Neonicotinoids

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Imidacloprid, a typical systemic insecticide from the neonicotinoid group

As neonicotinoids or neonicotinoids a group of highly effective insecticides called. They are all synthetically produced active ingredients that bind to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) of nerve cells and thus interfere with the transmission of nerve stimuli. Neonicotinoids are selective neurotoxins that have a much stronger effect on the nerve cells of insects than on the nerves of vertebrates.

Mode of action

Mode of action

Neonicotinoids can act as contact or food poisons . They are well absorbed by the roots and transported into the leaves. Treated plants are protected from both biting and sucking insects. Because of this systemic effect, the neonicotinoids are mainly used as seed dressings . They can also be used, for example, as a spray, granulate or additive for irrigation. Since neonicotinoids are only broken down slowly in the plant, their effects last for a long time. In permanent crops such as vines and citrus plants, the neonicotinoids used were effective for about half a year. Maple trees could be protected from insects for four years by injecting imidacloprid.

In insects, this group of substances acts like acetylcholine on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of the nerve cells , whereby there is no degradation by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase . The receptor is thus permanently stimulated and the chemical signal transmission is disrupted. The permanent stimulus that is triggered leads to cramps and ultimately to the death of the insects. A review of the gene family of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in honey bees was published in 2006.

history

In the early 1970s, what was then the Shell Development Company in Modesto invented a new class of nitromethylene heterocycles that act on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Shell found that the chemist Henry Feuer ( Purdue University ) 's 2- [dibromo (nitro) methyl] -3-methylpyridine had unexpected insecticidal effects on housefly and pea lice . Optimization of this structure led to nithiazine . This early prototype can now be viewed as the first generation of neonicotinoids. Nithiazine exhibited strong activity against Helicoverpa zea , good systemic properties and low toxicity to mammals, but was never commercialized for widespread agricultural use due to lack of photochemical stability.

In the early 1980s, the Japanese company Nihon Tokushu Noyaku Seizo KK (today Bayer CropScience KK ) continued its work, concentrating on the rice pest Nephotettix cincticeps . Chemical optimizations led to NTN32692, the activity of which could be massively increased compared with nithiazine. The problem of insufficient photochemical stability was only solved with the compound imidacloprid .

Imidacloprid was commercialized by Bayer AG in 1991 . It achieved considerable sales success and became the world's best-selling insecticide in the crop protection and veterinary sectors. As a result, other companies such as Takeda Pharmaceutical (now Sumitomo Chemical Takeda Agro), Agro-Kanesho , Nippon Sōda , Mitsui Toatsu (now Mitsui Chemicals ), Ciba-Geigy (now Syngenta ) pushed their own neonicotinoids onto the market. The neonicotinoids thus became the fastest growing class of insecticides, thanks to their unique biological and chemical properties: broad spectrum of activity, low application rates, good systemic properties (uptake and distribution in the plant), new mechanism of action and a favorable safety profile.

Analytics

Chromatographic methods are used to reliably detect individual neonicotinoids . The chromatographically separated substances are identified by mass spectrometry . Studies are also available on the analysis of substances bound to seeds.

Use and economic importance

Neonicotinoids are approved in more than 120 countries. With sales of € 1.5 billion in 2008, they had a 24% share of the global insecticide market. Neonicotinoids are even more important in the seed dressing market . With the introduction of the first neonicotinoids in the 1990s, this market grew strongly, from € 155 million (1990) to € 957 million (2008). In 2008, 80% of the sales of seed dressings were dominated by neonicotinoids.

Seven neonicotinoids from different manufacturers are currently on the market.

Surname Manufacturer Selection of well-known trade names Sales in million US $ (2009)
Imidacloprid Bayer CropScience Confidor, Admire, Gaucho 1,091
Thiamethoxam Syngenta Actara, Platinum, Cruiser 627
Clothianidin Sumitomo Chemical / Bayer CropScience Poncho, Dantosu, Dantop, Santana 439
Acetamiprid Nippon soda Mospilan, Assail, ChipcoTristar 276
Thiacloprid Bayer CropScience Sonido, Calypso, Lizetan (in combination with Methiocarb ) 112
Dinotefuran Mitsui Chemicals Starkle, Safari, Venom 79
Nitenpyram Sumitomo Chemical Capstar, bestguard 8th

The patent protection has expired for most neonicotinoid (imidacloprid since 2005). The production of generics is already established in countries such as India and China .

Agriculture

In contrast to other groups of insecticides, neonicotinoids can be applied in a variety of ways. Most neonicotinoids can be used for leaf treatment, as dressing agents and for soil treatment. About 60% of the applications are seed dressings and soil applications. Imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and clothianidin are widely used as dressings for cotton, corn, sugar beet, rape and other crops.

Neonicotinoids are some of the most effective insecticides for controlling boring pests such as aphids , whiteflies , pygmy cicadas , pointed-head cicadas , and fringed-winged plants , as well as a range of biting pests such as small butterflies and beetles .

They fight aphids like Aphis gossypii , the green peach aphid , the hop aphid , and the bird cherry louse on vegetables , sugar beets , cotton , apple fruits , cereals and tobacco ; Beetles like the Colorado beetle on potatoes; Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus on rice; Whiteflies (e.g. Bemisia tabaci , Trialeurodes vaporariorum ) and fringed winged fly (e.g. tobacco bladder ) on vegetables, cotton, and citrus plants ; Small butterflies such as the codling moth and Phyllocnistis citrella on apple fruit and citrus; as well as wireworms on sugar beet and corn .

Since some pests are carriers of plant viruses , neonicotinoids can prevent the spread of plant diseases. Examples include the prevention of transmission of the yellow dwarf virus by aphids to cereals, of the tomato bronze stain virus by fringed winged birds on tomatoes , or the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa by Homalodisca vitripennis to citrus plants.

Neonicotinoid concentrations in plant sap and tissue between 5 and 10 ppb are generally sufficient to protect plants from harmful insects.

Neonicotinoids as seed dressings are absorbed by the crop to be protected in a proportion between 1.6 and 20%. Here, the proportion of the active ingredient that gets into or on the target plant is significantly lower than with spray application on the foliage.

EU

There are currently no up-to-date, detailed statistics on the consumption of neonicotinoids in the EU. Data from Eurostat (2007), which refer to the year 2003, put the weight of the active substance applied in pyridylmethylamines, including acetamiprid, imidacloprid and thiacloprid, at 550 t, which corresponded to a share of 7% of the total insecticide consumption. The consumption of imidacloprid was in 4th place among the insecticidal active ingredients.

Within the insecticides category, pyridylmethylamines played an important role in 2003 for cereals (2nd), maize (3rd), oil seeds (4th), potatoes (5th), fruit trees (4th) and vegetables (4th). In absolute terms, maize and cereals accounted for the largest amounts of active ingredients. The nitroguanidines (clothianidin and thiamethoxam) are of certain importance in oilseeds (5.).

The United Kingdom is one of the few EU countries that has detailed consumption statistics for neonicotinoids. In 2012, 82 t was used on 1.3 million  hectares , 71% of which was clothianidin and 16% thiamethoxam. The use of neonicotinoids has increased continuously since the early 1990s. Imidacloprid, which was previously dominant, has lost a lot of its importance since 2005, while clothianidin and thiamethoxam rose sharply. In 2012, 85% of the area treated with neonicotinoids was accounted for by cereals (especially clothianidin) and oilseeds (especially thiamethoxam). 19% of the grain area and 68% of the oilseed area were treated with neonicotinoids.

United States

According to information from GfK Kynetec, based on the 2010–2012 average, neonicotinoids are the most widely used class of insecticides among US corn, soy, wheat, cotton and sorghum growers. Almost 56% of the area under cultivation of these crops was treated with neonicotinoids (area proportions: maize 89%, cotton 65%, sorghum 43%, soybean 40%, spring wheat 25% and winter wheat 18%). 97% of the amount of active ingredient used was used for seed treatments (maize 100%, soy 95%, wheat 100%, cotton 67% and sorghum 100%).

According to a 2016 study of 170 field trials carried out between 2005 and 2014 in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Tennessee, soybean seed dressing with neonicotinoids leads to higher yields and, in some cases, significantly higher contribution margins.

Canada

Health Canada-Santé Canada published an estimate of the economic importance of neonicotinoid seed treatments in Canada in January 2016. In 2013, dressing agents containing thiamethoxam or clothianidin were used on almost the entire corn and soybean area. Health Canada puts the additional benefit of these treatments at C $ 74.2-83.3 million (3.2-3.6% of the maize harvest) for corn, and at C $ 37.3-51 million (1.5%) for soybeans -2.1% of the soy harvest).

Non-agricultural uses

Neonicotinoids are used against termites , scarab beetles , cockroaches and ants in the household, lawn and garden . They are also used against parasites of dogs and cats , such as fleas , lice and flies .

toxicology

human

Of 70 neonicotinoid poisonings registered in Taiwan, mostly caused by attempted suicide, most had only mild to moderate effects. The poisoning resulted in death in two cases, and serious effects in eight others. In the case of severe poisoning, breathing problems often occurred. The low toxicity for warm-blooded animals compared to many other insecticides is explained by the high selectivity of neonicotinoids for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of insects.

An opinion from the EU Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that the neonicotinoids acetamiprid and imidacloprid could have harmful effects on the development of the nervous system in infants and young children. The brain's learning and memory functions may be impaired.

Birds

According to a rough calculation , the mean lethal dose (LD 50 ) for partridge would be achieved by ingesting about 5 corn kernels, 6 beet seeds or 32 rapeseeds, provided these were dressed with neonicotinoids. A Spanish study showed that the ingestion of seeds dressed with neonicotinoids or other pesticides in the red partridge ( Alectoris rufa ) in high doses can lead to death, but also to fertilization problems.

In the Netherlands, the concentration of imidacloprid in surface water showed a statistical association with the decline in several insectivorous bird species since the mid-1990s. Regarding a possible causal connection, the authors speculate that the use of imidacloprid has decimated the food sources of these bird species.

Migratory birds

Below the lethal dose, these insect repellants are particularly harmful to migratory birds. An American study shows: They reduce the appetite of badgers and prevent them from flying further.

Bees and other pollinators

Clothianidin ( LD 50 contact 0.044 µg per bee, orally 0.004 µg), imidacloprid (contact 0.081 µg, oral 0.0037 µg) and thiamethoxam (contact 0.024 µg, oral 0.005 µg) have a high level of acetamiprid (contact 8.09 µg, oral 14.53 µg) and thiacloprid (contact 38.82 µg, oral 17.32 µg) have moderate toxicity for honey bees.

Bee deaths in the Upper Rhine Graben in 2008

In the Upper Rhine Plain at the end of April 2008 there was massive bee deaths due to the active ingredient clothianidin, which damaged over 11,000 colonies. The active ingredient had been used to dress the seeds of maize, and in some batches the dressing did not adhere adequately to the seeds. The seeds were sown with pneumatic precision seeders so that the debris from the maize kernels was blown into the air. The active ingredient lay down as a film of dust over neighboring rapeseed fields , which were in bloom this year due to the weather and were flown over by bees. As a result, the dressing of maize seeds with clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam was banned in Germany.

Scientific investigations

A meta-analysis of 14 studies published in 2011 regarding the effects of imidacloprid on honey bees under laboratory and semi-field conditions showed that the dosages expected under field conditions would not have lethal effects, but would reduce the bees' performance by six to twenty percent .

A systematic review from 2012 found that many laboratory studies had shown lethal and sublethal effects on the ability to procure food, learn and remember, while studies under realistic field conditions with correspondingly lower doses had shown no effects.

A review article also published in 2012 could not support the hypothesis of a colony collapse due to neonicotinoid residues in pollen and nectar based on the Bradford Hill criteria for the time being, as there are considerable gaps in knowledge.

According to a review published in 2014, a single causal relationship between the use of neonicotinoids and bee deaths cannot yet be concluded due to gaps in knowledge. The bee mortality occurred before the widespread use of neonicotinoids and there was a weak geographical correlation between neonicotinoid use and bee deaths.

A review, also published in 2014, compared a number of recent laboratory studies with field studies. While laboratory studies have found sublethal effects, these effects have not been proven in field studies. The authors conclude that the laboratory studies overestimated the bees' concentration, feeding time and food choices.

In a field study published in spring 2015 (Rundlöf et al., 2015) it was shown that the dressing agent Elado (contains clothianidin and cyfluthrin ), applied to rape , impaired wild bees and bumblebees (decrease in the population density of wild bees, the nest activity of individual bees, as well as colony growth and reproduction rate of bumblebees). Elado, however, did not show any adverse effects on honeybees living in colonies .

A study published in 2015 and led by Fera researchers looked at the effects of neonicotinoid dressing in oilseed rape on agricultural yields, profits and bee mortality in England and Wales. The study used the Fera pesticide consumption statistics and yields as well as the bee studies of the National Bee Unit (NBU) in 5 years between 2002 and 2010. The results showed that the use of neonicotinoid seed dressings goes hand in hand with a lower consumption of leaf treatments with other crop protection products in autumn. However, there was no consistent relationship between the treatments and yields (and profits). With regard to bee health, the correlation analysis showed a difference of 10% colony mortality between low and high use of imidacloprid. However, the analysis could not control for other important influencing factors, nor was there any correlation of mortality with imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and clothianidin combined. Scientists reiterate the need for large-scale field experiments to investigate the effects of realistic neonicotinoid use on pollinators.

A systematic review published in August 2015 (Lundin et al., 2015) examined the research methods and gaps in research on neonicotinoids and bees using 216 individual studies published by June 2015. The authors concluded that despite numerous research activities, there are still significant knowledge gaps. Most of the studies looked at Europe and North America and a few crops (corn, oilseed rape, sunflower) and species (mainly Apis mellifera ), although the relationships in other regions, crops and species may be different. In addition, despite many laboratory studies, there is a lack of field studies, and field studies have primarily examined the exposure of bees to neonicotinoids, but there is insufficient knowledge about the effects of this exposure. Furthermore, research so far has focused on individual bees, although the effects on bee colonies can be different. Although there are indications of interactions between different classes of insecticide and synergistic insecticide-pathogen / parasite interactions, the latter may have been overestimated under realistic field conditions. Research also needs to clarify how relevant neonicotinoids are compared to other possible causes of bee mortality.

A field study published in November 2015 and led by INRA scientists showed that individual honey bees in the immediate vicinity of arable land where thiamethoxam was used disappeared to a greater extent. At the same time, the study found that the population size and honey production of beehives were not affected, as most of the affected beehives changed their reproductive strategy to produce fewer drones and more workers .

A study published in June 2017 based on field experiments with winter oilseed rape (pickled with clothianidin or thiamethoxam or unpickled) in Germany, Hungary and the United Kingdom came to differentiated results. For honey bees during the rapeseed bloom there were partly positive effects in Germany, partly negative effects in Hungary, and partly positive and negative effects in the United Kingdom, but most of the parameters examined did not show any significant effects. No significant effects were found in Germany for the following year, some negative effects in Hungary (no formal statistical analysis was possible in the United Kingdom). For wild bees there were some positive effects in Germany and some negative effects in the United Kingdom. For the majority of the parameters tested, there were no statistically significant differences between neonicotinoid stain and unstained control fields. The authors of the study interpret their results in such a way that dressing agents containing neonicotinoids can have negative effects on the reproduction of wild and domesticated bees, but that these effects are not consistent between different countries and are therefore more the result of interaction with other factors.

A laboratory experiment from 2016 found that thiamethoxam exposure reduced the number of egg-laying queens of the dark bumblebee by a quarter. The ability of queens to produce adult brood was not affected, nor was the survival rate after hibernation . Model calculations showed a significantly increased probability of the bumblebee population becoming extinct.

A study published in 2019 sees a possible connection regarding losses in honeybees in the combination of the two stressors neonicotinoids and infestation of the varroa mite .

Environmental behavior

The half-life in the soil is strongly dependent on the active ingredient, soil type and test method. According to a review published in 2013, the half-lives (in days) mostly determined in laboratory studies are 28–1250 for imidaclopdrid, 7–353 for thiamethoxam, 148–6931 for clothianidin, 3–74 for thiacloprid, and 31–450 for acetamiprid. The extent to which repeated applications lead to the accumulation of the active substances in soils has only been insufficiently investigated for most neonicotinoids. Studies on imidacloprid produced clear indications of an accumulation and permanent presence in the soil.

When sowing seeds treated with neonicotionoid, a small part of the active ingredient (<2%) reaches the environment as dust-like abrasion directly from the treated seeds.

Most of the active ingredients used for seed dressing end up in the soil and through leaching into the groundwater or are absorbed by neighboring wild plants. Due to the systemic effects, there is a damaging effect on parts of the ecosystem such as soil and aquatic organisms, beneficial insects and birds. Concentrations found in the groundwater correspond in their level to the concentrations which are established in plants treated with neonicotinoids and which are sufficient for the defense against harmful organisms.

In 2018, 233 scientists called for an extensive worldwide ban on the use of today's neonicotinoids and the approval of similar pesticides in the science magazine Science, analogous to the ban in the EU. The scientific evidence strongly suggested that neonicotinoids harm beneficial insects as well as contribute to the massive loss of biodiversity that is currently taking place around the world. Not reacting quickly to this threat would risk not only driving the further decline in biodiversity and insect abundance, but also endangering the services that insects can provide for future generations and at the same time jeopardizing a significant part of biodiversity.

A study published in 2019 by the University of Neuchâtel found neonicotinoids in 93% of the organic soils (average active ingredient concentration 0.09 ppb ) and plants (0.2 ppb) examined in the Swiss Plateau. For soils in ecological compensation areas on organic farms, this value was 71% (0.031 ppb). According to the study, this could damage up to 7% of the beneficial insect species considered. The authors believe that the use of neonicotinoids in cultivated plants can endanger biodiversity in protected areas and the practice of organic farming.

regulation

EU

The neonicotinoids imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, thiacloprid and acetamiprid were initially approved throughout the EU. Plant protection products (PPPs) that contain these neonicotinoids have been approved in some EU countries since 2015, and in some are banned from different times. Applications in the field and in greenhouses, in field crops and special crops, and for seed dressing, soil and leaf treatment are permitted. More detailed information on the regulation of individual neonicotinoids can be found in the corresponding articles. On January 13, 2020, the EU Commission decided to end the approval for thiacloprid for the European market. Member States must revoke authorizations for plant protection products containing thiacloprid by August 3, 2020, the use-by period for the products ends on February 21, 2021.

Germany

As of February 2020, two PPPs with imidacloprid, twelve with acetamiprid and two with thiacloprid are approved in Germany. Permitted applications include potatoes, rape, cereals, mustard, numerous types of fruit and vegetables, ornamental plants and trees and grapevines. PPPs with thiamethoxam and clothianidin are no longer permitted. Since July 21, 2015, the importation, placing on the market and sowing of seeds treated with clothianidin, imidacloprid or thiamethoxam for winter cereals has been prohibited (dressing was not permitted in Germany before).

France

On July 20, 2016, the French parliament passed a ban on certain neonicotinoids from September 1, 2018, with the possibility of derogations until July 2020. This ban affects the three substances already regulated by the EU, clothianidin , thiamethoxam and imidacloprid, and also thiacloprid and acetamiprid .

Italy

As of July 2015, 43 PPPs with imidacloprid, twelve PPPs with thiamethoxam, three PPPs with clothianidin, three PPPs with acetamiprid and seven PPPs with thiacloprid are approved in Italy.

Austria

As of February 2020, one PPP with Imidacloprid, eleven with Acetamiprid, one with Clothianidin and six with Thiacloprid are approved in Austria. PPPs with thiamethoxam are no longer permitted.

Spain

As of July 2015, 33 PPPs with imidacloprid, eight PPPs with thiamethoxam, two PPPs with clothianidin, seven PPPs with acetamiprid and seven PPPs with thiacloprid are approved in Spain.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom 2015 16 PSM with imidacloprid, four PSM with thiamethoxam, clothianidin four PSM, PSM 16 with acetamiprid and 16 PSM with thiacloprid are allowed as of July.

EU restrictions from 2013

After several studies in the last few years had indicated the risk posed by neonicotinoids to honey bees, in April 2012 the EU Commission commissioned the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to investigate these relationships. In January 2013, EFSA published an assessment of the neonicotinoids clothianidin , imidacloprid and thiamethoxam with regard to their risks for honey bees. Scientists studied the uses of these neonicotinoids for seed treatment and as granules, as well as various routes of exposure for honeybees.

Together with scientific experts from the EU Member States, the evaluation reached the following conclusions:

  • Exposure to pollen and nectar: ​​Only use on crops that are of no interest to honeybees was considered acceptable.
  • Exposure to dusts: A risk for honey bees existed or could not be excluded, with a few exceptions, such as when used for sugar beet or crops grown in greenhouses and when using some forms of granules.
  • Guttation exposure : only the risk assessment for maize treated with thiamethoxam could be completed. Field studies show an acute effect on honey bees that have been exposed to the active ingredient via guttation fluid.

Due to a lack of data, EFSA was unable to complete the risk assessment for some uses (foliar treatment). It is also important to examine the risks for other pollinators more closely.

The EU Commission then proposed a temporary restriction on the use of the three substances examined, since a high risk for honeybees cannot be ruled out without such a restriction. After the required qualified majority was not achieved in the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health, representatives of the member states voted in the Appeal Committee on April 29, 2013. 15 Member States supported the proposal, 8 voted against and 4 abstained. As no agreement was reached, the Commission implemented its proposal on May 24th (Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 485/2013).

As of December 1, 2013, clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam are only permitted for commercial applications and in certain crops for seed, soil and leaf treatments, or only after flowering, in accordance with Implementing Regulation (EU) No. 485/2013. In the regulation, the Commission undertook to undertake a review of new scientific knowledge within two years of its entry into force. In accordance with this regulation, in May 2015 EFSA publicly called for the submission of new scientific data on the effects of neonicotinoids on bees and other non-target organisms by 30 September 2015.

The following prohibitions and exceptions are particularly relevant for agriculture:

  • Wheat and barley: seed and soil treatments are only allowed if sowing takes place between July and December. Leaf treatments are prohibited.
  • Maize, rapeseed, sunflower: seed and soil treatments are prohibited. Foliar treatments are only allowed after flowering.
  • Sugar beet: Is not banned (as it is harvested before flowering).

In German agriculture, the EU restrictions only affect the treatment of seeds in oilseed rape (Cruiser OSR from October 1, 2013, Chinook, Elado, Modesto from November 30, 2013); The approvals for the seed treatment of maize have been suspended since 2008 for all neonicotinoid products previously approved for this purpose (Faibel, Cruiser 350 FS, Poncho). In France, the restrictions apply to the dressing agent Cruiser 350 (Thiamethoxam) and the granulate Cheyenne (Clothianidin) for maize. Seed treatment with Gaucho (Imidacloprid) has been prohibited for sunflowers since 1999 and for maize since 2004, and with Cruiser OSR (Thiametoxam) for oilseed rape since July 2012. Clothianidin was never approved for pickling in France.

On August 26, 2015, EFSA published assessments of the risks of clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam to bees in foliar treatments. In those cases in which the assessment could be completed, either high risks were identified or could not be excluded. In the remaining cases, the risk assessment could not be completed due to incomplete data.

An EFSA opinion on clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam published on February 28, 2018 finally confirmed the risks for wild and honey bees in field applications. This report is the basis for further approval decisions or restrictions. On April 27, 2018, the EU Commission voted to ban the use of these three active ingredients in outdoor crops. Even with this ban, exceptions have already been approved in several countries by means of emergency approval for use in certain crops. In Austria, this currently affects the federal states of Lower Austria , Upper Austria and Styria , Belgium , Poland , Hungary and the Czech Republic, which are run by the ÖVP .

discussion

The EU restrictions were largely received positively by environmental protection associations and beekeepers, while representatives of the crop protection and seed industry rated it as inappropriate.

In January 2013 the Humboldt Forum for Food and Agriculture e. V. (HFFA) a study on the value of neonicotinoids in the EU. The study was funded by Bayer CropScience and Syngenta and supported by COPA-COGECA , the European Seed Association and the European Crop Protection Association . The study examined the short and medium term effects of a possible EU-wide ban on all neonicotinoid applications on agricultural and macroeconomic value creation and employment, global prices, land use and greenhouse gas emissions. In the short term, in the first year of a possible ban, the authors estimate that agricultural or macroeconomic value added would decrease by at least € 2.8 and € 3.8 billion. The greatest economic losses would affect wheat, corn and canola cultivation in the UK, Germany, Romania and France. 22,000 jobs would be lost across the EU (mostly in Romania and Poland) and farm incomes would fall by an average of 4.7%. In the medium term, a ban over a period of 5 years would result in losses of almost € 17 billion and 27,000 jobs. By far the highest loss of income occurred in Great Britain, with most jobs being lost in Romania. The lower production as a result of a ban would also lead to higher imports of agricultural commodities into the EU. According to the HFFA study, this greater demand on the world market would mean an expansion of the global agricultural area by 3.3 million  hectares and an additional emission of 600 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalent .

According to the Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (AHDB), the restrictions for British rapeseed farmers mean an alternative control of the large rapeseed flea , the flea beetle and the green peach aphid . (The peach aphid is a carrier of the yellow beet mosaic virus , which can cause yield losses of 15-30% in untreated crops). Leaf treatment with pyrethroids and pirimicarb is presented as alternatives to seed dressing with neonicotinoids . Since the peach aphid shows clear resistance to pyrethroids, the alternative use of pymetrozine and flonicamid is suggested. Greater reliance on a limited number of insecticides can lead to resistance. Plant protection in wheat cultivation, however, is hardly affected due to the exceptions. In the case of common flax , pyrethroids are the only alternative to neonicotinoid dressing , methiocarb could be used to protect maize from stalk flies .

According to the Union for the Promotion of Oil and Protein Plants (UFOP), the implementing ordinance affects almost 100% of German rapeseed cultivation from 2014 onwards. The UFOP expects a significant increase in the intensity of treatment with less effective pesticides. and counteract environmental protection. At the same time, significant yield losses are to be expected and the economic viability of rapeseed cultivation is called into question if the autumn pests occur. German farmers each rate the decree meaningful or not meaningful. Almost half of the respondents assume there will be effects on crop protection management.

In March 2013, Bayer CropScience and Syngenta presented an action plan for bee protection, which includes the expansion of field margins, field monitoring, residue tests and exhaust air detectors on seed drills. Following the EU decision, Bayer stated that the restrictions would mean a loss in sales of € 80 million per year. In August 2013, Syngenta and Bayer filed a complaint with the European Court of Justice . They accused the EU Commission of violating EU laws and a lack of evidence of a harmful effect of neonicotinoids on honey bees. Until a decision is made by the court, the lawsuits have no effect on the implementation of the restrictions. At the end of November 2013, the British farmers' association NFU announced that Syngenta would directly support the lawsuit, as the restrictions lacked a sound scientific basis and threatened agricultural productivity. In May 2018, the European Court of Justice dismissed Bayer and Syngenta's lawsuits in full against the neonicotinoids clothianidin, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid.

The European Academies Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published an opinion on the effects of neonicotinoids on non-target organisms in April 2015. Accordingly, extensive, preventive use has negative effects on non-target organisms, which ensure pollination and natural pest control. Preventive use is also incompatible with the principles of integrated pest management. EASAC hopes that the EU Commission's report will help with its intended review of the Implementing Regulation 485/2013. Long-term risks relating to the environment and sustainable agriculture should be taken into account, as well as short-term fears that further restrictions could endanger the economy and food security.

Effects of EU restrictions
Farmers

England

At the end of September 2014, the Chemicals Regulation Directorate issued permits for leaf treatment with the products InSyst (Acetamiprid) against the large earth flea and Biscaya (Thiacloprid) against the green peach aphid.

In an AHDB survey of more than 1,300 British rapeseed farmers carried out at the end of 2014, 11% of those questioned stated that the rapeseed area they had sown would have been larger in the current growing season without the restrictions. The specified additional rapeseed areas correspond to 38,000 ha at national level. In addition, the respondents lost around 5% of their rapeseed area by December 1, 2014 due to damage from the rapeseed flea (against which neonicotinoid treatments were used before the restrictions). 1.5% of this area was successfully re-sown by December 1st. The remaining 3.5% correspond to losses of 22,000 ha at the national level. The East of England was hardest hit . Because the survey was conducted at the beginning of the growing season, it was unable to provide any information about possible damage from flea larvae at a later date.

After intensive lobbying efforts by the English Farmers' Union (NFU), the British Ministry of Agriculture issued a special permit in July 2015 for the Modesto PSM and Cruiser OSR for seed treatment of rapeseed. The exemption is valid for about 30,000 hectares in the east of England (approx. 5% of the English rapeseed area) for 120 days.

In August 2015, scientists from Newcastle University published a study for Rural Business Research that examined the consequences of the restrictions on rapeseed cultivation in England. A survey of farms showed that after the restrictions on the control of the rapeseed flea, 2.5 times more insecticides were used in autumn than before. 17% of the farmers suffered crop losses due to the rapeseed flea, which corresponds to 16,000 hectares or 3% of the rapeseed area. The cost of the insecticides and their use, as well as losses, were estimated at £ 22 million.

Bees

According to Nature (May 2015), no studies have been carried out on the effects of the restrictions on bees.

Switzerland

As of February 2020, ten PPPs with imidacloprid, six PPPs with thiamethoxam, 24 PPPs with acetamiprid and 17 PPPs with thiacloprid are approved in Switzerland. No PPPs are permitted with clothianidin.

In 2013, the Swiss Federal Office for Agriculture planned to suspend the approval for the three insecticides imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiametoxam for the treatment of rapeseed and maize seeds in line with the EU.

Canada

In Ontario, a regulation came into force on July 1, 2015, which provides for future regulations for the use of clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam as dressing agents for soybean and corn seeds. The provisions include compulsory training in integrated pest management . As part of an ongoing re-assessment of the risks of neonicotinoids to pollinators, Health Canada issued a preliminary assessment of imidacloprid in January 2016. Based on its existing knowledge, Health Canada concluded that foliar applications pose minimal risks, soil applications in tomatoes and strawberries pose potential risks in some soil types and types of application, and there are no risks related to dressings. This competent federal authority has regulated the active ingredients clothianidin and thiamethoxam from August 2018 with the aim of completely banning them in 5 years (i.e. 2023). Until then, the farmers can examine alternatives in the application. The license for Imidacloprid has already expired in 5 years at the latest. According to the authorities' findings, all three substances contaminate the water and kill organisms living there or inhibit their fertility.

Further development

Structure of NMI

Neonicotinoids are poorly effective against butterflies . Therefore, an attempt is made on the basis of nitromethylene - analogue of imidacloprid (NMI) to synthesize derivatives with better efficacy.

Individual evidence

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  43. ↑ Thiacloprid insecticide is banned in Europe. In: ec.europa.eu . January 13, 2020, accessed January 13, 2020 .
  44. ↑ Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/23 of the Commission of January 13, 2020 (PDF; 376 kB)
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  49. ↑ Registro de Productos Fitosanitarios . Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente, July 24, 2015.
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  60. ↑ Arrêté du 24 juillet 2012 relatif à l'interdiction d'utilisation et de mise sur le marché pour utilization sur le territoire national des semences de crucifères oléagineuses traitées avec des produits phytopharmaceutiques contenant la substance active thiametoxam , JORF n ° 0172 du 26 juillet 2012 page 12246, text n ° 26.
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