Rudolf Schulten

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Rudolf Schulten (1968)

Rudolf Schulten (born August 16, 1923 in Oeding , † April 27, 1996 in Aachen ) was a German physicist and visionary of an energy industry that is shaped by cutting-edge nuclear technology .

Schulten was convinced that, in the long term, the need for electrical energy , heating / process heat and fuel will be largely covered by nuclear energy and solar energy , both converted for use into electrical power or chemical energy, especially hydrogen ( hydrogen economy ). The postulate of economical use of energy sources also applied to him for nuclear fuel .

Schulten developed the nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor , in which he saw the possibility of efficient and safe use of nuclear energy in the electricity as well as in the heating / process heat and in the fuel market, always pointing out that the electricity market was only about 20% and the heat and Fuel market make up about 80% of the energy market . Schulten proposed replacing the transport of electricity (with its storage problems) with the transport of energy using hydrogen, including synthesis gas (both produced using nuclear energy).

In its obituary for Rudolf Schulten on May 6, 1996, Der Spiegel wrote: "He wanted to turn nuclear power plants into 'normal technology'."

Stations

Rudolf Schulten was born on August 16, 1923, the son of the textile manufacturer Franz Schulten, into a Westphalian, Catholic family, which has shaped his thinking, feeling and acting throughout his life. After his return from the war , in which he was wounded, he studied mathematics and physics at the University of Bonn from 1945 to 1949, graduating as a mathematician. It was founded in 1952 by Werner Heisenberg , and Richard Becker at the University of Göttingen with a thesis on calculations of the magnetic moments and quadrupole moments of some light nuclei to Dr. rer. nat. PhD . Until 1956 he was a scientific assistant to Werner Heisenberg and Karl Wirtz at the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Göttingen. He was a member of the study group for reactor physics that Wirtz had put together in 1953 in line with the Atoms for Peace speech by US President Eisenhower, which was actually not allowed before the German treaty of the Paris Treaties of May 5, 1955 , and which in reality was already a planning group for reactor design.

From 1956 Schulten worked in industry at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) in Mannheim, where he set up the reactor development department, of which he was the head. From 1957 to 1961 Schulten was managing director of a joint venture between Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) and Friedrich Krupp AG to plan a nuclear power plant. From 1961 to 1964 Schulten was managing director of Brown Boveri / Krupp Reaktorbau GmbH (BBK) in Mannheim. In 1957 Schulten became a lecturer for nuclear energy generation and reactor design and in 1961 honorary professor for reactor physics , both at the Technical University of Karlsruhe .

From 1964 until his retirement in 1989 Schulten was full professor of the chair for reactor technology at the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen and at the same time director at the institute for reactor development of the former nuclear research facility Jülich . From 1973 to 1974 Schulten was Dean of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and from 1983 to 1985 Vice Rector for Research and Technology, both at RWTH Aachen University. From 1969 to 1985 Schulten was chairman of the Scientific and Technical Council of KFA Jülich for eight years with interruptions .

From 1965 to 1970 Schulten was the head of the THTR-300 prototype reactor project for the THTR Association ( EURATOM , BBK, KFA) .

From 1981 to 1984 Schulten was a member of the Reactor Safety Commission (RSK) of the German Federal Government and of the RSK committees “light water reactors” and “high temperature reactors”.

From 1958 to 1995 Schulten was initially co-editor and then a member of the editorial board of the trade journal "atw - atomwirtschaft - atomtechnik" (today "atw - International Journal for Nuclear Power"), the official technical and news bulletin of the Kerntechnische Gesellschaft eV

Rudolf Schulten was married to Elisabeth geb. Stützel from Düsseldorf . The Schulten couple have a daughter and two sons, including Dr. rer. pole. Rudolf Schulten, Senior Adviser to Roland Berger Strategy Consultants , formerly Head of Department of the Berlin electricity supplier BEWAG , Commercial Director of GASAG Berliner Gaswerke Aktiengesellschaft , Chairman of the Management Board of MVV Energie AG , Mannheim, and Chief Financial Officer of EnBW Energie Baden-Württemberg AG , Stuttgart.

Act

Beginning and searching

From 1955 Schulten was involved in the planning of the first German nuclear reactor, the Research Reactor 2 , which was built by the Reaktorbau- und -betriebsgesellschaft mbH in Karlsruhe, founded in 1956 . That is why Schulten stayed several times in the USA, especially at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory , and in Great Britain to study current nuclear reactor developments. This already happened in 1954, forbidden before the German Treaty of the Paris Treaties of May 5, 1955, through which the Federal Republic of Germany was allowed to research and develop the civil use of nuclear energy.

Geneva nuclear conference

In the early 1950s, fear of energy shortages arose around the world. The Germans saw their economic miracle in danger. At the 1st International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy from August 8 to 20, 1955 in Geneva, in which Germany was allowed to participate after the end of its occupation status on May 5, 1955, the civilian use of nuclear energy was presented as a solution for overcoming the alleged energy shortage identified. The German delegation consisted of 68 members, mostly scientists, as well as some representatives from the federal ministries and business. 32-year-old Schulten attended the conference.

The German participants were appalled by the deficit that Germany had in terms of knowledge of the civil use of nuclear energy. Science, in agreement with politics, suggested that all forces should be pooled in Germany in order to overcome this deficit. A time of new beginnings in terms of nuclear energy followed everywhere, across all social groups.

Rudolf Schulten also felt called upon to take action to realize the civil use of nuclear energy, in the electricity, heating / process heating and fuel markets, as the conference in Geneva had called for.

Thorium-uranium fuel cycle

Schulten decided from the start in favor of the thorium-uranium cycle and against the uranium-plutonium cycle as used in the LWR light water reactor . He pursued the possibility of producing the nuclear fuel uranium-233 from the breeding material thorium-232 in the nuclear reactor and using it in situ without forming plutonium. One reason was the generally feared rise in the price of the natural nuclear fuel uranium-235 due to its alleged shortage due to demand. Thorium is about two to three times as abundant as uranium in the earth's crust. Schulten also had fundamental reservations about the health risks posed by plutonium . The latest developments today see the thorium-uranium fuel cycle in molten salt reactors more feasible, also continuously fed like the pebble bed reactor.

Experimental reactor AVR

Rudolf Schulten and Werner Cautius in the AVR control room

In 1956 Schulten was given the task of developing a nuclear power plant for the municipal energy supplier Stadtwerke Düsseldorf . His counterpart there was Werner Cautius , technical director of the electricity works at Stadtwerke Düsseldorf. Cautius wanted a nuclear power plant with the level of efficiency and availability that are common with fossil-fuel power plants .

For Schulten, the solution was the nuclear power plant with a high-temperature reactor (HTR) in the form of a continuously operated pebble bed reactor with graphite balls , which are both a fuel element matrix and moderator , and with helium as the coolant. The reactor core of the high-temperature reactor only uses ceramic building materials to prevent a core meltdown . Farrington Daniels presented the idea of ​​the pebble bed reactor in the 1940s. Schulten picked up on this idea during his visits to Alvin Weinberg at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

In 1957, at Schulten's suggestion, Cautius decided on a nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor, operated with the thorium-uranium cycle. 1959 commissioned the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor GmbH, Düsseldorf, the BBC-Krupp-Reaktorbau GmbH with the construction of a nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor with an output of 15 MW. The shareholders of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor GmbH were 16 municipal electricity suppliers under the leadership of Stadtwerke Düsseldorf.

From 1957 Schulten was responsible for the planning and from 1959 to 1964 for the construction of the pebble bed reactor nuclear power plant experimental nuclear power plant AVR of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor GmbH in Jülich in the direct vicinity of the KFA nuclear research facility Jülich. The scientist Schulten and the designers at Brown Boveri / Krupp Reaktorbau GmbH (BBK) created the AVR experimental nuclear power plant. It went into operation in 1967 with an installed electrical output of 15 MW.

The AVR was used to test the pebble pile principle and to test the spherical fuel elements with different fuel and debris loads, especially the behavior of the fuel elements in relation to temperature peaks and mechanical stress.

Until the shutdown of the AVR on December 31, 1988, Schulten had scientific influence on the operation, especially on the experiments with the experimental nuclear power plant. At Schulten's instigation, the AVR was operated for 14 years from 1974 onwards with an outlet temperature of the heated helium of 950 ° C.

Prototype reactor THTR

Schulten has been building a comparatively large prototype of a pebble bed reactor since 1962. His considerations and planning led to the prototype reactor THTR-300 with an electrical output of 308 MW, which was finally built in Schmehausen near Hamm in North Rhine-Westphalia . The owner and operator of the THTR 300 was the Hoch Temperatur-Kernkraftwerk GmbH (HKG) Joint European Company, a merger of the United Elektrizitätswerke Westfalen AG (VEW) under Klaus Knizia with the community power station Weser , Elektromark Kommunales Elektrizitätswerk Mark AG , Joint Works Hattingen , Stadtwerke Bremen AG and Stadtwerke Aachen AG .

Schulten also planned the thorium-uranium cycle for the THTR high-temperature thorium reactor.

Schulten and his institute at KFA Jülich played a key role in the physical and technical design of the THTR. Large components for the pebble bed reactor were tested at the THTR, such as the reactor pressure vessel made of prestressed concrete , which was intended to prevent rupture , as an alternative to the reactor pressure vessel made of steel with a risk of bursting, as used in the light water reactor . The THTR was basically an experimental nuclear power plant.

Schulten had no influence on the dates of the hesitant construction phase of the THTR, which only supplied electricity to the network in 1985, and he was unable to prevent this prototype power plant from being decommissioned in 1989 after only about three years of operation.

Project: "Nuclear process heat"

Initiated by the 1st International Conference on the Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy in Geneva in August 1955 and strengthened by the Club of Rome's findings on the limits to growth in 1972 and the oil price crises in 1973 and 1979/80 , Rudolf Schulten developed into the 1980s Concepts such as the high-temperature heat from the pebble bed reactor can be used to refine lignite and hard coal , also from biomass to gas, and for the thermochemical generation of hydrogen from water and thus make a contribution to the heating and fuel market.

Schulten suggested using the well-known and proven methods of gasification of lignite, hard coal and biomass to cover the energy requirement by using nuclear-generated heat at high temperatures from the pebble bed reactor (“Nuclear gasification” project). The gas produced can be used for the heating market and for the fuel market, but also for the direct reduction of iron ore.

Schulten also developed a technology to convert the nuclear energy from the pebble bed reactor into chemical energy from gas in order to transport and store the energy by means of gas (project "Nuclear remote energy": ADAM-EVA cycle process with the aid of endothermic methane splitting on the one hand and exothermic methanation) on the other hand with the transport and storage medium synthesis gas ). He suggested that this would help to avoid the problem of large-scale storage of electricity.

Until 1989 Schulten was an active member of the steering committee of the projects "Nuclear Gasification" and "Nuclear Remote Energy". Schulten set up two test systems for coal gasification, two test systems for the cycle process of energy transport by means of gas (methane splitting and methanation) and a test system for the production of fuel from natural gas.

Schulten initiated the Collaborative Research Center 163 "Use of process heat from high-temperature reactors" for the production of hydrogen by the German Research Foundation . For reasons of economy, he suggested that hydrogen should not be obtained from the pebble bed reactor via the detour of electricity, but directly by thermochemical splitting of water using heat at high temperature and that it should be made available for the heating and fuel market.

Schulten subsumed the projects mentioned under the heading of nuclear process heat . With the pebble bed reactor PR 500 with a thermal output of 500 MW, he developed the concept of a pebble bed reactor with which an outlet temperature of the helium coolant of 1000 ° C can be achieved.

For many years, Schulten and his employees at KFA Jülich and RWTH Aachen University worked together with all well-known German companies in the coal and gas industry and the supply industry for large-scale energy technology on the "Projects of Nuclear Process Heat".

Other developments

Schulten developed concepts for how a nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor can be built and operated underground.

Schulten planned combined heat and power plants with a pebble bed reactor to achieve very high levels of efficiency for the supply of district heating in metropolitan areas, for "nuclear district energy", for the steam supply for large chemical industries, for the thermo-chemical production of hydrogen, for seawater desalination and for the extraction of petroleum.

In the early 1970s, Schulten was involved in the development of an HTR nuclear power plant with a helium turbine (HHT project) in a closed gas circuit ( single circuit system ). This investment concept should reduce the investment costs. Schulten expressed reservations about the technical feasibility.

In 1970 - before the IIASA near Vienna was founded - Schulten suggested developing instruments for applied systems analysis with which the possibilities and advantages of using nuclear energy in the electricity, heating / process heat and fuel markets could be evaluated, applicable to different requirements different countries and regions.

Ideas for optimizing reactor safety

Rudolf Schulten

Rudolf Schulten's most important planning principle was that the HTR reactor for energy generation and the helium circuit for heat dissipation should be located as a closed system in the pressure vessel, from which no helium can escape. Then the HTR would be superior to all other nuclear power plant designs in terms of safety.

Since the late 1960s, triggered by the discussion of a nuclear power plant on the premises of BASF , Ludwigshafen , and 1979 picks up after the accident of the nuclear power plant Three Mile Iceland , emphasized Schulten that the nuclear power plant with pebble bed reactor particularly good security features have. In the discussion about the BASF nuclear power plant, Heinrich Mandel referred to the reservations in the USA about operating nuclear power plants with light water reactors because of the remaining probability of a serious accident in the vicinity of large cities. Schulten pursued the maxim “security over economy”.

The good safety features of the pebble bed reactor were for Schulten mainly due to the thermal insensitivity of the fuel of the pebble bed reactor through the ceramic coated fuel particles ( English coated particles ). Schulten understood the coated particles as robust mini- containments in which the radioactive material - broken down into mini-quantities, thus into mini-risks - is "packaged". He suggested removing the decay heat from the spherical fuel elements by radiation and conduction, not by active cooling, in order to prevent the fuel elements from melting if the active cooling fails. For this purpose, he designed a suitably dimensioned arrangement of the fuel elements.

These findings were implemented in the planning of the nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor in the 200 MW class as an HTR module for densely populated urban areas. Schulten supported this project planning as well as the transfer of the safety features of the module to large power plants. Finally, Schulten made it clear that the pebble bed reactor, which is fed continuously, does not require any excess capacity of fissile material in the reactor core to compensate for the nuclear burn-up - with the associated risk - as is necessary with discontinuously fed nuclear reactors.

Ideas for optimizing the burn-up

In the 1970s, Schulten investigated to achieve a high burn-up , i.e. H. a long dwell time of the spherical fuel elements in the nuclear reactor , many variants of the loading and the fuel enrichment of the pebble bed reactor up to a single loading with low enrichment (OTTO principle, "once-through-then-out").

Due to the long residence time of the fuel elements in the nuclear power plant, the specific costs of the treatment of the spent fuel elements can be significantly reduced, right through to considerations of the direct disposal of the removed fuel elements. The low enrichment should rule out the misuse of the nuclear fuel for nuclear weapons .

meaning

Large European project

Through Schulten's research and development, significant knowledge about the physics and technology of nuclear reactors as well as material science and process engineering of high-temperature processes was acquired. Government institutions and companies from the United Kingdom, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland and Germany were involved in the development of the pebble bed reactor, especially the fuel elements, under his spiritual guidance, with substantial support from EURATOM.

Standards for safety

With its stipulation, Schulten has to guarantee the safety of a nuclear power plant as much as possible through a design based on natural law, i.e. H. If possible without technically active facilities, standards were set for the discussion on the safety of the use of nuclear energy. He called for nuclear power plants in which a release of their radioactive inventory for whatever reason is not only improbable, but also impossible. The bursting of the reactor pressure vessel should be excluded. Schulten believed that he could meet these requirements with the pebble bed reactor.

On the way to the demonstration nuclear power plant

During the development of a nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor, Schulten was able to realize the test nuclear power plant AVR and the prototype nuclear power plant THTR, both of which bear his signature.

It was not possible for him to develop the nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor until it was ready for the market. The supraregional electricity supply companies (EVU) in Germany, above all RWE AG (formerly Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk AG) under Heinrich Mandel , had made friends with the light water reactor at the beginning of the 1960s . By 1969 at the latest, after the 652 MWel nuclear power plant Oyster Creek (USA) with boiling water reactor went into operation, the supraregional power supply companies finally decided on nuclear power plants with light water reactors, mainly because of the comparatively low plant costs at the time . Competition with other types of nuclear reactors was not seen; instead, the competition between light water reactors and coal, oil and natural gas power plants attracted a great deal of attention from the utility companies. According to HTR proponents, another major European technology for generating electricity from nuclear energy was not desired by the supraregional EVUs and could not be represented by the regional EVUs, especially not one with higher system costs at the time, as was the case with the nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor . The EVU Vereinigte Elektrizitätswerke Westfalen AG (VEW) was an exception, for which “the successful commissioning and operation of the THTR-300” should be a prerequisite for its “positive decision” about the HTR. The poor operating experience with the THTR-300 and its early shutdown caused by it all meant that interest in the HTR waned. On top of that, the AVR and THTR came too late with their commissioning in 1967 and 1985.

A commercial demonstration nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor with thorium-uranium cycle, which could have taken into account the experience gained at the test nuclear power plant AVR and the prototype nuclear power plant THTR and the recommendations developed, did not materialize. Based on the work of Rudolf Schulten and his employees as well as the experiences and recommendations, further ideas for a demonstration nuclear power plant with a pebble bed reactor for the electricity, heating / process heat and / or fuel market were developed.

Proof of feasibility "nuclear process heat"

Schulten was able to demonstrate the feasibility of feeding high-temperature heat and electricity from the pebble bed reactor into the technical processes of gasifying coal and splitting methane and for transporting and storing nuclear energy using synthesis gas instead of electricity. Schulten was not able to implement prototype systems or even demonstration systems. The coal and gas industries were unwilling to invest in such facilities.

Ideas about the safety optimization of the fuel chain

Schulten pointed out that the problem of highly radioactive waste from nuclear power plants is a problem of quality and not a problem of quantity, based on the high energy density of nuclear energy. Schulten noted that the energy content of 1 gram of nuclear fuel (with the fission production of 1 gram of fission and decay products → quality) corresponds to the energy content of 3 tons of coal (with the combustion production of 9 tons of CO 2 → quantity).

Schulten suggested that the combination of chemical reprocessing for the recovery of the recovered plutonium with the physical processes of spallation and transmutation be pursued for light water reactors for the treatment of high-level waste and that it be developed for commercial use, taking into account the operational and safety risks of such systems. Because of the low volume of high-level waste, based on the energy density of nuclear energy, Schulten declared an above-ground interim storage of high-level waste until the methods of treatment and disposal were finally worked out to be technically feasible and economically viable.

Schulten called for the consideration of a higher-level safety concept for the entire fuel chain from ore mining to enrichment and fission in the nuclear reactor to the disposal of the nuclear waste, but also to make it impossible to obtain material for nuclear weapons from the spent fuel elements using nuclear energy . From the mid-1980s onwards, he referred to the potential of the pebble bed reactor, the nuclear-energy burned spherical fuel elements without dismantling, i.e. H. to be disposed of in its entirety. He provided evidence that in the pebble bed reactor with a long service life of the fuel elements with direct use of the fuel U233, an external reprocessing for the production of the fuel uranium-233, i.e. H. a further development of the Thorex process for high temperature reactors, similar to the PUREX process for light water reactors, is not required. Schulten was of the opinion that the graphite spheres with their ceramic-coated fuel particles, because of their strength and tightness, allow final storage at great geological depths of a few kilometers, very far from the biosphere, without treatment. A comparison of the costs of direct final disposal of the graphite spheres with the spent fuel at the HTR, i. H. Without chemical and physical treatment, on the one hand, and the final storage of the spent fuel after chemical and physical treatment at the LWR, on the other hand, taking into account the risks, did not take place.

International activities

After the power plants with the pebble bed reactor AVR and THTR were shut down at the end of the 1980s, Schulten provided international advice and journalism. Until his death in 1996, Schulten supported the commitment to the pebble bed reactor outside of Germany:

Above all, Schulten advised in the People's Republic of China , where the first decisions about the expansion of the supply of electricity and natural gas were made. This activity was not restricted by the June 1989 declaration on China by the European Council with its military embargo. At the Tsinghua University in Beijing, the HTR-10 test reactor with 10 MW thermal output was built in the late 1990s based on the HTR module concept developed by Siemens; it mainly served extensive security tests. In 2012, the construction of a double-block system consisting of two pebble bed reactors (also HTR modules) with 250 MW thermal output each on a shared turbo set with 211 MW installed electrical output at the Shidaowan location near the coastal city of Rongcheng in the east Chinese province of Shandong began. It was supposed to go into operation in 2016, after delays, test runs began in August 2018.

From 1982 Schulten informed South Africa about the pebble bed reactor, already during the apartheid government. Due to the international arms embargo of 1963 and the international oil embargo of 1987 on South Africa, suppliers of nuclear facilities were not prepared to cooperate. In 1990, a study by the South African government asked whether the pebble bed reactor, because of its low-noise operation, could be used as a drive for submarines , and also to support the then existing nuclear armament in the country , with the result that because of the low power density and the associated large construction volume, this reactor is not suitable for this. This confirmed the development in other countries, namely that the compact light water reactor in particular offers itself as an energy source for submarines, albeit with the acceptance of its safety deficit. With the end of the apartheid regime in 1993/94, the civil reactor project PBMR arose in South Africa, a pebble bed reactor with a helium turbine in a cycle . The project was terminated in 2010 because of its doubted feasibility and a lack of funding.

University professor

The university professor Schulten supervised around 400 diploma theses and around 300 dissertations , most of the dissertations by scientists from the KFA Jülich or from industry. The work dealt with technical, physical or economic tasks in connection with an efficient, safe and inexpensive provision of nuclear energy in the electricity, as well as in the heat and fuel markets.

Honors

Fonts

  • Rudolf Schulten, Wernfried Güth: Reactor Physics (2 volumes). Bibliographisches Institut Mannheim, BI University Pocket Books, Volume 1: The reactor in stationary operation , 1960; Volume 2: The reactor in non-stationary operation , 1962.
  • Kurt Kugeler , Rudolf Schulten: high temperature reactor technology. Springer Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg 1989, ISBN 978-3-642-52333-5 .

literature

  • Thomas Hacker: Prof. Dr. Rudolf Schulten (1923-1996), nuclear physicist and "father" of the high-temperature reactor. In: Westmünsterländische Biografien 3 (History in Westmünsterland / Contributions from the Society for Historical Regional Studies of the Western Münsterland eV), Achterland, Vreden, 2019, pp. 351-360.
  • Peter Armbruster:  Schulten, Rudolf. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 23, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-428-11204-3 , p. 692 ( digitized version ).
  • Rudolf Schulten , in: Internationales Biographisches Archiv 48/1986 of November 17, 1986, in the Munzinger Archive ( beginning of article freely accessible).

Web links

Commons : Rudolf Schulten  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Brief CV. Werner-von-Siemens-Ring Foundation, accessed on November 17, 2018 .
  2. ^ Rudolf Schulten: Energy supply of the world - The facts. In: Wolfgang Heintzeler, Hermann-Josef Werhahn: Energy and Conscience. Seewald, 1981.
  3. ↑ a b c Rudolf Schulten: Speech on the occasion of the award of the Otto Hahn Prize of the City of Frankfurt am Main to Prof. Dr. Rudolf Schulten on March 14, 1972 in the Imperial Hall of the Römers. The Otto Hahn Foundation of the City of Frankfurt am Main, Office for Science, Art and Public Education of the City of Frankfurt am Main, 1972.
  4. ^ A b Udo Hergenröder: Rudolf Schulten. In: Men who invent success. Econ, 1970.
  5. ↑ a b Urban Cleve: Technology of the high temperature reactors. 21st conference of the KTG specialist group “Use of Nuclear Technology” at RWE AG's Biblis NPP, April 5, 2009.
  6. ↑ a b c d Ulrich Kirchner: The high temperature reactor - conflicts, interests, decisions. Campus Research Volume 667, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt / New York 1991.
  7. ↑ Kurt Kugeler , Rudolf Schulten: high temperature reactor technology. Springer, Heidelberg 1989.
  8. ↑ Kurt Kugeler , Helmut Neis, Günter Ballensiefen: Advances in Energy Technology - Prof. Dr. Rudolf Schulten on his 70th birthday. Monographs from Forschungszentrum Jülich, Volume 8, 1993.
  9. ↑ DIED: Rudolf Schulten . In: Der Spiegel . No. 19 , 1996 ( online ).
  10. ↑ Dissertation on obtaining a doctorate from the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences at the Georg-August University in Göttingen, submitted by Rudolf Schulten (speaker Werner Heisenberg, co-speaker Richard Becker), Göttingen 1952, oral examination November 14, 1952.
  11. ↑ R. Schulten: Calculation of the magnetic moments, quadrupole moments and magnetic states of some light nuclei. In: Journal of Nature Research A . 14, 1959, pp. 759-775 ( online ).
  12. ↑ s: en: Atoms for Peace Speech, President Eisenhower, December 8, 1953
  13. ↑ Annual table of contents atw 1957-1981. (PDF) Retrieved November 17, 2018 (see pp. 17, 36).
  14. ↑ Annual table of contents atw 1990–1999. (PDF) Retrieved November 17, 2018 (see pp. 135, 154).
  15. ↑ Bernd-A. Rusinek: The Research Center - A History of the KFA Jülich from its foundation to 1980. Campus Verlag, 1996.
  16. ↑ Rudolf Schulten: The use of nuclear fuels in the future nuclear industry. The Prime Minister of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia - State Office for Research -, Yearbook 1964, p. 517.
  17. ↑ Rudolf Schulten: The importance of thorium reactors for nuclear technology. Research Working Group of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, issue 165, 1966.
  18. ↑ Molten salt reactor
  19. ↑ Can Europe be the first to build an MSR reactor? International Thorium Organization, November 25, 2015, archived from the original on December 8, 2015 .;
  20. ^ Farrington Daniels : Neutronic reactor system. Patent US2809931, filed in 1945, granted in 1957.
  21. ↑ Stadtwerke Aachen AG, City of Bonn, Stadtwerke Bremen AG, Stadtwerke Düsseldorf AG, Stadtwerke Duisburg AG, Oberhessischeversorgung AG Friedberg, Elektromark Kommunales Elektrizitätswerk Mark AG Hagen, Stadtwerke Hannover AG, Elektrizitätswerk Minden-Ravensberg GmbH Herford, Stadtwerke Kiel AG, Städtische Werke Krefeld AG, Stadtwerke Mannheim AG, City of Munich, Stadtwerke Würzburg AG, Wuppertaler Stadtwerke AG, Bergische Elektrizitätsversorgungs-GmbH Wuppertal.
  22. ^ Egon Ziermann, Günter Ivens: Final report on the power operation of the AVR experimental nuclear power plant. Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH / Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor (AVR) GmbH, reports from Forschungszentrum Jülich 3448, October 1997.
  23. ↑ Dieter Rittscher, Herbert Hollmann: 50 years AVR. AVR GmbH, 2009.
  24. ↑ VDI: AVR - Experimental High-Temperature Reaktor - 21 Years of Successful Operation for a Future Energy Technology. VDI-Verlag, 1990.
  25. ^ Christian Küppers, Lothar Hahn, Volker Heinzel, Leopold Weil: The AVR experimental reactor - development, operation and accidents . Final report of the AVR expert group. Ed .: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH and Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor GmbH. April 11, 2014 ( fz-juelich.de [PDF]).
  26. ^ Egon Ziermann, Günter Ivens: Final report on the power operation of the AVR experimental nuclear power plant. Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH / Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor (AVR) GmbH, reports from Forschungszentrum Jülich 3448, October 1997, p. 83.
  27. ↑ Rolf Schulten, Günther Dibelius, Werner Wenzel: Future application of the nuclear heat. Working group for research of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, issue 185, 1968.
  28. ^ KFA Jülich, RBW Cologne: Nukleare Fernenergie, summarizing report on the Nuclear Remote Energy Project (NFE). Jül-Spez-303, March 1985.
  29. ↑ Karl Verfondern (ed.): Nuclear Energy for Hydrogen Production. Writings from Forschungszentrum Jülich, Volume 58, 2007.
  30. ↑ Rudolf Schulten (ed.), Reinhold Pitt (edit.) Et al .: Use of nuclear energy to refine fossil fuels, to manufacture steel and chemical products and to generate electrical energy. Research reports of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, No. 2626: Section Mining, Energy, 1977.
  31. ↑ Vladimir Maly, Rudolf Schulten, Eberhard Teuchert: 500 MW (th) pebble bed reactor for process heat in one-way charging. atw Atomwirtschaft 17, 1972, p. 216.
  32. ↑ a b Hans Bonka, Bruno Baltes: The high temperature reactor with intermediate circuit, use of nuclear energy for refining fossil fuels for the production of steel and chemical products and electrical energy to recover. Research reports of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, No. 2626: Section Mining, Energy, 1977, p. 32.
  33. ↑ Werner Fröhling, G. Ballensiefen: Special Issue on the High-Temperature Reactor and Nuclear Process Heat Applications. Nuclear Engineering and Design, Volume 78, No. 2, 1984, pp. 87-300.
  34. ^ Hermann Krämer, H. Harder, Hans-Henning Hennies: HTR further development for single-circuit systems and for the use of process heat. atw Atomwirtschaft 19, 1974, p. 390.
  35. ^ Joachim Radkau: Atomic energy: RWE writes a wish list. In: Zeit Online. June 12, 2014, accessed February 25, 2015 .
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  37. ^ Hubertus Nickel, Heinz Nabielek, Günther Pott, Alfred Wilhelm Mehner: Long time experience with the development of HTR fuel elements in Germany. Nuclear Engineering and Design, Volume 217, Number 1, August 2002, pp. 141-151.
  38. ^ Heinz Nabielek, Mark Mitchell: Graphite and Ceramic Coated Particles for the HTR. In: H.-T. Lin, A. Gyekenyesi, L. An, S. Mathur, T. Ohji (Eds.): Advanced Materials for Sustainable Development. Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings, Volume 31. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA 2010, doi: 10.1002 / 9780470944080.ch7 .
  39. ↑ Fabrice Guittonneau: Développement de stratégies de gestion du combustibles HTR. Thèse de Doctorat Université de Nantes UFR Sciences et Techniques, October 28, 2009.
  40. ↑ Isidor Weißbrot: The KWU Group's high-temperature reactor MODULE concept for the heating market. Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen 32, p. 825 (Oct. 1982).
  41. ↑ Herbert Reuther, Günther Lohnert: The Modular High-Temperature Reactor. Nuclear Technology , Vol. 62 (July 1983), pp. 22-30.
  42. ^ Eberhard Teuchert, Hans-Jochem Rütten, KA Haas: Computational representation of the HTR module reactor. Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, ISR, Jül-2618, May 1992.
  43. ↑ Yuliang Sun: Investigations into the transfer of the safety properties of the module reactor to a large power reactor. Report of the Jülich Juel-2585 nuclear research facility, February 1992.
  44. ↑ Rudolf Schulten u. a .: Industrial nuclear power plant with high temperature reactor PR 500 - "OTTO principle" - for the generation of process steam. Jülich nuclear research facility, Jül-941-RG, April 1973.
  45. ↑ Vladimir Maly, Rudolf Schulten, Eberhard Teuchert: Disposable pebble bed reactor as an upconverter in the thorium cycle. atw Atomwirtschaft 19, 1974, p. 601.
  46. ↑ Hans Bonka, Bruno Baltes: The high-temperature reactor with an intermediate circuit . Use of nuclear energy to refine fossil fuels, to manufacture steel and chemical products and to generate electrical energy, Research Reports of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, No. 2626: Fachgruppe Bergbau, Energie, 1977.
  47. ^ Obituary for Rudolf Schulten. atw Atomwirtschaft 41, 1996, p. 439.
  48. ^ Heinrich Mandel : The development of power generation possibilities and the entrepreneurial risk of the electricity industry. Working Group for Research of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia, Issue 137, 1964.
  49. ↑ Dietrich Schwarz: Application potential, costs and safety aspects of the HTR from the perspective of the EVU. Conference report "Safety of HTR", 19. – 20. March 1985, report from KFA Jülich.
  50. ↑ Jürgen Altes, Werner Katscher, Rainer Moormann : Selected experimental and analytical work on the safety of HTR. In: Kurt Kugeler , Helmut Neis, Günter Ballensiefen: Advances in Energy Technology - Prof. Dr. Rudolf Schulten on his 70th birthday. Monographs from Forschungszentrum Jülich, Volume 8, 1993, p. 309.
  51. ^ Rainer Moormann : A safety re-evaluation of the AVR prototype pebble bed reactor operation and consequences for future reactors . Ed .: Forschungszentrum Jülich (=  reports from Forschungszentrum Jülich . No. 4275 ). 2008, ISSN  0944-2952 ( archive.org [PDF]).
  52. ^ Rainer Moormann: AVR prototype pebble bed reactor: A safety re-evaluation of its operation and consequences for future reactors. Kerntechnik, 74, 2009, pp. 1–2 ( Online, ( Memento from July 19, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) PDF).
  53. ^ Rainer Moormann: PBR safety revisited . In: Nuclear Engineering International . April 1, 2009 (English, neimagazine.com ).
  54. ↑ Rainer Moormann: Disaster-free Jülich pebble bed reactors, opportunity or myth? In: 8th Open Academy 2013, conference proceedings, ISBN 978-3-941194-11-3 , pp. 75–80.
  55. ^ Christian Küppers, Lothar Hahn, Volker Heinzel, Leopold Weil: The AVR experimental reactor - development, operation and accidents. Final report of the AVR expert group, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH / Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor (AVR) GmbH, April 1, 2014 ( online ( memento from August 1, 2014 in the Internet Archive )).
  56. ^ Albert Koster: Pebble Bed Reactor - Safety in perspective . In: Nuclear Engineering International . May 29, 2009 (English, neimagazine.com ).
  57. ↑ Rüdiger Bäumer: THTR-300 - experience with an advanced technology. atomwirtschaft, May 1989, pp. 222-228.
  58. ↑ Klaus Knizia : The THTR-300 - A wasted opportunity? atw, vol. 2002, issue 2 (February), pp. 1–8.
  59. ^ Dietrich Schwarz: Core process technology 1st lecture script, Dortmund 2003 ( online ).
  60. ↑ Hot balls. Der Spiegel, 1981 ( online ).
  61. ^ Obituary for Rudolf Schulten. Der Spiegel, 1994 ( online ).
  62. ^ Dietrich Knoche, Markus Esch (Westinghouse): Nuclear Options for Process Heat Applications. 2010, archive file 2010: 2010-03-6.pdf
  63. ↑ Urban Cleve: Technology and future possible uses of nuclear high-temperature reactors. FUSION, Research and Science for the 21st Century, Volume 32, Issue 1, 2011.
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  81. ^ Schulten doctoral students as lecturer or co-supervisor: Abdel-Gawad, Adel; Abdel-Halim, Ahmed Sayd; Evening, Klaus; Ahsan, Muhammad; Altes, Jürgen; Babac, Tuncay; Bader, Manfred B .; Bäumer, Rüdiger; Baier, Jürgen; Bailly, Hans Willy; Baltes, Bruno; Banaschek, Jens; Barnert, Heiko; Barnert, Heiko: Habilitation; Bastek, Hermann; Baumgärtner, Heinrich; Baurmann, Karl Wilhelm; Behr, Fritz; Berger-Rossa, Rudolf; Bergerfurth, Antonius; Bergmann, Burckhard ; Bhattacharyya, Ashu T .; Bieselt, Roland; Binkele, Ludolf; Bloser, Manfred; Brandes, Siegfried; Bock, Jürgen; Böcker, Dietrich; Böhnert, Reinhard; Bonka, Hans; Bonka, Hans: Habilitation; Bonnenberg, Heinrich ; Bousack, Herbert; Brab, H .; Brandes, Siegfried; Brauers, Hubert Paul; Brauers, Bert; Brenig, Heinz Willi; Brenk, Dietmar; Brockmann, Hans; Brücher, Heiner; Brüssermann, Klaus; Buchkremer, Hans Peter; Buchmann, Richard; Buda, Roland; Büker, Harald; Burger, Stefan; Carlson, Donald E .; Cautius, Werner: Dr.-Ing. Eh; Christal, Manfred; Czychon, Karl-Heinz; Dannert, Volker; Daout, Hassan; Della Logia, Enzo; Diemont, Wilhelm; Dietrich, Günther; Dobschütz von, Peter; Dreisvogt, Herbert; Drescher, Hans-Paul; Drescher, Heinz Erhard; Duwe, Reiner; Dworak, Alfred; Edalat, Behzad; Eichler, Rolf; Eickhoff, Hans Günter; Elsinghorst, Detlev; Elter, Klaus; Engelhardt, Herbert R .; Engelhardt, Jürgen; Epping, Christoph; Fedders, Heinrich; Fat, Johann-Josef; Fricke, Ulrich; Friedrich, Klaus; Fröhling, Werner; Frye, Klaus; Gartzen, ??; Gat, Uri; Geiser, Heinz; Gerhards, Erich; Gilles, Peter; Geiser, Heinz; Grotkamp, ​​Thomas; Groos, E .; Gründler, Detlef; Haag, Gerd; Haange, Remmelt; Halascovich, Stephan; Hammelmann, Karl-Heinz; Hannes, Klaus; Hansen, Ulf; Heckhoff, Dieter; van Heek, Aliki; Heil, Jürgen; Henrich, Michael; Herhadi, Partana; Wesel, Dieter; Hewing, Günther; Hesel, Dieter; Hilber, Walther; Hoffmann, Gerd; Hoffmann, Horst; Hoffmann, Jürgen; Hoffmann, Klaus; Holzkamp, ​​Kay; Hom, Hans Georg Bernhard; Horn, Margot; Hrovat, Milan; Hunsänger, Kurt; Hurtado Gutierrez, Antonio Miguel; Inden, Peter; Jaroni, Ulrich; Jobsky, Thomas; Jonas, Heinrich; Kalker, Karl-Josef; Kalthoff, Bodo; Kania, Michael James; Kaspar, Klaus Joachim; Kayser, Jürgen; Keintzel, Günter; Kelm, Wieland; Kirch, Norbert; Knob, Paulo J .; Knüfer, Hermann; Köhler, Manfred; Koizlik, Karl; Kranz, Lutz; Krautwasser, Peter; Kreter, Klaus; Krings, Franz Josef; Kröger, Wolfgang; Kröger, Wolfgang: Habilitation; Kronschnabel, Hartmut; Krüger, Klaus; Kubiak, Helmut; Kugeler, Kurt ; Kugeler, Kurt: Habilitation; Kugeler, Manfred; Cow, young eui; Kuhlmann, Mario Bernhard; Kupitz, Jürgen; Kusnanto, Sardana Teknik; Langen, Jürgen; Lasman, As Natio; Lauer, Achim; Lenhardt, Wilfried R .; Ley, Hubert; Lieberoth, Jürgen; Lieberoth, Jürgen: Habilitation; Lindackers, Karl-Heinz; Lingen, Peter Ralf; Linke, Jochen; Liu, Yosen; from Lojewski, Dirk; Lüttkens, Luer; Lukaszewicz, Johannes; Mallener, Werner; Maly, Vladimir; Manthey, Christian; Markett, Josef; Markowski, Baldur; Mattke, Ulrich; Meier, Astrid; Melissa, Mike; Mertens, Johannes; Meuresch, Siegfried; Meurin, Gerd; Möller, Helmut; Mühlensiep, Jutta; Müller, Alfons; Müller-Frank, Ulrich; Munster, Manfred; Nabbi, Rahim; Narberhaus, Hans-Wolfgang; Neef, Hans-Joachim; Neef, Norbert; Neis, Helmut; Niehaus, Friedrich; Nießen, Ferdinand; Novy, Daniel; Oertel, Michael; Oliva Pina, Jose Maria; Ostendorf, Hermann; Otten, Jan Christoph; Otto, Karl-Wilhelm; Penkalla, Heinz-Josef; Penndorf, Klaus; Petersen, Klaus; Phlippen, Peter-Wilhelm; Phlippen, Peter-Wilhelm: Habilitation; Pietsch, Michael; Pohlen, Ernst; Pollmann, Ethwart; Portz, Bert Willi; Pütter, Bernhard; Pyc,?; Quell, Peter; Quittek, Christian; Ramadan, Mohamed Nagah; Rath-Nagel, Stefan; Recker, Michael; Rehm, Werner; Reutler, Herbert; Ringel, Helmut; Rödig, Manfred; Röhrig, Heinz Dieter; Rütten, Hans-Jochem; Rysy, Wolfgang; Sahabi, Behzad; Sammek, Karl-H .; Sauer, Erich; Schaaf, Thomas; Scharf, Hans-Joachim; Schäfer, Manfred; Schenk, Werner; Scherer, Winfried; Schilling, Thomas; Schlenker, Hans-Volker; Schmale, Helmuth; Schmidtlein, Peter; Schmitz, Johannes; Schmitz, Kurt; Schmitz, Peter; Schneider, Felix; Schneider, Karl - Uwe; Schöning, Josef; Schrör, Horst; Schürenkrämer, Michael; Schütten, Rudolf; Schulte, Arthur; Schultes, Karl-Heinz; Schultz, Jörg-Rainer; Schwarz, Günther; Schwarz, Helmuth; Schwarzkopp, Friedrich; Schwegmann, Peter; Serpekian, Tavid; Singh, Jasbir; Son, Jin-Gug; Sokcic-Kostic, Marina; Steinbrink, Werner; Sterling,?; Stöver, Detlev; Stojadinovic, Aleksander; Stoltz, Armin; Stolzenberg, G .; Stradal, Karl Alfred; Sussmann, Hans; Sütterlin, Lothar; Sun, Yuliang; Talarek, Horst D .; Tenten, Walter; Teuchert, Eberhard: Habilitation; Thissen, Hans-Günter; Thomas, Hans Richard; Thomas, Felix; Tietze, Alfons: Habilitation; Tölle, Rolf; Turowski, Roland; Uhlenbusch, Lothar; Venet, Pierre; Federate, Karl; Voss, Alfred ; Wagner, Hermann-Josef ; Wagemann, Klaus; Wagemann, Rudolf; Wahl, Dirk Joachim; Walbeck, Manfred; Waloch, Manfred Ludwig; Wallroth, Karl-Friedrich; Wallura, Erich; Wang, Dazhong; Wawrzik, Ulrich; Weber, Jürgen; Weidlich, Helmut; Because, Leopold; Weil, Leopold: Habilitation; Weirich, Walter; Weißfloch, Reiner; Werner, Heinz; Werner, Kurt Friedrich Joachim; Wibbe, Heinz Bernd; Winkel, Ludwig; Winkels, Heinz; Wimmers, Manfred; Wischnewski, Rainer; Wolf, Lothar; Wolters, Johannes; Yamashita, Kiyonobu; Zang, Zan-Xun; Zimmermann, Helmut; Zintl, H .; Zoller, Peter; Zumwald, LR
  82. ↑ The Otto Hahn Foundation of the City of Frankfurt am Main: Awarding of the Otto Hahn Prize of the City of Frankfurt am Main to Prof. Dr. Rudolf Schulten on March 14, 1972 in the Kaisersaal des Römers - speeches. Office for Science, Art and Public Education of the City of Frankfurt am Main, 1972.
  83. ↑ Short biography at the Werner-von-Siemens-Ring Foundation ( Memento of the original from August 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.siemens-ring.de
personal data
SURNAME Schulten, Rudolf
BRIEF DESCRIPTION German physicist and nuclear technologist
DATE OF BIRTH August 16, 1923
PLACE OF BIRTH Oeding
DATE OF DEATH April 27, 1996
Place of death Aachen