Seven Summits

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The location of the Seven Summits. The positions of the nine peaks are marked on the world map, which come into question depending on the definition of the continental borders.

The highest mountains on each of the seven continents are unofficially referred to as the Seven Summits [ ˈsevən ˈsʌmɪts ] ( English for 'seven peaks'). Depending on the view of the borders between Europe and Australia and the Asian continent , different mountains meet this definition, so that at least nine peaks come into question.

Climbing all Seven Summits is a special challenge in mountaineering . The American Dick Bass was the first to complete this series with his summit success on Mount Everest on April 30, 1985; while he counted Mount Kosciuszko as the highest mountain on the Australian mainland to the list (bass list). In a prominent place, the South Tyrolean mountaineer Reinhold Messner represented an alternative list, according to a widespread geographical view of the extent of the Australian continent, he included the Puncak Jaya on the island of New Guinea among the Seven Summits (Messner list). The Canadian Patrick Morrow was able to complete this much more difficult variant on August 5, 1986, four months before Messner.

definition

The name “Seven Summits” was originally based on a geographical concept according to which the earth's land masses consist of seven continents: Africa , Antarctica , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America and South America . Other possible classifications lead to a different number, see number of continents . Because of different interpretations of the continental borders - from a geographical and geopolitical point of view - there are several possible definitions of the Seven Summits. The borders of Europe and Australia are relevant here.

Europe

Satellite image of the Caucasus between the Black and Caspian Seas . Does it or the northern Manytn lowlands form the European-Asian border?

The answer to the question of which is the highest mountain in Europe depends crucially on where the inner Eurasian border is determined. There is neither a clear geographical nor a generally recognized historical or international law definition for this. Some consider the Manytn lowlands north of the Caucasus to be the borderline, others consider the Caucasus itself, especially the watershed between the north and south flanks. If one follows the second view, the 5642 meter high Elbrus , the highest mountain in the Caucasus, is counted as part of Europe; If you follow the first, the Caucasus lies entirely in Asia, and Mont Blanc, which is significantly lower at 4810 meters, is considered the highest mountain in Europe. This view was undisputed in Europe until the end of the 18th century and is still the predominant view today - with the exception of the English- and French-speaking areas, where the Caucasus watershed is considered the border between Europe and Asia.

Australia

The main Australian land mass, highlighted in light blue, is the continental shelf , on which the islands of New Guinea in the north, Timor in the northwest and Tasmania in the south lie

The situation is more complicated with regard to Australia: The highest point of the main Australian land mass, which is often understood as a continent in common parlance , is Mount Kosciuszko at 2228 meters. Occasionally, the Big Ben volcano on Heard Island is parked, which is part of the state of Australia , even though it is far away from the land mass in the southern Indian Ocean . Its highest point, Mawson Peak , is 2745 meters higher than Mount Kosciuszko. If you take Australia and New Zealand together, both are towered over by the 3724 meter high Aoraki / Mount Cook . The Australian continent but also includes geographically outlying islands Tasmania and New Guinea . The Puncak Jaya , also known as the Carstensz pyramid and formerly known as the “Djala peak”, is located in New Guinea . It is 4884 meters high, making it the highest point on the continent.

For cultural and political reasons in particular, Australia is combined with the other island states of the Pacific under the name " Oceania " to form one continent. The Carstensz pyramid belongs to the state of Indonesia and therefore, politically speaking, more to Asia. According to a political demarcation, Mount Wilhelm , which with a height of 4509 meters is the highest mountain in Papua New Guinea , would also be the highest in Oceania. The idea of ​​counting Mount Wilhelm among the Seven Summits, however, received little support.

Bass and Messner's lists

The first listing of the Seven Summits comes from Dick Bass and includes the Asian Mount Everest (also known as "Sagarmatha" or "Chomolungma"), the South American Aconcagua , the North American Denali (then called "Mount McKinley"), the African Kibo (colloquially "Kilimanjaro") and the Antarctic Mount Vinson the Elbrus as a representative of Europe and the Mount Kosciuszko for the Australian continent.

Reinhold Messner made a counter-proposal, replacing Mount Kosciuszko with Puncak Jaya . From an alpine point of view, this suggestion can be seen as a greater challenge, as the ascent of the Carstensz pyramid is considered to be much more demanding than that of Mount Kosciuszko. Climbing chroniclers such as the Dutchman Harry Kikstra therefore primarily focus on Messner's Carstensz list, but also keep books on Bass' traditional Kosciuszko list and even on combined variants. Bass and Messner's lists can now be seen as reference points for the Seven Summits, at least among mountaineers. However, neither of them contains Mont Blanc , which is still climbed by many of the Seven Summit collectors.

The Seven Summits

Overview

The following nine mountains - depending on the definition - are counted among the Seven Summits. The mountains included in Bass and Messner's lists are marked in columns LB and LM .

continent summit height location Mountains country First ascent LB LM
Africa Kibo 5895 m 3 ° 3 '54 "S, 37 ° 21' 33" E Kilimanjaro massif TanzaniaTanzania Tanzania 0October 6, 1889 by H. Meyer , L. Purtscheller ✔ ✔
Antarctica Mount Vinson 4892 m 78 ° 31 ′ 31 ″ S, 85 ° 37 ′ 2 ″ W. Sentinel Range - ∗ Dec. 17, 1966 by N. Clinch , B. Corbet , J. Evans , W. Long , P. Schoening ✔ ✔
Asia Mount Everest 8848 m 27 ° 59 ′ 17 "N, 86 ° 55 ′ 31" E Himalayas China People's RepublicPeople's Republic of China People's Republic of China , NepalNepalNepal  May 29, 1953 by E. Hillary , T. Norgay ✔ ✔
Australia Puncak Jaya 4884 m 4 ° 5 ′ 0 ″ S, 137 ° 11 ′ 6 ″ E Sudirman Mountains IndonesiaIndonesia Indonesia Feb. 13, 1962 by H. Harrer , A. Huizenga , R. Kippax , P. Temple ✔
Mount Kosciuszko 2228 m 36 ° 27 ′ 21 ″ S, 148 ° 15 ′ 48 ″ E Great dividing range AustraliaAustralia Australia Feb. 15, 1840 by P. de Strzelecki ✔
Europe Mont Blanc 4810 m 45 ° 49 ′ 57 "N, 6 ° 51 ′ 52" E Alps FranceFrance France , ItalyItalyItaly  0Aug 7, 1786 by J. Balmat , M. Paccard
Elbrus 5642 m 43 ° 21 ′ 18 ″ N, 42 ° 26 ′ 21 ″ E Caucasus RussiaRussia Russia July 28, 1874 by F. Gardiner , F. Grove , P. Knubel , H. Walker ✔ ✔
North America Denali (formerly Mount McKinley) 6190 m 63 ° 4 ′ 9 ″ N, 151 ° 0 ′ 28 ″ W. Alaska chain United StatesUnited States United States 0June 7, 1913 by W. Harper , H. Karstens , H. Stuck , R. Tatum ✔ ✔
South America Aconcagua 6961 m 32 ° 39 ′ 12 ″ S, 70 ° 0 ′ 42 ″ W. To the ArgentinaArgentina Argentina Jan. 14, 1897 by M. Zurbriggen ✔ ✔
∗Is claimed by Chile , but only a few states recognize territorial claims on the Antarctic, see Political Status of the Antarctic .

Mount Everest

The north side of Mount Everest

Mount Everest ( Nepalese Sagarmatha ; Tibetan Chomolungma ) is 8,848 meters above sea level, the highest mountain on earth and therefore also the highest in Asia. It is the only eight-thousander among the Seven Summits and towers over the second highest mountain in the list by almost 1900 meters. Its location in the Himalayas marks the border between Nepal and China's Tibet Autonomous Region ; on the Nepalese side it is located in the Sagarmatha National Park .

The history of ascent of Mount Everest begins in the 1920s. The New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary managed the first ascent together with the Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay on May 29, 1953. The difficulties of his ascent lie in low temperatures, sudden weather changes and the oxygen-poor air in the so-called death zone . Nevertheless, a real "climbing tourism" has developed on Mount Everest. By mid-2010, the number of successful ascents had risen to over 4,500. More than 200 people lost their lives trying to climb it.

Aconcagua

Aconcagua

The second highest of the Seven Summits is the Aconcagua (with full name: Cerro Aconcagua ). The mountain, located in the Andes on Argentine territory, measures 6,961 meters in height, making it the highest point in South America. At the same time it is the highest mountain outside of Asia. Its great distance from the Himalayas gives it a dominance of 16,520 kilometers. The Aconcagua is therefore the second highest mountain on earth after Mount Everest, measured in terms of dominance and the height of the notch. He is the namesake for the surrounding Parque Provincial Aconcagua .

The history of ascent of Aconcagua begins in the early 19th century. At the end of the century, an expedition was able to reach the summit for the first time, as documented: The Swiss expedition leader Matthias Zurbriggen reached the highest point in South America on January 14, 1897, and a few days later two other expedition participants followed him. The Aconcagua is now considered a relatively easy mountain to climb, which, depending on the route, can be climbed without the use of climbing techniques due to its gentle ascent. An acclimatization to the high altitude, however, essential to almost 7000 meters. At the beginning of the 21st century, around 3,000 climbers per season made their way to the summit, in the 2009/2010 season there were over 3,700. The success rate is 40%.

Denali

Denali from the northeast

The highest mountain in North America is the Denali ( athapaski 'the high') at 6190 meters , which was officially called Mount McKinley until 2015 . As the highest point of the Alaska range, it is located in Denali National Park in central Alaska and thus on the territory of the United States . Measured by its dominance and its notch height, Denali is the third highest mountain on earth after Mount Everest and Aconcagua. The mountain is considered one of the most extreme climates on earth and is characterized by adverse weather, strong winds and particularly low temperatures. The temperature on the summit rarely rises above −15 ° C; Temperatures below −30 ° C and hurricane-like winds with speeds of over 120 km / h are not uncommon at high altitudes.

The first attempts at ascent were made at the beginning of the 20th century. The first to reach the summit was the American Hudson Stuck and the British Henry Peter Karstens , Walter Harper and Robert Tatum on June 7, 1913. Since then, the number of climbs has increased. In the 1990s and 2000s, between 1,000 and 1,300 climbers attempted McKinley a year; around half reach their destination.

Kibo

Kibo

The highest mountain in Africa and fourth highest of the Seven Summits is the Kibo ( swahili , 'the light one') in northeastern Tanzania , near the Kenyan border. It is often also called "Kilimanjaro" - but this name is due to the mountain in which it is located and which is also known as the " Kilimanjaro massif" for easier differentiation . The entire massif was declared a national park. The stratovolcano reaches a height of 5895 meters above sea level. It rises over 4000 meters from the steppe surrounding it, which is why “Kilimanjaro” is often referred to as the highest free-standing mountain . In the lists of the highest mountains, measured on the basis of their dominance or notch height, it takes fourth place. The Kibo is also known for its glaciated summit regions, which characterize the landscape on Kilimanjaro less than 350 kilometers south of the equator .

After its discovery by Johannes Rebmann in 1848, Ludwig Purtscheller and Hans Meyer first reached the highest point of Kibo, the Uhuru Peak ( Uhuru is Swahili for 'freedom', peak English for 'summit') on October 6, 1889 . From the mid-1990s, the number of those attempting to climb has risen from around 15,000 to around 25,000 within a decade. About half of them reach Uhuru Peak. Many fail due to insufficient preparation or due to poor acclimatization due to exhaustion, aggravated by altitude sickness . In addition, there are noticeable differences in temperature during the ascent: At the foot of the mountain, the temperature is regularly above 30 ° C, on its summit it is often below −20 ° C.

Elbrus

The north side of the Elbrus

At 5642 meters, Elbrus is the highest mountain in the Caucasus and the highest mountain in Russia . If you include it in Europe , it is the highest mountain on the continent. The double summit is a currently inactive, heavily glaciated volcano. The distance between the two peaks is 1500 meters, the highest point is on the southern rim of the crater. In ancient times Elbrus was known as Strobilus , in mythology the prison of Prometheus after he brought fire to humans. The Elbrus is located in the Prielbrusie National Park .

In Messner's list, Elbrus is the mountain that was climbed first: on July 28, 1874 by the Englishmen Frederick Gardiner , Florence Crauford Grove , Horace Walker and the Swiss leader of the expedition, Peter Knubel . The Elbrus is now well developed for tourists - cable cars lead at around 3800 meters, there is a hut at 4200 meters - and is therefore comparatively easy to climb. From a technical point of view, the ascent isn't too difficult. The Elbrus, however, places higher demands on physical fitness than the comparably high Kibo. Around 15 to 30 climbers die on Elbrus every year. Most of them are poorly prepared and equipped, without a mountain guide and do not take the time to get used to the mountain air. Because the winters on Elbrus are extremely cold, the mountain is usually only climbed between May and September.

Mont Blanc

Mont Blanc from the Valais

The Mont Blanc ( French ; Italian : Monte Bianco , both 'white mountain') is 4810 meters high (4792 meters without ice cap) the highest mountain in the Alps and the highest in the European Union . If you assign the Elbrus to Asia and list the Puncak Jaya as the highest mountain in Australia, as suggested by the German Himalayan chronicler Eberhard Jurgalski , it is the lowest of the Seven Summits. Both France and Italy have a stake in the mountain, although the border line on Mont Blanc has long been disputed.

Of the mountains listed here, Mont Blanc is the first to be climbed: on August 7, 1786 by Jacques Balmat and Michel-Gabriel Paccard . Although the mountain is not considered too difficult to climb today, it kills five to ten people every year. Around 30,000 make their way to the summit every year. For those who enlist the help of a professional mountain guide, the chance of reaching the summit increases from around 33% to 50%.

Mount Vinson

The Vinson massif

The highest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson, 4892 meters high. It lies in the Sentinel Range within the part of Antarctica claimed by Chile . As the last of the Seven Summits, it was discovered during a flight of the US Air Force over these mountains in 1957.

Mount Vinson is also the last of the Seven Summits to be climbed: in 1966 by a mixed expedition by the American Alpine Club and the National Science Foundation . Led by Nicholas Clinch , Barry Corbet , John P. Evans , William Long and Peter Schoening reached the summit on December 17th, and were followed by other expedition members in the following days. By the 2006/2007 season, over 1100 people had climbed Mount Vinson. The difficulties of the ascent do not lie in the technical requirements of the ascent, but are caused by the extreme location (the distance to the South Pole is only about 1200 kilometers), cold and storms.

Puncak Jaya

Puncak Jaya

The Indonesian Puncak Jaya ("Victory Summit", also Carstensz pyramid and earlier called Djala peak) is at 4884 meters the highest mountain on the Australian continent and the highest mountain on an island worldwide . Although significantly higher than its "competitor", Mount Kosciuszko, it is the lowest mountain in Messner's list of the Seven Summits. It is located in the Maoke Mountains in the Lorentz National Park , right next to the Grasberg mine , the largest gold mine in the world.

The mountain was first sighted by a European in 1623: Jan Carstensz , who would later become its namesake. In the order of the first ascent it is the penultimate of the Seven Summits: On February 13, 1962, Heinrich Harrer , Philip Temple , Russel Kippax and Albert Huizenga were the first to climb its summit. For its comparatively low altitude, Puncak Jaya has seen relatively few ascents since then. There are various reasons for this: Due to its location in the Indonesian jungle, it is difficult to reach. Its rugged and steep rock face makes it the most difficult of the Seven Summits in terms of climbing . In addition, it is difficult to obtain the various permits necessary for the journey and ascent. For example, between 1995 and 2005, as a result of political unrest, no expeditions were allowed to the mountain.

Mount Kosciuszko

Mount Kosciuszko from the south side

Mount Kosciuszko measures 2,228 meters in height, making it the highest mountain on mainland Australia. At the same time, it is the lowest of the mountains listed here - more than 2500 meters lower than the next higher, Mont Blanc. It is located in the Australian state of New South Wales in the Snowy Mountains . The area around the mountain has been declared Kosciuszko National Park .

Discovered by Europeans in 1824, Mount Kosciuszko experienced its first documented ascent on February 15, 1840 by the Polish explorer Paul Edmund de Strzelecki . This makes it the first summit ever climbed in Bass' list . From a mountaineering point of view, Mount Kosciuszko is not a challenge, a simple hiking trail leads to the summit. The first part can even be tackled by chairlift , after which another six kilometers have to be covered to the summit - a route that around 100,000 hikers take every year. Although the ascent of all Seven Summits in the variant with the Puncak Jaya is much more demanding, the mountain is still climbed by Seven Summits collectors.

history

The idea of ​​climbing the highest continental peaks as an alpine challenge cannot be traced back to a single person. Many mountaineers were involved in this development, the first important successes came from the middle of the 20th century.

The first to climb five of the highest continental peaks was the American mountaineer William Hackett (1918-1999) in 1956 . Hackett was a seasoned expedition mountaineer and had made several important first ascents (e.g. Mt. McKinley West Buttress 1951). By 1956 he had climbed Mount McKinley (1947), Aconcagua (1949), Kibo (1950), Mount Kosciuszko (1956) and Mont Blanc (1956). According to his list, Mont Blanc was the highest mountain in Europe. There were already plans for Mount Everest, but for various reasons they could never be realized. In 1985, at the age of 67, he took part in a Mount Vinson expedition, but did not reach the summit himself, for him it remained at five of the Seven Summits.

The Japanese mountaineer and adventurer Naomi Uemura (1941–1984) climbed Kibo and Mont Blanc in 1966, Aconcagua in 1968 and Mount McKinley and Mount Everest in 1970. He also came to five of the Seven Summits , but was also the first to include the highest and hardest, Mount Everest. Uemura had undertaken several polar expeditions ( North Pole , Greenland ) and already had plans for an Antarctic expedition (Mt. Vinson) in 1982 and 1983, which could not take place because of the Falklands War . In February 1984 Naomi Uemura had an accident after climbing Mount McKinley in winter.

The Swiss mountaineer Dölf Reist was the sixth person to climb Mount Everest in 1956 and had climbed other of the highest continental peaks in the following years. In 1971, a few months after Naomi Uemura, he also came to five of the Seven Summits .

The South Tyrolean mountaineer Reinhold Messner reached six of the Seven Summits for the first time in 1978, in addition to Mont Blanc at that time: the Carstensz Pyramid (1971), the Aconcagua (1974), the Mount McKinley (1976), the Kibo (1978) and Mount Everest (1978). In 1983 Messner climbed Mount Kosciuszko to meet the other definition of the continent of Australia ( bass list ). Also in 1983, Messner climbed the Elbrus and spoke of it as the highest mountain in Europe. In December 1986 he was able to complete the Seven Summits by climbing Mount Vinson, at that time he was the fifth climber to have succeeded and the second to have completed the Messner list ( Carstensz version ) named after him .

As early as 1985, a year before Messner, the American mountaineer Richard “Dick” Bass was the first to complete the Seven Summits by climbing Mount Everest. Bass came from a family of entrepreneurs, invested in oil, gas and coal, and from 1971 ran the Snowbird Ski Resort near Salt Lake City (Utah). He was interested in the mountains early on, but was not a mountaineer. In 1981 Bass climbed Mount McKinley and after the success he had the idea of ​​climbing the highest mountains on the other continents. In the same year he met Frank Wells , the president of Warner Bros., through a mutual friend . Wells climbed the Kibo as a student on a trip to Africa (1954) and then had the idea of ​​climbing the highest mountains on all continents. Dick Bass and Frank Wells agreed to implement their idea together, they were both around 50 years old at the time and had extensive financial resources. Both had very limited mountain experience and were more of a hobby adventurer without the physical fitness, climbing experience and knowledge of nature and equipment that their project actually required. It was therefore agreed from the start that this company could only be implemented with the participation of experienced mountaineers and mountain guides. In 1981 and 1982 Bass and Wells attempted to climb Elbrus, Aconcagua and Mount Everest. While Bass can reach the summits of Elbrus and Aconcagua, they decide to climb all Seven Summits within one year, 1983. In January 1983 they started their media-effective project, and this year they succeeded in six of the Seven Summits: Aconcagua, Mount McKinley, Kibo, Elbrus, Mount Vinson and Mount Kosciuszko. On Mount Everest they reach a height of over 8000 meters, but cannot reach the summit. At the insistence of his wife, Wells then ended his own Everest plans, but continued to support Bass in carrying out the Seven Summits project. In 1984, Dick Bass and the American mountain filmmaker David Breashears join a Nepalese Everest expedition, but have to abandon the ascent due to problems with the permit. The following year, Bass and Breashears are again on the highest mountain in the world with a Norwegian expedition of which Chris Bonington is a member. On April 30, 1985, Dick Bass reached the summit of Everest with David Breashears and Ang Phurba Sherpa and was the first to complete the Seven Summits.

In 1986 the Canadian mountaineer Patrick “Pat” Morrow was the first to climb the Seven Summits in the more difficult “Carstensz variant” (Messner list). Morrow had climbed Aconcagua, Mount McKinley and Mount Everest by 1982. At the same time as Dick Bass and Frank Wells, he pursued his own Seven Summits project after the Everest success (1982), only in the course of 1983 did both parties (and the public) find out about the competition they were in. In 1983 Morrow was able to climb Kibo and Mount Kosciuszko; on Elbrus (5642 m), due to unfavorable weather conditions, he only reached the east summit (5621 m), about 20 meters lower. During this time he tried to organize a Mount Vinson expedition. At the same time, access to the Antarctic Sentinel Range posed considerable organizational difficulties for the financially better-equipped Bass-Wells team. In 1984 Morrow undertook an expedition to New Guinea to climb the Carstensz pyramid, but could not reach the mountain due to military restrictions in the course of the Papua conflict . Also in 1984, a first Antarctic expedition failed when their plane was damaged by a storm at the Argentine Antarctic station Esperanza . During a new Antarctic expedition, Morrow's team was able to reach the summit of Mount Vinson in 1985. In 1986, Morrow also climbed the highest mountain in Oceania, the Carstensz Pyramid. For the last summit of his project, Morrow had to return to the Caucasus to climb the main summit of Elbrus (western summit), on August 5, 1986 he was the first to complete the Seven Summits in the Carstensz variant with this ascent , at the same time he was also the First to complete both variants.

Other mountaineers had also taken part in the competition for the Seven Summits and were able to complete their project shortly after Dick Bass, Gerry Roach (USA) as second, before Patrick Morrow, followed by Gerhard Schmatz , Oswald Oelz and Reinhold Messner. If Messner had not oriented his list to Elbrus, but to Mont Blanc from a classic European perspective, he would even have been the first. Messner nevertheless set a Seven Summits record, according to both lists: He was the first to climb all the peaks without using additional bottled oxygen.

In late 1990, New Zealand mountaineering duo Gary Ball and Rob Hall set a highly regarded record when they climbed the Seven Summits on Bass' list in just seven months. Then the two founded a company called Adventure Consultants , where they led expeditions to the Seven Summits as mountain guides . Both died later on an eight-thousander : Ball in 1993 on Dhaulagiri , Hall in 1996 in the accident on Mount Everest . Her record of exactly 214 days has since been beaten several times, for example by the American Colin O'Brady , who set a new record for both lists in May 2016 with 131 days. In terms of the actual ascent time, the Austrian Christian Stangl claims to have been the fastest: According to his own statements, he only needed 58 hours and 45 minutes for the summit of the Messner list.

By mid-1994 just under 30 and by mid-1999 around 60 climbers had completed one of the two lists. The first woman on the Seven Summits was the Japanese Junko Tabei on July 28, 1992 , according to both lists. By January 2001 about 80 Messner's Carstensz variant and about 90 Bass' Kosciuszko variant had completed; around 40% of them had processed both versions. In August 2010, the website 7summits.com identified 275 climbers, including 37 women, who had climbed the Seven Summits in one of the two variants. 179 of them stood on the Carstensz pyramid, 200 on Mount Kosciuszko, 104 on both.

The youngest ever to have made the Seven Summits by both versions is the American Jordan Romero , who climbed the last summit on December 24, 2011 at the age of 15. Romero is also the youngest graduate of Bass and Messner's two individual lists. The corresponding age records are held by the Spaniard Ramón Blanco, who completed Bass' at the age of 70, and the Japanese Takao Arayama, who completed Messner's list at the age of 74. Blanco also graduated from these at the age of 73, making him the oldest graduate of both lists. (As of December 2011)

Seven Second Summits

More difficult than climbing all Seven Summits is that of the second highest mountains on each continent. These are listed under the name Seven Second Summits . Here, too, different mountains can be considered because of the unclear borders of Europe and Australia.

See also

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e Eberhard Jurgalski : The (Eleven) Seven Summits. In: 8000ers.com. Retrieved August 22, 2010 .
  2. ↑ Markus Mähner: August 3, 1787: De Saussure measures Mont Blanc. (No longer available online.) In: Internet pages of Bayerischer Rundfunk . August 3, 2010, formerly in the original ; Retrieved August 22, 2010 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.br-online.de  
  3. ↑ See article Inner Eurasian Border
  4. ↑ a b Seven Summits - Facts & Figures of the Seven Summits. (No longer available online.) In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on August 9, 2010 ; accessed on August 22, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.abc-of-mountaineering.com
  5. ↑ Seven Summit definitions. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on June 7, 2010 ; accessed on September 1, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.8summits.co.uk
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g History of the Quest for the Seven Summits. (No longer available online.) In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on October 17, 2015 ; accessed on August 28, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.abc-of-mountaineering.com
  7. ↑ a b c d e Harry Kikstra: Statistics. In: 7summits.com. Retrieved August 22, 2010 .
  8. ↑ Eberhard Jurgalski : Everest. In: 8000ers.com. Retrieved on August 22, 2010 (English, climbing statistics).
  9. ↑ a b c World Top 50: 50 Most Prominent Peaks on Earth. Retrieved August 22, 2010 .
  10. ↑ Mount Aconcagua Tips and Statistics. Retrieved October 17, 2010 .
  11. ↑ Eckehard Radehose: America's dream mountains: from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego . 2nd Edition. Bergverlag Rother, 1996, ISBN 978-3-7633-3006-5 , p. 180 .
  12. ^ A b McKinley - Climbing History. In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on January 5, 2015 ; accessed on August 23, 2010 (English).
  13. ↑ RJ Secor: Denali Climbing Guide . Stackpole Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-8117-2717-4 , pp. 22 ff .
  14. ↑ Mount McKinley, Alaska. In: Peakbagger.com. Retrieved October 18, 2010 .
  15. ↑ Historical Timeline. In: National Park Service website . Retrieved August 23, 2010 .
  16. ↑ Mount McKinley South Peak (20,320 feet) Attempts and Summits. ( PDF ; 36 kB) In: National Park Service website . Retrieved August 23, 2010 .
  17. ↑ Mt. Kilimanjaro Facts. Archived from the original on February 28, 2011 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English).
  18. ↑ Kilimanjaro. In: 7summits.com. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  19. ↑ Alexander Stewart: Kilimanjaro: A Compete Trekker's Guide . Cicerone Press Limited, 2004, ISBN 978-1-85284-413-4 , pp. 12 f., 18 ff., 22 ff .
  20. ↑ Mount Kilimanjaro. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  21. ↑ a b Howard Tomb: Getting to the Top In the Caucasus. In: Online edition of the New York Times . August 27, 1989, accessed August 25, 2010 .
  22. ^ National Park "Prielbrusie". Retrieved August 26, 2010 .
  23. ^ Elbrus - Climbing History. (No longer available online.) In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.abc-of-mountaineering.com
  24. ↑ Mount Elbrus: History. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  25. ↑ Simon Richmond: Russia . 5th edition. Lonely Planet , 2009, ISBN 978-1-74104-722-6 , pp. 526 .
  26. ↑ Interview with Boris Tilov - the Chef of the rescue service of Elbrus region. In: summitpost.org. Retrieved on August 25, 2010 (English, interview with Boris Tilov, head of the rescue services on Elbrus).
  27. ↑ About Mount Elbrus, Russia. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on June 9, 2010 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.elbrusphoto.com
  28. ↑ Carl McKeating, Rachel Crolla: Europe's High Points . Cicerone Press Limited, 2010, ISBN 978-1-85284-577-3 .
  29. ^ The rock summit of the Mont Blanc, 40 m west of the ice summit. (No longer available online.) In: Internet pages of the Center national de la recherche scientifique . August 2, 2004, archived from the original on December 8, 2008 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ww2.cnrs.fr
  30. ↑ The Montblanc is the destination of thousands of mountaineers. In: Internet pages of the ORF . August 26, 2008. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  31. ↑ Climbing Mont Blanc Is Best Left to Experienced Mountaineers. ( PDF ) Archived from the original on November 13, 2008 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English).
  32. ^ Brian S. Marts: American Antarctic Mountaineering Expedition . In: American Alpine Journal . 1967, p. 251-257 ( article online , archived at wikiwix.com [PDF; accessed August 26, 2010] expedition report).
  33. ↑ Vinson. In: 7summits.com. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  34. ^ Damien Gildea, John Splettstoesser: Craddock Massif and Vinson Massif remeasured. ( PDF ; 147 kB) In: Internet pages of the United States Geological Survey . Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  35. ^ Carstensz Pyramid. In: 7summits.com. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  36. ^ Carstensz Pyramid - Climbing History. (No longer available online.) In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.abc-of-mountaineering.com
  37. ^ Carstensz Pyramid (Puncak Jaya) - The history of climbing. Retrieved August 25, 2010 .
  38. ^ Kosciuszko - Climbing History. (No longer available online.) In: abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.abc-of-mountaineering.com
  39. ^ Louise Southerden: High and mighty. (No longer available online.) February 6, 2010, archived from the original on March 5, 2014 ; accessed on August 25, 2010 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.mtkosciuszko.org.au
  40. ↑ Philipp Radtke: Mount Kosciuszko: The lost dream mountain . In: DAV Panorama. Announcements from the German Alpine Club . No. 1/2010 , February 2010, p. 69 .
  41. ^ American Alpine Journal (2000): In Memoriam - William D. Hackett, 1918–1999 AAJ 2000, Volume 42, Issue 74, Page 435.
  42. ↑ Lindsay Griffin (2013): 60 years of Seven Summits peak bagging , British Mountaineering Council, thebmc.co.uk, accessed March 20, 2015.
  43. ↑ "Naomi Uemura, renowned Japanese adventurer" ( Memento of the original from January 8, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , nikon.com, accessed January 20, 2015. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / nikon.com
  44. ↑ Patrick Morrow (1986): Beyond Everest - Quest For the Seven Summits , Camden House, p. 36 and p. 96.
  45. ↑ Dölf Reist (1978): To the highest peaks in the world . Lausanne: Mondo Publishing.
  46. ↑ a b c 7summits.com - Statistics - All the details of the 7 summiteers , accessed March 2, 2015.
  47. ^ Dick Bass, Frank Wells and Rick Ridgeway (1986): Seven Summits , Warner Books Inc., New York, pp. 9 ff.
  48. ↑ Ibid. P. 3.
  49. ↑ Dick Bass. In: EverestHistory.com. Retrieved August 29, 2010 .
  50. ^ Dick Bass, Frank Wells and Rick Ridgeway (1986): Seven Summits , Warner Books Inc., New York, pp. 225f.
  51. ↑ Ibid. P. 292 ff.
  52. ↑ Ibid. P. 310 ff.
  53. ↑ Ibid. P. 83f.
  54. ↑ Patrick Morrow (1986): Beyond Everest - Quest For the Seven Summits , Camden House, p. 96.
  55. ↑ Ibid. P. 114
  56. ↑ Ibid. P. 152f.
  57. ↑ Ibid. P. 132ff.
  58. ^ Jon Krakauer : Into Thin Air . Anchor, 2009, ISBN 978-0-307-47525-1 , pp. 38 f .
  59. ↑ Ed Viesturs , David Roberts : No Shortcuts to the Top: Climbing the World's 14 Highest Peaks . Broadway, 2007, ISBN 978-0-7679-2471-9 , pp. 38 .
  60. ↑ Fastest time to climb the Seven Summits including Carstensz (male). Guinness World Records , accessed January 16, 2019 .
  61. ↑ 14 Seven Summits. In: bergstieg.com. April 15, 2010, accessed August 30, 2010 .
  62. ↑ a b Dirk von Nayhauß: Grand Slam of the mountaineers. In: Spiegel Online . September 8, 2009, accessed August 30, 2010 .
  63. ^ Climbs and Expeditions, 1994. The Seven Summits . In: The American Alpine Journal . 1994, p. 127 ( online at Google Books [accessed October 14, 2010]).
  64. ↑ The Seven Summits Quest. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on February 1, 2011 ; accessed on August 29, 2010 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / seven-summits-quest.com
  65. ↑ You have to go to seven peaks. In: Spiegel online . December 25, 2011, accessed December 28, 2011 .
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on October 31, 2010 in this version .