hamster

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hamster
European hamster (Cricetus cricetus), the nominate form of the subfamily Cricetinae and the only species in Central Europe

European hamster ( Cricetus cricetus ), the nominate form of the subfamily Cricetinae and the only species in Central Europe

Systematics
Order : Rodents (Rodentia)
Subordination : Mouse relatives (Myomorpha)
Superfamily : Mice-like (Muroidea)
Eumuroida
Family : Burrowers (Cricetidae)
Subfamily : hamster
Scientific name
Cricetinae
Fischer von Waldheim , 1817

The hamsters (Cricetinae) are a subfamily of the mice belonging to the burrowers with around 20 species.

Their distribution area are dry and semi-arid areas of Eurasia . In Central Europe only the European hamster occurs. Hamsters have been known to be fossilized since the Middle Miocene from northern Africa and Eurasia. Most hamsters are not at risk. An exception is the Syrian golden hamster , which, like some other hamsters, is important as a test animal and pet.

The mouse to rat-sized hamsters are vole-like in shape, but mostly with a short tail. They have three rooted molars in each half of the jaw, the cusps of which are arranged in two longitudinal rows and are usually connected crosswise by fusible strips. The inside cheek pockets are used to transport the food.

Body features

External features

Hamsters can grow to be the size of a mouse or a rat. They are vole-like in shape, but mostly with a short, less than half-body-long tail. Their cylindrical or rounded body is adapted to a digging way of life and to locomotion in underground passages. The tail, which has been reduced in size to form a stub, is almost inoperative.

The short and strong limbs of the hamsters are adapted for persistent running. The front paws are used for digging, climbing and holding on to food as well as grooming. The thumb is receded and thus adapted to the digging way of life. Hamsters have five toes on each paw .

The gray to brown fur of the hamster is soft and dense. The tail is bare or hairy, the soles of the paws are mostly bare. Among the soles of the hind feet are large, assistant climbing bales . Hamsters have sharp claws . There is a sebum gland in the middle of the abdomen .

Typical body measurements of hamsters
Genus or species Head to torso length Length of the tail Body mass
  Dimensions in millimeters in grams
Short-tailed dwarf hamster 53-102 4-14 23.4
Middle hamster 170-180 12 97-258
Gray dwarf hamster 75-120 20-50  
Gansu dwarf hamster 140 108  
Rat-like dwarf hamster 120-160 70-100  
Medium-sized dwarf hamsters 100-130 17-25  
European hamster 200-340 40-60 200-650

Footnotes:

  1. The information refers to five Campbell dwarf hamsters.
  2. The information relates to the Syrian and Turkish golden hamster.
  3. The information refers to an adult female.

Sense organs

The hamsters' sense of smell is well developed and they can use their noses to locate food and examine it for quality and palatability. Their sense of hearing is also well developed . Hamsters can easily perceive prey and predators thanks to the large auricles that act as horns . To sleep, the auricles are folded up and put on. The long whiskers serve the hamster's sense of touch . With them they can recognize the nature of their surroundings and orientate themselves in the dark. Their sense of sight is less well developed . With their large black eyes , the nocturnal and crepuscular hamsters cannot see particularly well, but they can perceive movements and differences in brightness.

Chewing apparatus and teeth

Golden hamster eating
1 · 0 · 0 · 3  =  16
1 · 0 · 0 · 3
Hamster tooth formula

The hamsters have a myomorphic chewing apparatus. Unlike other mice, they move the lower jaw at an angle when chewing . Charles et al. (2007) found an average angle of 40.2 degrees between the axis of the upper molar row and 43 tongue-directed microscratches on the entoconid of the second lower molar in a European hamster and a Syrian golden hamster. The standard deviation was 12.2 degrees.

The hamster's teeth, which are typical of mice , have a total of 16 teeth. There is one incisor tooth and three molars in each half of the jaw. Canines and premolars are absent and each row of molars is separated from the incisor teeth by a large, toothless gap .

Development of the dentition

The incisor teeth erupt before birth or shortly afterwards. Then the first, then the second and finally the third molars erupt. The latter only broke through completely in adult hamsters. The calcium deposits in the tooth crowns are completed shortly before the tooth eruption, that of the tooth roots significantly later. Slight differences in tooth eruption and calcium deposits, especially in the third molars, could be related to body growth and litter size. These could also be influenced by diet. Gender apparently has no effect. A change of teeth does not take place in the hamsters.

Incisors

The hamster's incisor teeth are constantly growing back and are pigmented yellow. They are curved back, wide, and flat on the front. They are concave on the back. The cut edges are flat at the front and distinctly chisel-shaped. The tips of the upper and lower incisor teeth are almost parallel to each other. When the jaw is closed, the tips of the lower incisor teeth almost touch the base of the upper incisor teeth on the tongue side.

Molars

The hamster's molars are limited in growth, not pigmented, and appear white or slightly pink in live hamsters. They are low-crowned and have well-developed tooth roots . The final bite position of the molars occurs when the lower jaw is retracted in the resting position. The upper and lower molar rows meet exactly, the respective tongue and cheek-side edges are brought closer together and the cusps of the lower jaw teeth lie in front of the corresponding cusps of the upper jaw teeth. The hamster molars are much more similar than other tribosphenic (three-humped) molars.

The number of tooth compartments is usually four each for the first two maxillary molars, three for the third maxillary molar and two each for the lower molars. The two front tooth sockets of the first maxillary molar are laterally offset one behind the other. The two rear tooth compartments of the first maxillary molar, the two front and the two rear tooth compartments of the second maxillary molar and the two front tooth compartments of the third maxillary molar lie one behind the other in pairs. The rearmost tooth compartment of the third upper jaw tooth is in the middle and the six tooth compartments of the lower jaw teeth are in a row one behind the other.

Chewing surface of the molars

Right molar rows of an adult hamster from Rheinhessen.

Characteristic of the hamsters is the blunt-humped chewing surface of the molar teeth, which retains its characteristic features despite wear and tear with age. The cusps of the teeth are arranged in two longitudinal rows in the upper and lower jaw , according to the cricetid blueprint typical of Wühler . The first molars each have three, the second and third molars each two pairs of cusps lying one behind the other. The cusps are usually connected crosswise by melting strips. Additional strips can be added to the front and rear ends.

The anterior anteroconus of the first maxillary molar is divided into an inner and an outer cusp. On the tongue side follow the protoconus and hypoconus, on the cheek side paraconus and metaconus. In the first mandibular molar, the anteroconid is also divided into two parts. Metaconid and entoconid follow on the tongue side, protoconid and hypoconid on the cheek side. The structure of the second and third molars is similar, but the anterior fusion bulge is not formed into an anteroconus or anteroconid.

The two cusps of each pair are separated from each other by a deep chewing pit and there are wide, triangular furrows on the cheek and tongue sides between each pair. The crown of the molars is completely covered by tooth enamel . Due to abrasion , the height of the cusps decreases with age and the dentin appears under the enamel . In older hamsters, the bumps are initially less pronounced and narrow. With further abrasion, they bond together and almost disappear.

Cheek pockets

Dissected cheek pouches of a European hamster

The inner cheek pockets are characteristic of the hamsters . These run along the lower jaw, reach to the shoulders and are used to transport food. Its opening lies directly behind the point where the lips and cheeks bulge inwards in the toothless gap in the dentition. The pockets are formed by protrusions of the oral cavity deep into the throat skin muscles platysma and sphincter colli profundus . The retractor muscle is derived from the trapezius muscle , while the cheek muscles function as the sphincter muscle . On the rear inner wall of the pockets there is a strongly folded fabric protruding forward. This allows the pockets to enlarge when food is ingested. Since the pockets do not have a lymphatic system, their cells do not react to foreign bodies.

Habitat and way of life

European hamster digging in a grain field

habitat

The hamster habitats are mainly dry and semi-arid open landscapes of the temperate zone with vegetation in plains and mountains adapted to moderately moist to extremely dry locations. They inhabit desert edges, clay deserts, shrubbery plains, forest and mountain steppes , shrubby or rocky foothills and river valleys . Smaller species in particular do not avoid semi-deserts or deserts . They can be found very numerous in plantations such as vegetable gardens, grain fields and orchards.

Diet and predators

Syrian hamster collecting green leaves in its cheek pouches

Hamsters are predominantly herbivores and especially seed-eaters . In addition to plant seeds , however, they also feed on green parts of plants, sprouts , roots , fruits , leaves and flowers . Occasionally they can prey on insects , lizards , frogs , mice and other small mammals , young birds and snakes . However, these only make up a small proportion of their diet. They consume crops like wheat , barley , millet , soybeans , peas , potatoes , carrots and beets .

The food is stored as winter supply, consisting mainly of plant seeds, eaten on return to the burrow, or consumed on the surface when everything is calm. Larger pieces of food are transported between the front teeth. However, their cheek pouches also allow the hamsters to carry large quantities of small pieces of food to the burrow. For example, up to 90 kilograms of plant material were found in the pantries of the European hamster, which had been brought in by a single hamster. A rat-like dwarf hamster was found with 42 soybeans in the cheek pouches. Their front paws, which have been transformed into hands, enable the hamsters to handle the food extremely skilfully and the cheek pouches are emptied with a characteristic, forward-pressing movement of the paws.

The hamsters' predators include weasels and smaller birds of prey , as well as foxes and other predators.

Build, activity and social structure

The hamsters' underground burrows usually have several entrances, and the chambers for the nest, excretions, reproduction and supplies are connected by several passages. However, some species also use natural shelters.

Hamsters are mainly active at night and at dusk with limited activity in daylight. Larger species often hibernate , many smaller species, on the other hand, show extended states of winter torpor , which can last a few days to several weeks, but not deep hibernation. In between, they feed on their supplies.

Hamsters live mostly solitary , but also in family groups during the breeding season. They can be exceptionally aggressive towards their own species. This could be due to stiff competition for the dispersed, but locally abundant food sources. However, it could also serve to distribute the population in a particular area. Large species like the rat-like dwarf hamster are aggressive towards other species and can even attack dogs or humans if threatened. To protect themselves from attacks, they throw themselves on their backs and let out high-pitched screams.

Distribution, Fossil Finds, and Existence

The range of the hamsters are dry and semi-arid areas of Eurasia. In Central Europe only the European hamster occurs, in Eastern Europe the gray dwarf hamster and the Romanian golden hamster are also common.

Also fossil hamsters are the Palaearctic limited. In northern Africa they are known from the Middle Miocene, in Europe since the Middle Miocene, in Asia since the Late Miocene and in the Mediterranean region from the early Pliocene and the Holocene .

Most hamsters are not at risk. In 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature IUCN only classified the Syrian golden hamster as endangered ("Vulnerable") and the Romanian golden hamster and the Turkish golden hamster as potentially endangered ("Near Threatened").

Systematics and nomenclature

External system

The hamsters are grouped together with the New World mice and the voles as burrowers . So they assign Musser and Carleton (2005) as the subfamily Cricetinae to the Cricetidae . The recent hamsters form a closed community of descent with clearly derived , morphological features. Molecular genetic studies of the nuclear LCAT and vWF genes by Michaux and coworkers (2001), the nuclear IRBP gene by Jansa and Weksler (2004) and the nuclear GHR , BRCA1 , RAG1 and C-Myc genes by Steppan and Colleagues (2004) confirm the close relationship with one another, but can not clearly identify the hamster sister group . According to Steppan and co-workers (2004), they separated from the New World mice about 16.8 to 19.6 million years ago and from the voles about 16.3 to 18.8 million years ago in the early Miocene .

In a broader sense, hamsters also include New World mice in addition to species from the Old World. Both groups were often united in the subfamily Cricetinae, but usually led at least as an independent tribe . The African hamster and the mouse hamster , however, were often assigned to hamsters in the narrower sense. However, this was based more on the uncertainty regarding their systematic classification than on the belief that they were closely related to the hamsters. The African hamster from 1966 and the mouse hamster from 1979 were initially separated as an independent tribe within the Cricetinae. However, neither are closely related to the hamsters or other burrowers. Also the blind mulle and the mulled lemmings belonging to the voles were partly assigned to the Cricetinae as a tribe.

Internal system

The recent hamsters are the remnants of an adaptive radiation in the Neogene that led to an abundance of fossil species. According to molecular genetic studies of mitochondrial cytochrome - b - and 12S rRNA genes and the nuclear vWF gene by Neumann et al (2006) they share clear on three main branches, which in the late Miocene epoch, about 7.6 to 12, 2 million years separated from each other. First the short-tailed dwarf hamsters split off about 8.5 to 12.2 million years ago and then the middle hamsters about 7.6 to 10.8 million years ago from the rest of the hamsters grouped as the Cricetus group. About 5.8 to 7.4 million years ago these were divided into the long-tailed dwarf hamster and the Daurian dwarf hamster on the one hand and the rat-like dwarf hamster , the gray dwarf hamster , the field hamster and the medium-sized dwarf hamster on the other. The rat-like dwarf hamster finally separated from the latter species between 4.9 and 6.7 million years ago. The first split within the short-tailed dwarf hamsters is similarly old at 4.9 to 6.9 million years ago. The Tibetan dwarf hamster form according to preliminary investigations of the 12S rRNA gene by Lebedev and colleagues (2003) may be the sister group of Phodopus or occupy a basal position within the hamster. The assumed proximity of the Gansu dwarf hamster to the rat-like dwarf hamster still requires a molecular genetic examination. This results in the following relationships:



 ? 

Tibetan dwarf hamster , Cricetulus (Urocricetus)


   

Short-tailed dwarf hamster , Phodopus



   

Middle hamster , Mesocricetus


 Cricetus group 


Long-tailed dwarf hamster , Cricetulus (Cricetulus) longicaudatus


   

Gray dwarf hamsters , Cricetulus (Cricetulus) barabensis group



   

 ? 

Gansu hamster , Cansumys canus


   

Rat-like dwarf hamster , Tscherskia triton



   

Gray hamster , Cricetulus migratorius


   

European hamster , Cricetus cricetus


   

Medium-sized dwarf hamster , Allocricetulus


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Molecular genetic studies of the GHR, BRCA1, RAF1 and C-Myc genes by Steppan and coworkers (2004) confirm the status of the short-tailed dwarf hamsters as a sister group of the middle hamsters and the Cricetus group, locate the separation of the short-tailed dwarf hamsters from the remaining hamsters, however, were around 12.4 to 14.1 million years ago. Studies of the LCAT and vWF genes by Michaux and coworkers (2001) as well as the IRBP gene by Jansa and Weksler (2004), however, indicate a closer relationship between the short-tailed dwarf hamsters and the middle hamsters. Cytogenetic studies using fluorescence in situ hybridization and G-banding by Romanenko et al. (2007) confirm the division into the three main branches with the short-tailed dwarf hamsters as the sister group of the remaining hamsters, but indicate other relationships within the Cricetus group.

Recent genera

Musser and Carleton (2005) distinguish seven recent genera of hamsters with 18 recent species:

However, the division of hamsters into genera is controversial. The genus Cricetulus is particularly problematic . On the one hand, the medium-sized dwarf hamsters, the rat-like dwarf hamsters and the Gansu dwarf hamsters are assigned to these in a broader sense. On the other hand, it is only a hodgepodge of not closely related, small hamster species with advanced tooth morphology. With the short-tailed dwarf hamsters also assigned to it, the genus Cricetulus once even included all dwarf hamster species. Alternatively, the Gansu dwarf hamster is also listed in the genus Tscherskia together with the rat-like dwarf hamster . The middle hamsters are also united with the common hamster in the genus Cricetus .

Fossil and recent genera

McKenna and Bell (1997) distinguish 15 fossil (†) and seven recent genera of hamsters:

  • Cricetus Leske, 1779 from the Middle Miocene of North Africa, from the Upper Miocene to the Holocene of Europe and from the Lower Pliocene , the Middle Pleistocene and the Holocene of Asia
  • Rotundomys Mein, 1965 (including Cricetulodon Hartenberger, 1966 ) from the Middle to Upper Miocene and Pliocene of Europe
  • Microtocricetus Fahlbusch & Mayr, 1975 (including Sarmatomys Topachevsky & Skorik, 1975 ) from Central Miocene Europe
  • Ischymomys Zazhigin, in Gromov, 1971 from the Upper Miocene of Asia
  • Collimys Daxner-Höck, 1972 from the Upper Miocene of Europe
  • Pannonicola Kretzoi, 1965 from the Upper Miocene of Europe
  • Hattomys Freudenthal, 1985 presumably from the Upper Miocene of Europe
  • Nannocricetus Schaub, 1934 from the Upper Miocene of Asia, probably from the Upper Pliocene of Asia and probably from the Middle Pleistocene of Asia
  • Karstocricetus Kordos, 1987 from the Upper Miocene of Eastern Europe
  • Kowalskia Fahlbusch, 1969 from the Upper Miocene of Asia, from the Upper Miocene to the Upper Pliocene of Europe and from the Lower Pliocene of the Mediterranean
  • Cricetulus Milne-Edwards, 1867 (including Urocricetus , † Cricetinus , † Allocricetus and † Moldavimus ) from the Upper Miocene to Holocene of Europe and from the Lower Pliocene to Holocene of Asia
  • Hypsocricetus Daxner-Höck, 1992 from the Upper Miocene Macedonia
  • Sinocricetus Schaub, 1930 from the Upper Miocene of Inner Mongolia
  • Paracricetulus Young, 1927 from the Lower Pliocene of Asia
  • Chuanocricetus Zheng, 1993 from the Upper Pliocene of China
  • Amblycricetus Zheng, 1993 from the Upper Pliocene of China
  • Mesocricetus Nehring, 1898 from the Lower Pliocene and the Middle Pleistocene to the Holocene of the Middle East, from the Upper Pleistocene to the Holocene of Eastern Europe and from the Holocene of the Mediterranean
  • Rhinocricetus Kretzoi, 1956 from the lower to middle Pleistocene of Europe
  • Phodopus Miller, 1910 (including Cricetiscus ) from the Pleistocene of Europe and from the Middle and / or Upper Pleistocene and Holocene of Asia
  • Tscherskia Ognev, 1914 from the Upper Pliocene of Eastern Europe and the Holocene of Asia
  • Cansumys Allen, 1928 from the Holocene of China
  • Allocricetulus Argyropulo, 1932 from the Holocene of Asia

nomenclature

Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim introduced the Cricetini and the Cricetinorum family in 1817 . John Edward Gray established the Cricetina tribe in 1825 , Andrew Murray the Cricetinae subfamily in 1866 , Alphonse Trémeau de Rochebrune the Cricetidae family in 1883, Herluf Winge the Cricetini or Criceti subfamily in 1887 and George Gaylord Simpson the Cricetini tribe in 1945. The name of the type genus Cricetus is derived from the neo-Latin cricetus , hamster, which was formed from the Czech křeček .

In 1992, Wadym Topachevskyj introduced the Ischymomyini tribe. The name of the fossil type genus Ischymomys is derived from Ischim and from ancient Greek μυς mys 'mouse'.

Hamster and human

German name

The German name of the hamster is a borrowing of the hypothetical, ancient Slavic term * choměstrъ , attested in the 11th century by the Russian-Church Slavonic choměstorъ. This can be found around 1000 in Old High German, initially as hamustro , before it developed into the early New High German ham (p) ster , and probably originally comes from Old Iranian . So avestisch means hamaēstar- 'he who throws down , throws to the ground, oppresses'. The widespread opinion that the Old High German forms stand for the grain beetle and its larvae has to be rejected according to Wolfgang Pfeifer (1993). The name of the hamsters that conducts hamsters from.

Benefit and harm

Some species of hamsters are kept as experimental animals or pets . The Syrian golden hamster , the Chinese dwarf hamster , the field hamster , the Campbell dwarf hamster , the Djungarian dwarf hamster , the Turkish golden hamster , the Romanian golden hamster and the gray dwarf hamster are used as experimental animals. The European hamster, the Syrian golden hamster and the Chinese dwarf hamster also gained importance as pets, as did the Campbell dwarf hamster, the Djungarian hamster and the Roborowski dwarf hamster . Several cell lines have been cultivated from the Chinese dwarf hamster , including the CHO cells . The European hamster is also caught for its fur .

Hamsters are considered serious agricultural pests in some areas . In some countries dogs are trained to kill them. Chinese farmers catch large hamsters and feed them to cats or other pets. They recover the stored grain in autumn by digging up the burrows. Hamsters are also important as carriers of some diseases .

Web links

Commons : Cricetinae  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Hamster  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Used literature

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Footnotes

  1. Niethammer, [1988] (p. 206)
  2. Niethammer: 1982 [a] (p. 3)
  3. a b c d e Mettler, 1995 (pp. 11–12)
  4. Piechocki, 1969 (pp. 305–306)
  5. a b c d e f g h Feaver and Zhang, 2010 (p. 204)
  6. ^ WB Quay, P. Quentin Tomich: A Specialized Midventral Sebaceous Glandular Area in Rattus exulans . In: Journal of Mammalogy . tape 44 , 1963, pp. 537-542 , doi : 10.2307 / 1377136 . Quoted in: Niethammer: 1982 [a] (p. 3)
  7. a b c d Nowak, 1999 (pp. 1419–1425)
  8. ^ Ross, 1995
  9. ^ Charles P. Lyman, Regina C. O'Brien: Laboratory Study of the Turkish Hamster Mesocricetus brandti . In: Breviora . No. 442 , 1977, ISSN  0006-9698 , pp. 1-27 . Quoted in: Nowak 1999 (p. 1423)
  10. ^ Glover Morrill Allen: The Mammals of China and Mongolia. Part 2 . In: Walter Granger (Ed.): Natural History of Central Asia . tape 11 . American Museum of Natural History, New York 1940, p. 621-1350 (Central Asiatic Expeditions). Quoted in: Nowak 1999 (p. 1423)
  11. a b Glover Morrill Allen: The Mammals of China and Mongolia. Part 2 . In: Walter Granger (Ed.): Natural History of Central Asia . tape 11 . American Museum of Natural History, New York 1940, p. 621-1350 (Central Asiatic Expeditions). Quoted in: Nowak 1999 (pp. 1421–1423)
  12. Weinhold and Kayser, 2006 (p. 19)
  13. ^ Charles and coworkers, 2007
  14. Flint, 2006 [1966] (pp. 84–85)
  15. a b c Yigit, 2003 (pp. 66–68)
  16. Orland, 1946 (Tab. 1)
  17. a b c d Orland, 1946 (pp. 446–447)
  18. a b Gorniak, 1977: 433-434
  19. Niethammer: 1982 [a] (Fig. 2, p. 3)
  20. a b Niethammer: 1982 [a] (Fig. 4, Fig. 1, Tab. 1). Nomenclature according to: Emmet Thurman Hooper: A Systematic Review of the Harvest Mice (Genus Reithrodontomys ) of Latin America . In: Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan . No. 77 . University of Michigan Press, 1952, ISSN  0076-8405 .
  21. Flint, 2006 [1966] (pp. 4–5)
  22. Jansa and Weksler, 2004 (p. 272; Fig. 3, p. 273)
  23. a b Niethammer: 1982 [a] (p. 1)
  24. Niethammer, 1982b (Tab. 5, Fig. 9)
  25. a b Logsdail et al. , 2005 [2002] (p. 69)
  26. ^ Ryan, 1986
  27. a b c d e f g Carleton and Musser (p. 312)
  28. a b c d e f g h Gromow and Jerbajewa, 1995 ("Подсем. Хомячьи - Cricetinae")
  29. a b c Feaver and Zhang, 2010 (p. 205)
  30. Carleton and Musser (p. 311)
  31. ^ Neumann and co-workers, 2006 (p. 135)
  32. a b Musser and Carleton, 2005 (“ Cricetinae ( Memento of the original from October 19, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ", Pp. 1039-1046) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bucknell.edu
  33. a b McKenna and Bell, 1997 (pp. 149–151)
  34. a b c d e f Musser and Carleton, 2005 (" Cricetinae ( Memento of the original from October 19, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and remove then this note. ", pp. 1039-1040) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bucknell.edu
  35. a b Michaux and colleagues, 2001 (Fig. 4, p. 2024)
  36. Jansa and Weksler, 2004 (p. 271)
  37. a b Steppan and colleagues, 2004 (Fig. 1, p. 539; Fig. 2, p. 541)
  38. a b Steppan and colleagues, 2004 (Tab. 4, p. 543)
  39. Carleton and Musser (p. 313)
  40. Musser and Carleton, 2005 (" Mystromyinae ( Memento of the original from September 13, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. " Pp. 945–946) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bucknell.edu
  41. Musser and Carleton, 2005 (" Calomyscidae ( Memento of the original from October 13, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. " Pp. 926–927) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bucknell.edu
  42. Simpson, 1945 (p. 86)
  43. ^ Neumann and co-workers, 2006 (p. 141)
  44. ^ Neumann and co-workers, 2006 (Tab. 3, p. 142)
  45. Wladimir S. Lebedew, Natalja W. Iwanowa, NK Pawlowa, Andrei B. Poltoraus: Molecular Phylogeny of the Palearctic Hamsters . In: Систематика, филогения и палеонтология мелких млекопитающих . Pensoft, Saint Petersburg 2003. Quoted in: Neumann and co-workers, 2006 (p. 145)
  46. a b Neumann and co-workers, 2006 (p. 145)
  47. Jansa and Weksler, 2004 (Fig. 1 (B), p. 264)
  48. ^ Romanenko et al., 2007 (p. 295)
  49. Musser and Carleton, 2005 ( Phodopus ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. , P. 1045) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bucknell.edu
  50. Carleton and Musser (p. 314)
  51. ^ McKenna and Bell, 1997 (p. 136)
  52. a b c McKenna and Bell, 1997 (p. 149)
  53. ^ Nicola Zingarelli : Vocabolario della lingua italiana . Zanichelli, 2008, ISBN 978-88-08-14994-7 .
  54. Wolfgang Pfeifer: Etymological Dictionary of German . 1993. Quoted in: Digital dictionary of the German language ( hamster )
  55. Clark, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (pp. 5-6)
  56. Chang and co-workers, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 305)
  57. ^ Mohr and Ernst, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 351)
  58. a b Cantrell and Padovan, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 370)
  59. ^ Cantrell and Padovan, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 382)
  60. ^ Cantrell and Padovan, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 384)
  61. ^ Cantrell and Padovan, in Van Hoosier and McPherson, 1987 (p. 385)
  62. Schmidt, 1985 (p. 118)
  63. Schmidt, 1985 (p. 122)
  64. ^ Schmidt, 1985 (p. 134)
  65. Honigs, 2010 (p. 9)
  66. Gottesman, 1985 (pp. Xi – xii)