
The renaissance of the bicycle as a means of transport began with the oil crisis and Sunday driving bans. With the amount of energy in one liter of gasoline in food, a cyclist can travel 500 km. In 1974, for the first time, more bicycles than cars were sold in the Federal Republic of Germany.
In November 1973, Federal Transport Minister Lauritzen announced a comprehensive safety program. The most important points:
- Three-point seat belts on the front seats of all new cars, combined with the appeal to retrofit older cars;
- uniform seat belt buckles;
- Seat belts must be worn if seat belts are available;
- Difficult driving test.
- Points system in the traffic penalty register;
- uniform emergency number 110;
- Reorganization of the accident rescue system;
- Expansion of older motorways with parking, acceleration and deceleration lanes.
Three-point seat belts on the front seats were mandatory for new vehicles from April 1, 1974. It was compulsory to wear seat belts on the front seats from 1976. A fine for not wearing seat belts was not introduced until 1984.
In the 1970s, (anti) skidding courses increasingly developed into driver safety training . In Austria and Switzerland the term "sling course" is still common today.
In the USA, the ACRS airbag system, powered by compressed air, was delivered in 1975 , but had to be withdrawn due to technical inadequacy.
From around 1976 onwards, crash tests in Germany have not only been carried out by manufacturers, but also by independent testing institutions such as specialist magazines and automobile clubs. This made the results of the tests publicly available for the first time. In February 1976, the magazine auto motor und sport published the results of a self-directed comparative crash test with the seven best-selling small cars in Europe, some of which were constructed before the Second World War. The oldest designs (VW Beetle 1200 and Citroën 2 CV) offered the worst occupant protection. At the time of the test, modern designs (Fiat 127 and VW Polo) were much better. The belt systems failed in two cars.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, helmets have been compulsory for motorcyclists since January 1, 1976 , and for moped and moped riders since mid-1978. It can be enforced by imposing a fine since August 1, 1980. Moped drivers have had to wear a helmet since October 1, 1985.
The retrofitting of older cars built from 1970 onwards with three-point seat belts on the front seats lasted until 1978 in the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1978, Daimler-Benz also offered the anti-lock braking system (ABS) as an option.
In 1979 the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) launched the New Car Assessment Program ( NCAP ). The program stipulated a crash test with dummies in the event of a frontal impact at 35 mph (56 km / h) on a concrete wall.
On April 18, 1979, the traffic advisor Jan Tebbe founded the General German Bicycle Club (ADFC) in Bremen .
1980
Since the installation of seat belts in new cars from January 1, 1974, most cars have also been fitted with headrests. The retrofitting of seat belts in older cars that were first registered after April 1, 1970 was prescribed on January 1, 1976 with a two-year transition period (TÜV date).
The moped test certificate has been mandatory since April 1, 1980 ; no training was required beforehand.
The headrests still had technical problems in 1982: “The frontrests are often too soft and buckle backwards in the event of a rear-end collision.” The macroeconomic benefit did not seem proven, which is why there was no binding legal requirement. Even in 1988, many headrests were still defective, thanks in part to an antiquated ECE regulation that has remained unchanged since 1973.
The driver airbag was offered by Daimler-Benz from 1980, the front passenger airbag followed in 1985. In the USA, the installation of an airbag as a stand-alone passive restraint system in new vehicles was required by law. A corresponding regulation was not issued in Europe because, unlike in the USA, the seat belt requirement was introduced in 1980. The airbag is therefore only considered an additional, supporting system (SRS). In the USA, seat belts became compulsory much later, but are now in force in all states except New Hampshire . Nevertheless, in the USA the airbag must guarantee protection when the occupants are not buckled up. The American full-size airbag has about twice the volume and twice the cost of the euro-size airbag.
In 1980 a revised StVO came into force in Germany. The most important innovation is Section 3 (2a): "The vehicle drivers must behave towards children, those in need and the elderly, in particular by reducing their driving speed and being ready to brake, so that they do not endanger these road users."
The traffic-calmed areas were also introduced in 1980 with Section 42 (4a) of the StVO . For the first time it was again true: "Pedestrians are allowed to use the entire width of the street."
The testing of 30 km / h zones took place from 1983 in the model test. Since 2001, Section 45 of the StVO has contained regulations on Tempo 30 zones, zones with speed restrictions of less than 30 km / h, traffic-calmed areas, pedestrian areas and regulations on resident parking .
Even in 1990, however, it was said: "Overall, 70–80 percent of all serious and fatal urban accidents occur on main roads, with excessive speeds making up 80 percent of all causes of accidents."
Concerning the year 1984, a so-called child accident atlas was created for the first time for the Federal Republic of Germany , which was published by Daimler-Benz AG in 1986. It reported the regional distribution of road accidents involving children and aimed to be able to take the most targeted measures possible to improve road safety for children. Country-specific comparisons of this kind, broken down into pedestrian, cyclist and passenger accidents, are also offered in the official Statistical Yearbook in its more recent editions.
On January 16, 1985, a large-scale test began on selected motorway routes in the Federal Republic of Germany with a speed limit of 100 km / h. It was limited to October 31. It should be tested how the pollutant emissions change. At the end of the trial phase, the Federal Cabinet decided on November 19 not to impose any speed restrictions on motorways.
On February 23, 1985, the FUSS was founded in Berlin as a "pedestrian protection association" with the aim of bringing the voice of pedestrians into public discussion.
For motorcycles, the tier driving license was introduced in 1986. On November 1, 1986, the introduction of the driving license on trial for novice drivers took place in the Federal Republic of Germany.
In North Rhine-Westphalia alone , between 1980 and 1990, DM 2 billion was invested in over 10,000 measures to reduce speed and traffic calming . The ADAC has been conducting its own crash tests since 1987 and publishes the results on its website.
Between 1980 and 1990 more and more reflectors were prescribed on bicycles, after only reflectors on the pedals and a small red reflector (cat's eye) at the rear were prescribed until 1980. In 1992, a total of eleven reflectors were already mandatory, at the front, rear and on the sides. Inadequate braking values in wet conditions were also recognized as a safety problem on bicycles and corresponding minimum values were standardized. The German safety standard for bicycles DIN 79100-2 appeared in 1978, was continuously adapted to technical progress and finally replaced by European standards.
1990
After 1985, the car seat, seat belt, belt tensioner and airbag were further developed into an integrated vehicle-specific restraint system. In addition to driver and front passenger airbags, side, head, thorax, knee, foot and rear airbags were created. Modern vehicles are equipped with up to ten airbags.
After ABS, a large number of other driver assistance systems were produced as systems for driver support, accident prevention or to reduce the consequences of accidents. These included tire pressure monitoring system , electronic stability program (ESP), brake assist , adaptive cruise control , headlights , lane assistant , night vision assistant , navigation systems and parking aids . The various systems were partially built on each other and were increasingly electronically networked. This turned the vehicle into an integrated security system.
By the beginning of the 1990s, the EEVC developed crash tests with dummies for occupant protection in front and side impacts and a test package for pedestrian protection at the front of the vehicle. Until then, the only legal requirement in Europe was a crash test with a frontal impact on a concrete wall, the sole purpose of which was to check whether the steering column penetrated the interior. The test was carried out using an empty car with no dummy occupants.
In 1992 almost all cars had headrests on the front seats, but half were set too low. Eye level was still the yardstick. As a result, many headrests cannot be adjusted high enough.
In 1992 the working group “Bicycle-friendly cities and municipalities in NRW” (AGFS) was founded in North Rhine-Westphalia.
1993 Introduction of the obligation to only take children under the age of 12 and under 150 cm into the car in suitable restraint systems .
The endeavors to implement the crash tests developed by the EEVC into European legislation were vehemently rejected by the automotive industry. In June 1994 the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) proposed to the Ministry of Transport to start an NCAP program in Great Britain based on the EEVC tests , which was later to be extended to Europe. From the outset it was planned to make the test results public for the information of consumers. The assembled auto industry strictly rejected the project ("manufacturers' response was very negative") . In 1995 the NCAP program was adopted in Great Britain. Talks began with the EU to find further partners. The first tests were carried out in 1996 and presented at the International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV) in Melbourne . European consumer organizations supported the project.
In November 1996 " Euro NCAP " was founded with international participation . In February 1997 the first evaluated results could be published. The auto industry reacted with sharp opposition. The criteria are so strict that no car can even achieve four stars for occupant protection. Five months later, the Volvo S40 was the first car to receive a 4-star rating.
In contrast to major advances in occupant protection, pedestrian protection remained unsatisfactory. Therefore, in 1995 the working group on foot traffic was established as a joint working group of FUSS e. V., the professional association for pedestrian traffic in Germany, and the association for urban, regional and state planning e. V. (SRL) founded.
In 1996 the ADAC published the first passenger car crash test. In 1997 attempts to protect partners followed.
Crash tests with two vehicles of very different sizes or designs brought "partner protection" into the focus of attention. Accident occurrences in reality and the results from passenger car tests showed that self-protection alone is not sufficient. Around 20% of the car occupants killed are killed in a car-car collision. However, around 50% of these accidents are front-side collisions.
In 1995 the Swedish Road Administration developed the “ Vision Zero ” concept. In 1997 the Swedish Parliament declared “Vision Zero” to be a road safety directive. The basic philosophy is: The safety of all elements of the traffic system is increased until the entire system is fault-tolerant and nobody is killed or seriously injured anymore. The transport system has to be tailored to people, not the other way around.
Since June 1, 1998, head restraints have been mandatory on the outer front seats of new vehicle types in Germany, and since October 1, 1999 for all new vehicles up to 3.5 t.
The introduction of the 0.5 per mille limit (without a driving ban) on May 1, 1998 led to a sharp decrease in alcohol-related accidents and the number of people killed.
In 1999, safe headrests were still not taken for granted. Around 70% of car occupants set their headrests too low. However, in 1999 the upper edge of the head was used as the benchmark and no longer the eye level, as was the case in 1992. The rear impact was now recognized as the most common type of collision in accidents between cars (54% of accidents).
2000
Since April 1, 2001, driving bans have been threatened with alcohol levels above 0.5 . The 0.8 per mille limit was therefore no longer applicable. Since January 1, 2002, there have been strict application criteria for zebra crossings , which make it clear that the road may have to be adapted to the pedestrian and not the other way around.
The phenomenon of school rush hour , caused by the transport of children using the so-called “ parent taxi ”, is increasingly recognized by teachers, parents, police and politicians as a problem for school safety . Educators and parents are trying to counteract the increased risk of accidents with their own initiatives such as the “ Pedibus ”, the establishment of (controversial) “parent-stop zones” and the “Independent school attendance” campaign. An absolute ban on driving and stopping in front of kindergartens and schools has so far only been implemented in isolated cases.
In 2004, the Verkehrsclub Deutschland (VCD) presented the master plan "Vision Zero - zero traffic deaths" .
In 2005 the Stiftung Warentest came to the result of an inspection of children's bicycles: “Built without care, sloppily processed, quickly broken.” Their conclusion was: “There are no good children's bicycles. At least not in this test. "
On October 1, 2005, a European directive on the design of the front section of vehicles for the protection of pedestrians and other unprotected road users (2003/102 / EC) came into force for the first time. The guideline defines limit values for the EU type test of new vehicle types up to 2.5 t which must not be exceeded in the event of a vehicle colliding with a pedestrian.
Using the example of pedestrian protection, the automotive industry illustrated its demand for an integrated safety approach consisting of active and passive safety. Effective optimization of pedestrian protection can only be achieved with a combination of active elements such as brake assist and passive elements such as the “pedestrian-friendly” vehicle front.
In 2007, an ADAC crash test with two cars built 20 years apart showed the progress made over the last 20 years: "Although the Sierra mid-range sedan is significantly larger, the risk of injury is dramatically higher than that of the modern Fiesta small car."
The German Road Safety Council (DVR) declared on 16 October 2007 "Vision Zero" the new model of road safety activities in the DVR.
Even with the most modern production vehicles, safety for vehicle occupants ends at the latest when they hit a solid obstacle at 80 km / h. The goal formulated in 1971 for the Experimental Safety Vehicle "The ESV must be able to hit a concrete barrier at a speed of approx. 80 km / h without the occupants suffering serious damage." Had already proven to be practically unattainable in 1974. The safety for pedestrians ends at 30 km / h. But in 2008, 30 km / h in front of schools and kindergartens in Germany was not taken for granted.
In 2006, 5091 people were killed in road traffic, 1384 of them in urban areas, 645 on motorways and 3062 on other roads. 23% of all those killed were pedestrians or cyclists.
In 2009, the number of road deaths in Germany reached a new low of 4,152. Compared to the previous year, the number of fatalities decreased by 7.3%. The share of car occupants in road deaths fell from 58% to 51% between 2001 and 2009. In three federal states, however, the number of those killed increased (Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania 17%, Bremen 8.3% and in Saarland 4.7%). In addition, the number of fatalities among cyclists rose by 1.3% and among pedestrians over 65 years of age by 3.1%. In 2009, 25% of those killed were pedestrians or cyclists.
According to EU data from 2009, the roads in the UK, Sweden and the Netherlands are the safest in the EU. Statistically, fewer than forty people per million inhabitants die in traffic accidents. Germany follows in fourth place with 51 road fatalities. Six countries have more than a hundred road fatalities per million inhabitants.
2010
Today's German jurisprudence defines " road traffic accident " in connection with a criminal act ( accident escape ) as an unforeseen sudden event at least for one party involved in the accident , which is causally related to road traffic and its typical dangers and which results in property damage or personal injury that is not completely is irrelevant. According to the 2007 case law, this de minimis limit was 50 euros.
In 2010, the number of road deaths in Germany reached a low of 3,648. The statistics began in 1950 with 6,428 road fatalities (only West Germany and only those who died on the day of the accident). With fluctuations in the following years, the number of road deaths decreased to 3,377 in 2014.
Is statistically significant that the educational reorientation of traffic education , the introduction of pedestrian diploma and the intensification of road safety education in schools and colleges through the creation of special mediators and Weiterbildner since the mid-1970s, a significant turnaround and continuous downward movement in the number of accidents involving children occurred : Up until then, accidents on the way to school made up the majority of those who had an accident, with an annual increase, but the participation of children in road accidents in relation to their share of the population (13.2%) was even disproportionately reduced to 7.1% by 2015. The 2016 Statistical Yearbook of the Federal Republic of Germany explains: “The situation among child pedestrians has improved in particular: In 2015, 27 children were killed as pedestrians; in 1978, 701 children were around twenty-six times as many. The risk of accidents for children has thus decreased from 468 casualties per 100,000 inhabitants of their age group in 1978 to 264 children in 2015. ” The positive development of these numbers becomes even clearer if one takes into account that they refer to the now expanded Federal Republic. On the other hand, it has a counterproductive effect that the proportion of accidents involving passengers in motor vehicles, primarily caused by the increasing phenomenon of “ parents' taxis ” and “ school rush hour ”, has reached a peak compared to pedestrian and cycling accidents. A scientific ADAC study puts the relevant accident rate in Germany in 2013 alone at 10,363 children injured in this way.
It is striking that there was a clear north-south divide in road traffic accidents with children under 15 years of age in 2015: the southern federal states of Baden-Württemberg , Bavaria , Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate , for example , are the main areas where the pedestrian diploma is distributed A rate of less than 250 accidents per 100,000 inhabitants each has a significantly better result than the northern federal states of Schleswig-Holstein , Hamburg , Bremen , Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania , Brandenburg and Saxony-Anhalt with a respective rate of more than 301 accident children per 100,000 inhabitants. According to official statistics , the other federal states in between and Berlin are also in the mid-range of accidents between 251 and 300 children with accidents.
In the current resolution of the Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder v. May 10, 2012 , the regional chamber of traffic education declared an "overarching task of the school" (preliminary remark). She recommends starting the pedagogical work from the experience of the children (“ traffic education from the child ”) and implementing it in project form .
literature
- German Reich Law Gazette - Part 1 - Interior, 1934 and 1937.
- Helmut Engel: The car, the birth of a phenomenon - a Berlin story. Jovis, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-931321-99-1 .
- Dorothee Hochstetter: Motorization and “Volksgemeinschaft”: The National Socialist Motor Corps (nskk) 1931–1945. Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-486-57570-8 . (Dissertation Berlin 2003). Austrian National Library, ALEX (accessed October 19, 2008).
- Christoph Maria Merki: The bumpy triumph of the automobile, 1895-1930. On the history of the motorization of road traffic in France, Germany and Switzerland . Böhlau, Vienna a. a. 2002, ISBN 3-205-99479-5 .
- Heiner Monheim, Rita Monheim-Dandorfer: Streets for everyone. Rasch and Röhring, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-89136-368-0 .
- Kurt Möser: History of the car. Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt / Main 2002, ISBN 3-593-36575-8 .
- Harry Niemann, Armin Herrmann (Hrsg.): History of road safety in the interplay between vehicle, road and people. Delius Klasing, Bielefeld 1999, ISBN 3-89880-672-3 .
- Heinrich Praxenthaler: Safety in road traffic 1950–2000, initiatives and measures in Germany. Accident history and track record. Archive for the history of road and traffic, Bonn 2001, ISBN 3-7812-1534-2 .
- Erhard Schütz, Eckhard Gruber: The myth of the Reichsautobahn - construction and staging of the streets of the Führer. Weltbild, Augsburg 2006, ISBN 3-8289-0582-X . (first Berlin 1996).
- Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Statistical Yearbook 2014. Road traffic accidents. Child accidents in road traffic 2013 . Wiesbaden 2014. p. 595.
Web links
- Federal Statistical Office: traffic accidents and casualties in a time comparison (from 1950)
- Home → Traffic → Statistics - Accident Statistics - ADAC
Individual evidence
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office, Special Series 8, Series 7, Traffic Accidents 2007 , accessed on June 13, 2017.
- ^ Police ordinance on the traffic with motor vehicles . In: Official Gazette of the Royal Government at Cassel 38, Wednesday September 19, 1906, pp. 313–326; here: p. 313.
- ^ Police ordinance on the traffic with motor vehicles . In: Official Gazette of the Royal Government at Cassel 38, Wednesday September 19, 1906, pp. 313–326; here: p. 318.
- ^ Dietmar Fack: Automobile, traffic and education. Motorization and socialization between acceleration and adaptation 1885–1945. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2000, ISBN 3-8100-2386-8 , p. 167.
- ^ Ordinance on traffic with motor vehicles In: Reichsgesetzblatt 5, issued in Berlin on February 10, 1910, p. 389 ff.
- ↑ Weitz: The regulation on the traffic with motor vehicles of February 3, 1910 (Reichsgesetzblatt p. 389 ff.). Automobil-Rundschau des Mitteleuropean Motorwagen-Verein 5 (1910), p. 103 ff .; here: p. 110.
- ↑ The abolition of the rubber economy . In: Allgemeine Automobil-Zeitung 39, September 27, 1919, pp. 17-18; here: p. 18.
- ^ Electrical engineering and mechanical engineering 31, 37th year, 1919 p. 349.
- ↑ December 15, 1924: Approval of the traffic tower by the city building police, the first officer climbs the tower . In: Vossische Zeitung , January 3, 1925, foreign edition, p. 1, accessed on July 6, 2019.
- ^ Austrian National Library: Reichsgesetzblatt 1923 I, p. 180. (Accessed on October 19, 2008)
- ↑ The table can also be found in a very early publication in: Carl Marcussen (Ed.): The legal and police regulations of July 28, 1926 that are decisive for the driver of a motor vehicle . Marcussen, 1927
- ^ Reichsgesetzblatt , year 1927, No. 29, date of issue: Berlin, July 15, 1927, p. 177.
- ^ Reichs-Straßenverkehrs-Ordinance together with introductory ordinance. In: Reichsgesetzblatt , year 1934, No. 56, date of issue: Berlin, May 30, 1934, p. 455.
- ↑ Federal Law Gazette, year 1956, No. 19, date of issue: Bonn, May 29, 1956.
- ^ Federal Law Gazette, Volume 1960, No. 35, date of issue: Bonn, July 21, 1960.
- ^ Reichsgesetzblatt , year 1937, No. 56, date of issue: Berlin, November 16, 1937, p. 1190.
- ^ Reichsgesetzblatt , year 1938, No. 168, date of issue: Berlin, October 17, 1938, p. 1434.
- ^ Reichsgesetzblatt , Volume 1940, No. 75, date of issue: Berlin, April 26, 1940, p. 682.
- ↑ a b Berlin → zebra crossing → history (accessed on June 13, 2017.)
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office: Development of the number of road fatalities 1953–2007 (accessed on June 12, 2012, PDF; 800 kB)
- ↑ Quoted from The Voice of America , Publishing House of the US State Department, German edition November / December 1950, p. 2.
- ↑ Bundesgesetzblatt , year 1953, No. 56, date of issue: Bonn, September 3, 1953, p. 1166.
- ↑ Boris Schmidt: 50 Years Tempo 50 In: FAZ, July 6, 2007, accessed on June 13, 2017.
- ↑ Patent US2710649 : (Patent for a 3-point seat belt).
- ^ Liberty Mutual - Research Institute Opens ( Memento of March 23, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Law Gazette of the German Democratic Republic Part I, No. 103, Berlin, November 20, 1956, pp. 1239–1251.
- ↑ German patent from 1961 ( Memento from February 15, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 141 kB)
- ↑ patent DE854157 .
- ↑ W. Vonolfen: Traffic classes - manual for educators. Dortmund 1954, p. 16.
- ↑ ILS lecture urban development, excursus: The Buchanan report "Traffic in towns" ( Memento from June 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office, traffic accidents (accessed June 13, 2017)
- ^ I. Peter-Habermann: Children have to have an accident . Reinbek 1979
- ↑ Ministry of Culture and Sport BaWü (Ed.) (1994): KMK recommendation on traffic education in schools from July 28, 1994. In Kultus und Studium 15/1994. Stuttgart
- ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz: The pedestrian diploma as a project in the entrance level . In: Warwitz, SA, Rudolf, A .: Project teaching - Didactic principles and models . Schorndorf 1977, pp. 101-113
- ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz: Traffic education from the child. Perceive-play-think-act. 6th edition, Schneider, Baltmannsweiler 2009
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Statistisches Jahrbuch 2016. Child accidents in road traffic 2015 , Wiesbaden 2016, p. 5
- ↑ auto motor und sport 1970, issue 17, p. 26.
- ↑ auto motor und sport 26/1973, p. 28.
- ↑ Driver safety training: “You will skid anyway”. In: rhein-zeitung.de. January 21, 1997. Retrieved June 13, 2017 .
- ↑ Institute for Bicycle Safety, Helmet Compulsory ( Memento of November 18, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (accessed on October 22, 2008)
- ↑ auto, motor und sport 1982, issue 16, p. 31ff.
- ↑ auto, motor und sport 1988, issue 2, p. 110ff.
- ↑ ( Page no longer available , search in web archives: Jörg Böhm, Passive safety of motor vehicles through modern restraint systems )
- ^ N. Neumann-Opitz, R. Bartz, Chr. Leipnitz: Children's accident atlas. Regional distribution of child accidents in Germany. In: Reports of the Federal Highway Research Institute, People and Safety. Booklet M192, 2008
- ^ Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Statistical Yearbook 2016. Child accidents in road traffic 2015 , Wiesbaden 2016
- ↑ Augsburger Allgemeine from January 16, 2010, section Das Datum
- ↑ Chroniknet: Verkehr 1985 , queried on February 11, 2010
- ↑ auto, motor und sport 1992, issue 16, p. 146ff.
- ↑ Working group of pedestrian and bicycle-friendly cities, municipalities and districts in NRW eV (AGFS)
- ↑ Euro NCAP history (English) ( Memento from November 12, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Working group on foot traffic from SRL and FUSS eV ( Memento from November 1, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Federal Highway Research Institute, Partner Protection in Car-Car Accidents, 2005 ( Memento from November 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive ). PDF; 2.4 MB
- ↑ auto, motor und sport 1999, issue 16, p. 146ff.
- ↑ Guidelines for the construction and equipment of pedestrian crossings (R-FGÜ 2001)
- ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz: Children in the problem field of school rush hour . In: Ding-Wort-Zahl 86 (2007), pp. 52–60
- ^ Siegbert A. Warwitz: Are traffic accidents 'tragic' coincidences? In: Ding-Wort-Zahl 102 (2009), pp. 42–50 and 64
- ^ Maria Limbourg: Children on the move in traffic. Risks and dangers on children's paths . In: Ding-Wort-Zahl 47 (2002), pp. 9-16
- ↑ P. Spitta: Learn continuously. The way to school in first grade . In: Ding-Wort-Zahl 30 (2002), pp. 17-22
- ↑ R. Streyhammer: The school is around the corner ... teaching aid. Vienna 2007
- ↑ Masterplan Vision Zero: Time for zero traffic fatalities . Retrieved June 13, 2017.
- ↑ Stiftung Warentest: Children's bicycles - disappointingly bad , in: test, Issue 5/2005 (accessed online on June 13, 2017)
- ↑ Protection of pedestrians and other unprotected road users In: eur-lex.europa.eu , accessed on June 13, 2017.
- ^ Association of the Automotive Industry, 2006 Annual Report , accessed on June 13, 2017.
- ↑ ADAC: 20 years of consumer protection crash tests: New much safer than old ( Memento from April 19, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Right of way for "Vision Zero" (accessed on October 21, 2008)
- ↑ WDR crash test: From 100 to 0 - The physics of a frontal crash
- ↑ In the future, Tempo 30 will apply in front of all schools. In: Der Tagesspiegel. Berlin. July 15, 2008. (Retrieved October 19, 2008.)
- ↑ Numbers, facts, knowledge. News from the traffic. (PDF; 1.4 MB) In: adac.de. ADAC, November 2016, accessed on June 13, 2017 .
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office, traffic accidents, accident trends in road traffic 2009
- ↑ Road safety: Commission presents measures to halve the number of road deaths by 2020 EU press release, accessed June 13, 2017.
- ^ Decision of the Higher Regional Court Nuremberg of January 24, 2007, AZ. 2 St OLG Ss 300/06 ( Memento from April 5, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Federal Statistical Office, Traffic Accidents (accessed April 8, 2012).
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office, Series 8, Series 7, Traffic, Traffic Accidents, 2014 ( online )
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office (ed.): Statistisches Jahrbuch 2016. Child accidents in road traffic 2015 , Wiesbaden 2016, p. 5
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office (Ed.): Statistisches Jahrbuch 2016. Child accidents in road traffic 2015 , Wiesbaden 2016, p. 6
- ↑ ADAC study: Parents' taxi to school is a risk
- ↑ Federal Statistical Office (Ed.): Statistisches Jahrbuch 2016. Child accidents in road traffic 2015 , Wiesbaden 2016, p. 7
- ^ Decision of the KMK of July 7, 1972 as amended on May 10, 2012: Recommendation on mobility and traffic education in schools