Strategic Studies

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Strategic Studies or Strategic Studies (en.) Is the name given to an interdisciplinary applied branch of the political science discipline in the Anglophone academic world.

They contain the holistic (generalistic) analysis, description, explanation, prognosis and recommendations for action for questions and problems of long-term, i.e. H. strategic reach in the areas of security policy , military policy , military and other social (eg. as economic, social, technological) areas.

The object of the strategic studies is the interaction between political objectives, political and economic power and the use of political, including military, force.

Strategic studies use interdisciplinary theories and methods from other disciplines and branches, e.g. B. International relations , military science , (military) geography , economics , history , and other disciplines. They combine approaches from praxeology , i.e. the science of action.

In the Eurasian Russian-speaking (en. Russophone; ru. Русскоговорящиe) regions, comparable studies are carried out in the political, economic and technical scientific disciplines as well as in the military sciences under the name of strategic research (ru. Стратегические исследования).

Origin, development, characteristics of the strategic studies

To the history of strategy thinking

Strategic thinking developed in a long historical process in close connection with the formation of politically active groups of people, peoples , states , classes , nations and alliances , and with the armed conflicts they waged, the art of war and the military-theoretical thinking. Elements of strategic practice probably emerged with the dawn of human society well before ancient times .

The oldest written records in Europe date from the time of the Trojan War , recorded in Homer's work Iliad . On the basis of several temple inscriptions, the battle of Kadesh around 1274 BC is recorded. Between the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite king Muwattalli II . It is considered the best-documented description of a war and the war system in antiquity up to this point in time.

A first systematic preoccupation with warfare ( military affairs ) was the book The Art of War by the Chinese General Sunzi in the 5th century BC. It is considered the oldest surviving work on strategy.

Many theoretical works on military affairs and fortress construction have come down to us, particularly from Roman times . In the 4th century, the late Roman military theorist Flavius ​​Vegetius Renatus wrote Epitoma rei militaris, a work on the military and warfare that was considered a standard work in the Middle Ages and well into modern times.

On the history of scientific strategy thinking

Clausewitz 'work On War , ed. Berlin 1957, location Sächsische Landesbibliothek - State and University Library Dresden (SLUB).

The first approaches to scientific engagement with strategic questions can be found since the beginning of modern times, for example in Niccolò Machiavelli ( The Art of War ) and others, whereby these mostly referred to ancient authors such as Thucydides .

The book Vom Kriege by Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831), which first appeared in 1832, made an important contribution to the development of strategic scientific thinking . Clausewitz presented an in-depth strategic analysis of the war phenomenon; He described connections between political goals and the use of military means as well as the risks associated with war.

The interplay of theory and practice that is characteristic of strategic studies was already defined by Clausewitz in terms of the art of war and the science of war, which he differentiates by the purpose: creating and producing versus research and knowledge.

Clausewitz's striving for objectivity and predictability, his deep aversion to the danger of war degenerating and the accompanying dynamic towards what is now called total war , was increasingly underestimated in the second half of the 19th century.

After the First World War a school of thought developed in Great Britain , which was shaped by military historians, journalists and retired soldiers and whose aim was to learn lessons from history and about the use and use of military power, the importance of leadership, weapons technology and to research the interplay between politics and the military. It was above all Basil Liddell Hart and JFC Fuller who were considered the founders of a strategic science.

Here you can see the critical arguments with the appeasement policy of Great Britain, the mistakes in the early days of the war and the analyzes of the course of the war, the diplomacy of the Allies and the end of the war. Their work by Liddell Hart and Fuller on World War II sought a high degree of objectivity

In Germany there was a similar development: Here the history of the art of war by Hans Delbrück , published from 1901 on, should be mentioned.

The view of a science of war changed noticeably in the middle of the 19th century. to a negative attitude in the German military. On the other hand, from 1857 by v. Moltke the Elder (1800–1891) founded his own military science department in the Prussian General Staff , which was composed of historians, statisticians and geographers d. H. was almost ideally staffed for strategic work.

A German school of strategic scientific thought spread through defense science in Europe in the mid-1930s. Their influence on Soviet (Russian) military science and its concept of strategy is clearly demonstrable. When Karl Linnebach (1879-1961) in 1939, a definition is given to military science that identifies later a great similarity with the concept of military science in the Soviet Military Encyclopedia forty years in the comparison.

For the formation of the institutional strategic studies

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In the years after the Second World War, the science branch of strategy received a further impetus from the beginning of the nuclear age.

In the USA in particular, strategic issues began to be dealt with independently, nurtured from the motivation to understand the consequences of the introduction of nuclear weapons for international relations and to understand the East-West conflict that was emerging from 1947 onwards. The main focus was therefore on the role of nuclear weapons in the Western strategy of deterrence as well as on the analysis of the strategic goals of the Soviet Union . The reorganization of the West also became a separate subject of analysis (Atlantic Alliance, European integration ).

An unusual approach to politics for academic disciplines was also taken. Especially in the USA, representatives of strategic studies were involved in the process of political decision-making, because in a situation of strategic confusion it was necessary to look for standards for a clever strategic policy.

The reorganization of the West also became a separate subject of analysis (Atlantic Alliance, European integration ). The consequences of the foreseeable nuclear stalemate between the USA and the Soviet Union from the end of the 1950s on international stability and the defense of the West meant that arms control and disarmament became central topics of strategic studies.

In France, too, the sociologist Raymond Aron and General André Beaufre were serious authors who participated in the international strategic debate.

A strong community remained in Great Britain, which, not least under the influence of Basil Liddell Hart (who died in 1970), grew together and bore its political and academic fruits. Particularly important was the establishment of the Institute for Strategic Studies (ISS) in London by the journalist and Labor politician Alastair Buchan, who was also influenced by Liddell Hart, the Labor politician (and later Minister of Defense) Denis Healey and the British military historian Michael Howard . The ISS soon became an international institute as the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) and has been the international center of the political-strategic debate since the 1960s.

Otherwise, only a small strategic studies community emerged on the continent, with names such as Wilhelm Cornides , Lothar Rühl , Uwe Nerlich, Karl Kaiser and Helga Haftendorn in Germany and Curt Gasteyger , Daniel Frei and Kurt R. Spillmann in Switzerland Association.

Features of the strategic studies

The strategic studies are not an independent scientific discipline, but rather an interdisciplinary project. Characteristic is the extraordinarily well-developed interdisciplinarity in strategic science. This is practically constitutive for strategic science and is considered its trademark. What is special about Strategic Studies is that political scientists, historians , economists , lawyers , physicists , sociologists , Islamic scholars , Slavists , Indologists , sinologists and many other disciplines work together and that practitioners from politics and the military also participate in this exchange .

As a rule, “strategic” is understood to mean all those political processes and events where, as a result of the direct or indirect use of power (and that often means, but by no means exclusively, the use of military force), essential political decisions are made. For this reason, strategic studies have always focused on wars , military interventions, the use of military means or their taming through arms control or disarmament . The scientific occupation with strategic questions, also called strategy theory, examines above all the interactions between political and military action. The subjects of investigation are also political and military decisions, the goals and conditions on which they are based, and the effects of these decisions.

The common concern of the Strategic Studies was and is not to tackle security policy issues of war and peace and strategic change by taking sides or resorting to normative categories (how to prevent wars?), But rather according to the effectiveness of objective laws or the effects of historical development trends ask. The focus was always on the question of how is military power used for long-term political goals and how does military power prevail against others and how are political developments initiated, influenced or changed as a result?

In contrast to a prejudice that can be heard over and over again, strategic science is not a science that advocates war, but rather seeks to prevent wars or to moderate them or to end them quickly. The objective of the strategic studies is to develop methodologically and empirically robust theories that recognize regularities in dealing with the use of military power. This should allow conclusions to be drawn about political and military decisions in order to optimize and forecast them.

Strategic studies usually start from an understanding of science that is committed to pragmatism . Correspondingly, the methodological and theoretical foundation is less oriented towards the concepts of scientism and constructivism , and more towards traditional methods and theories.

Most representatives of strategic science did not participate in the scientistic turn of political science. Most representatives of strategic science do not consider the growing tendency to use methods borrowed from the natural sciences to search for as timeless and generally valid knowledge as possible. They tend to focus on trying to use hermeneutic methods to find a more comprehensive and complex understanding of political and historical developments. This does not rule out the fact that there are general principles and laws, but these are seldom in the foreground.

In contrast to the main currents of political science, which has been strongly institutionalized in recent decades, representatives of strategic science have from the beginning a stronger tendency towards theories of realism or variants of realism. Most strategy theorists are close to realism in international relations , often because of their proximity to defense policy practice . In the 1990s, the predominantly constructivist approach of Critical Security Studies arose as a result of the increasing academic criticism of its normative and epistemological foundations .

Examples of topics in strategic studies

A number of topics emerge from the broad field of strategic studies that have been and still are the subject of scientific analysis with a certain regularity.

Relationship between strategy and technology development

The main focus was and is on questions that deal with the “connection between strategy (that is, the indirect use of military means of power) and technological development”.

This was the continuous theme of JFC Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart's work in the 1920s and 1930s on the consequences of mechanizing armed forces.

In the United States, before and during World War II , Bernard Brodie analyzed the relationship between new technologies and the strategy and tactics of naval forces. After the end of the war, the debate about the importance of technological change for the conduct of war and the associated strategic consequences continued.

Today the main focus of strategic studies is on the so-called Revolution in Military Affairs , or more precisely on the increasing use of modern information processing technologies. In particular, the great progress that the USA has made and continues to make in this area and the consequences for other states are the focus.

In the context of this occupation, the term strategy was increasingly defined and developed from a purely military to a politico-military term. Basil Liddell Hart and Alastair Buchan were again important masterminds of this developing general strategy debate . On the one hand, the term “ indirect strategy ” coined by Liddell Hart was important , which means that both on the battlefield and in strategic politics, indirect approaches are often more promising than direct attempts to challenge the opponent's forces.

Even more important, however, was the analysis of strategic challenges (and related strategic responses) carried out by Buchan and others, which targets a broad spectrum of threats including both military and non-military challenges and which includes various political and technological frameworks.

In this context, the term Grand Strategy was developed, which is intended to include more than just the entirety of all war plans, but also includes all political and military measures of a state that are suitable for the survival of this state in dealing with international challenges guarantee.

Western democratic polities versus totalitarian dictatorships

Another topic is the "How Western democratic communities deal with totalitarian (or semi-totalitarian) dictatorships". The decisive factor was the experience of British and French politics in dealing with Hitler in the late 1930s, which led Winston Churchill to the judgment that World War II would have been avoidable had the Western powers resisted Hitler's endeavors in good time and resolutely.

Avoiding the mistakes of this policy, especially in dealing with the Soviet Union under Stalin and his successors, was a major concern of strategic science in the 1950s to 1980s.

The aim of most of the analyzes was to uncover weaknesses in Western politics, in particular to avoid what Walter Lippmann had reproached the Western democracies in the 1950s: They would either have reacted too harshly and too nationalistically in important situations or were far too indulgent towards them Dictatorships. During the time of the East-West conflict, the focus was on which political-military strategy of the West could best be used to counter the Soviet threat.

The nuclear deterrent theory became a central field of activity in strategic science. The scientific preoccupation with questions of nuclear strategy came back from the widespread unease about the strategy of massive nuclear retaliation ( massive retaliation ) of the administration of President Dwight Eisenhower .

While in the first few years the focus was on the question of how the most effective deterrent effect could be achieved with nuclear weapons under conditions of US superiority, from the end of the 1950s the nuclear deterrent theory focused on the question of how under conditions of nuclear vulnerability of the USA a sufficient deterrent effect against a Soviet attack from Western Europe could still be maintained.

The 1970s and 1980s saw debates about the ability to be superior in strategic nuclear attack as a prerequisite for Western defense strategy. Analyzes were also made that addressed leadership skills and political communication under the conditions of a war that had already become nuclear. A lot of space was also given to the development of an alliance strategy. Here the difficult connections between politics and military strategy became particularly clear.

Arms control and non-proliferation

An important field of strategic studies has always been the area of arms control and non-proliferation policy (en. Non-proliferation) of weapons of mass destruction.

Arms control is understood to mean all measures and arrangements that have the purpose of reducing military, strategic and political problems, instabilities and threats that result from weapons, armaments and / or armaments technologies. It is typical of strategic studies that they put arms control and not disarmament in the foreground. Arms control is the pragmatic alternative to the utopian idea of ​​disarmament, without it being intended to exclude the fact that disarmament is actually feasible (as with chemical weapons, for example). Arms control differs from the goal of disarmament in that the abolition of weapons does not have to be the best means of countering arms-related risks in every case.

Arms control became a central issue, especially at the height of the East-West conflict , especially nuclear arms control. Examples are the ABM contract (1972–2002), the INF contract (1988–2019) and the START contracts (since 1982) .

While at the time of the East-West conflict, strategic nuclear arms control was in the foreground (i.e. how can a nuclear weapons war be prevented accidentally or through a wrong crisis decision, how can race risks be contained), the final phase of the East-West conflict was above all characterized by efforts towards conventional arms control. A large number of studies in strategic science have accompanied these efforts, supported them and often also developed them conceptually. In addition, efforts to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction always played a large part in strategic studies .

After the end of the East-West conflict, the focus of academic work shifted to questions of non-(further) dissemination policy , although the topics are different today than they were in the 1970s and 1980s. Back then, the main concerns were countries like Germany or Japan, today the focus is mainly on emerging countries from Asia, the Middle East, Latin America and Africa.

The arms control architecture from the legacy of the bloc confrontation requires due to the different types of contract components, agreements and obligations and their staggered duration, a time-related view of the status of implementation. To analyze this, the two major nuclear powers - Russia and the United States - prepare (foreign) policy reports on the compliance of the negotiating partners for political decision-makers and for Congress as well as for the general public.

Since the early 2000s, in an ongoing discourse, the two nuclear powers have been accusing each other of failing to comply with the rules and of breaching these and other arms control agreements. The published assessments of the other contracting state subsequently triggered counter-arguments from the other side, which in turn reached the public in the form of diplomatic papers.

Since the INF contract was terminated by the USA and the New START contract threatened to expire, the strategic studies have dealt with the problem of maintaining strategic stability under the changed conditions. The research focuses on the opportunities and possibilities for creating a multilateral strategic balance between all nuclear powers.

Russia responded to the introduction of high-precision non-nuclear weapons systems (precision weapons) with the presidential decree of June 2, 2020 on the basis of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the field of nuclear deterrence .

The strategic impact on deterrence and strategic stability continues to be controversial.

Analysis of regional conflicts

In addition to dealing with the Soviet Union and arms control and other instruments to maintain stability, “analyzes of regional conflicts” have always played an important role in strategic science.

This primarily affected the geopolitical conflict zones during the East-West conflict: the Near and Middle East, East Asia, South Asia, Latin America but also Southeast Europe and - albeit later - Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of the studies looked at the local and regional causes of conflict - which often had to do with post-colonial upheavals - as well as the role of foreign intervention powers. Some regional conflicts only became interesting for strategic science because they included the parties to the East-West conflict.

After the end of the East-West conflict, the importance of regional studies in the context of strategic science has increased significantly. Regional conflicts are now analyzed less in the context of a larger strategic context, but rather as “ sui generis ” conflicts or as part of a reorganization of a region (or as a symptom of a disintegration of the order). What is special about many strategic regional analyzes is that they combine an investigation of the complex causes of the conflict with an analysis of the conflict dynamics. The intention is then to determine potential dangers (spread to other actors, escalation of violence; high human casualties) and to point out possibilities for political solutions. Attempts are also made to analyze instruments for external conflict mediation or conflict management.

Strategic development potential

Another area of ​​regional analysis is to analyze the “strategic development potential” of regions in which major economic development processes take place.

Comparisons with Europe at the end of the 19th century are the starting point for such analyzes. In Europe, at that time, such a tremendous transformation of the economy and society took place that all structures of political and social regulation and the international order that had existed up to that point were eroded and the bloodiest war in modern history was triggered in 1914.

Today one can experience comparable processes in East Asia (or Asia-Pacific), which are stimulated by the enormous economic rise of first Japan, then the Asian tiger states and now China. In particular, the enormous economic growth of the People's Republic of China, which has lasted for almost 30 years, is currently spurring the imagination of many strategic experts, because thanks to the size and importance of China, a transformation is taking place here that suggests strategic shifts of an almost tectonic character.

near and Middle East

Another region whose development is many strategic analysts cause for concern, the Near and Middle East .

The starting position is different here. The main problem here is not the possibility of tectonic shifting thanks to successful economic development, but the lack of economic development that includes broad strata of the population despite the continuous massive influx of financial resources over the past 30 years. The so-called Extended Middle East today has similarities with Europe at the beginning of the 20th century in that extremely violent and nihilistic ideologies are emerging here, which have the potential for a new form of totalitarianism . The greatest concern is the emergence of the most extreme forms of terrorism, which one day might not shy away from the use of weapons of mass destruction.

Asymmetrical warfare and international terrorism

The interest of strategic science in questions of "asymmetrical warfare and international terrorism " should also be seen in connection with the pursuit of regional developments .

In particular, the Vietnam War , which was lost for the US because political support was lost in its own country, aroused the interest of many strategic experts and led to a large number of studies that took up strategies and tactics of asymmetrical warfare (guerrilla warfare) . After the end of the Vietnam War, this type of study was quiet for a while, only the negative experiences of the US armed forces in Lebanon and Somalia, as well as the attacks of September 11, 2001, have again drawn attention to the fight against terrorists and irregulars Combatants steered. Today, strategic experts in many countries deal with these questions.

Closely related to this is the analysis of the so-called “new wars” - mainly low-intensity wars taking place in Africa, Asia and Latin America - which nevertheless last for decades and can lead to the decline of entire states and regions (especially in Africa). The characteristic of the new wars is that they take place less between states, but primarily within unstable or failed states and that the war is often conducted by irregular, lightly armed units. As in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, self-perpetuating forms of war are developing, which mean that they can hardly be prevented by external intervention.

Where these wars take place in resource-rich areas, there are transnational structures that maintain such conflict patterns in the long term and contribute to making warfare a profitable business for many " warlords " and " liberation movements ". As a rule, the actors in the new wars do not adhere to the principles of international humanitarian law, but are often characterized by massive and systematic attacks against the civilian population. In relation to international interventions, asymmetrical strategies are often used.

Alliance relations among democratic states

Another focus is on the "management of alliance relationships among democratic states".

This reflects the special role of NATO as an alliance for which there is no parallel in history. The new thing about NATO was and is that it represents a form of permanent cooperation (and integrated command formation). With the end of the East-West conflict, the questions and challenges of strategic science in the area of ​​alliance management have shifted. The main question today is what role a group of democratic states can play in the creation and defense of a cooperative international order and what role military instruments can play in this.

In this context, the preoccupation with questions of "international order" has increased significantly. At the moment the debate is moving between two different poles: between a very strongly institutionalist understanding of order, which is preferred by Europeans in particular, and a more liberal concept of order that mixes with elements of realistic theory.

Centers of strategic research

The great powers, especially the nuclear powers, maintain important centers of strategic research. It is worth highlighting important centers located in Anglo-Saxon countries, primarily in the USA, Great Britain and Australia. More than 40 institutes in Russia can be assigned to strategic research (see below).

A distinction must be made between those strategic branches of science that are carried out at universities and those that are set up at independent or independent research institutes and are mostly located in the respective capitals. Graduates of Strategic Studies in Anglo-Saxon countries often switch to security-relevant public authorities in their home countries, as well as to intelligence agencies and defense institutions.

Centers in Great Britain

In addition to the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) in London is an important center of strategic science . The IISS is a membership association that has more than 2000 individual and supporting members and whose publications, conferences and other activities represent the core of strategic science in a global network. Above all, the institute publishes the annual "Military Balance", an overview of the armed forces of all countries in the world, their defense spending and other relevant data. It also publishes a strategic survey every year, which summarizes the most important strategic events of the past year. The IISS also publishes a magazine ("Survival") and various series of publications.

There are several institutes and chairs at British universities that offer the Strategic Studies course and conduct scientific research in this area. The University of Aberdeen in Scotland offers a successfully running and recognized Master’s program for over 30 years, which is composed of an international pool of students and offers a regularly updated course program. The Department for War Studies at King's College in London is well known. You can also study Strategic Studies at the University of Reading and Aberystwyth University . A few other UK universities offer related security policy programs, such as Oxford and Cambridge.

Centers in the USA

In the United States, strategic studies can mainly be found at Ivy League universities. First and foremost, the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs and the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs at Harvard Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University and the Paul Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University ( Washington and Bologna). The Georgetown University and George Washington University (both Washington, DC) and the Stanford University in California and the Princeton University for scientific work in the Strategic Studies.

In addition, strategic studies in the USA are mainly carried out at research institutes, which are mostly privately financed, but some are also state financed. These include Washington, DC-based think tanks such as the Brookings Institution , the Center for Science and International Affairs (CSIS), and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . The RAND Corporation (Santa Monica and Washington, DC) is the largest think tank in the United States, but only a fraction of its scientists are engaged in strategic science. RAND Corporation operates largely, but not exclusively, on the basis of government contracts. The Institute for National Strategic Studies at the National Defense University in Washington, DC is also important. In addition, there are a large number of small and medium-sized institutes in the USA, mostly in the federal capital or in the “beltway” around it. Some of them are politically oriented (like the conservative Heritage Foundation or the left-liberal Arms Control Association and the Federation of American Scientists ). Many are relatively loosely tied to politics (like the Nixon Center and the Stimson Center) and try to work with all political forces. But there are also a few universities in California and Georgia where research on strategic issues is carried out on a large scale and with interesting results (Monterrey Institute of International Studies; University of Atlanta).

Centers in the Asia-Pacific region

In the Asia-Pacific region, Singapore and Australia are particularly important for strategic science. At Nanyang University in Singapore, the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies has become the most important independent think tank in Asia for security policy issues. In Australia, the Strategic and Defense Studies Center of the Australian National University is a leading institution.

Centers in Germany

In Germany, the most important research institute for strategic issues is that of the Science and Politics Foundation in Berlin, which employs over 150 people, many of whom deal with strategic issues. The research institute of the German Society for Foreign Policy (DGAP) should also be mentioned. Also important are the Bundeswehr Center for Military History and Social Sciences , formerly the Military History Research Office in Potsdam and the Bundeswehr Transformation Center in Strausberg near Berlin (formerly Waldbröl). Both are institutions supported and financed by the Bundeswehr. The tendency can be observed that local centers place more emphasis on peace policy aspects than in Anglo-Saxon countries.

There is very little strategic science in German university political science, currently only in Kiel, Cologne, and at the University of the Federal Armed Forces in Munich . In Kiel, with the Institute for Security Policy , and at the University of Hamburg there are separate research institutes for security policy; The latter sees itself more as an institute for peace research, comparable with the Hessian Foundation for Peace and Conflict Research in Frankfurt. The Center for International Studies (ZIS) at TU Dresden works as a hybrid think tank (teaching and research) in the vicinity of the Army Officers' School in Dresden . The trade journal Sirius has been published since 2017 . Journal for Strategic Analysis .

Centers in Russia

In the Russian Federation , strategic studies on international politics, security, economic and social policy are being carried out in a large number of analytical centers and institutes in the multi-ethnic state. The National Library of Russia (RNB) - Center for Legal Information names around 40 institutions for strategic research in Russia (as of November 2019).

Important centers of strategic research operate as presidential or federal, state-budgeted scientific institutions. This includes:

  • Russian Institute for Strategic Studies (RISS), Moscow since 1992.
  • Analytical Center at the Government of the Russian Federation , Moscow since 1959.
  • Institute for International Studies (IIS), Moscow State Institute for International Relations (University) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia, Moscow, since 2009.
  • Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (MAGenSt RF), Moscow, since 1832.
  • National Research Institute for World Economy and International Relations "EM Primakow" (IMEMO), Moscow, since 1991.
  • Institute for Applied Economic Research (IAÖF), Moscow, since 2003.
  • Institute for Economic Policy “JT Gajdar” (Institut Gajdar), Moscow, since 1990.
  • Center for Strategic Studies of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Yakutsk, since 2012.
  • Center for Strategic Research (ZSF), Moscow, since 1999.

Some centers for strategic studies are branch institutes of the Academy of Sciences of Russia (AWR). This includes:

  • European Institute of the Academy of Sciences of Russia , Moscow, since 1987.
  • Institute for Problems of the Market (IPM), Moscow, since 1991.
  • Institute for Strategic Studies and Forecasts (ISIP), Moscow, since 2014.
  • Institute for Economic Strategy (IWS), Moscow, since 1990.
  • Economic Analysis Bureau (NEA), Moscow, since 1996.
  • Center for Global and Strategic Studies of the Africa Institute (IMEMO), Moscow, since 1959.

Important centers of strategic research are designated as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Strategic studies are also carried out there in the field of security policy, including military policy , and in the technology sector. This includes:

  • Academy of Military Sciences of Russia (AMWR), with the Research Center for Problems of Strategic Stability and the Center for Defense.
  • Center for the Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (ZAST), Moscow, since 1997.
  • International Institute for Newly Established States (IINS), Moscow, since 2008.

Several centers of strategic research work as independent (autonomous) non-profit organizations in various legal forms. This includes:

  • Society for European Studies (GES), Moscow, since 1992.
  • Institute for Social-Economic and Political Studies (ISÖPS), Moscow, since 2012.
  • Institute for Strategic Communication and Social Projects (INSTRATCOM), Moscow, since 2004.
  • International Institute for Strategic Studies “Vector” (IISS), Moscow, since 2007.
  • National Institute for Strategic Development and Management of Risks and Efficiency (NISE). Moscow, since 2015.
  • Center for Strategic Assessments and Forecasts , Research Center for Foreign and Security Policy, Moscow, since 2001.

Some strategic research centers operate as independent corporations. This includes:

  • Analytical Laboratory WEDI, (Ltd.), Moscow, since 1992.
  • International Center for Socio-Economic Studies “Leontiev Center” (IZSS), Moscow, since 1991.

The following institutions focus on strategic studies on economic and financial policy:

  • Association of Independent Centers for Economic Analysis (VUZÖA), Moscow, since 2002.
  • Research institute for the circulation of goods and the economy in the wholesale market (Institut FWKGH), Moscow, since 1987.
  • Institute for Comprehensive Strategic Studies (IUSS), Moscow, since 2001.
  • Institute for Financial Studies (IFS), Moscow, since 1996.
  • Institute for Economic and Social Studies (IÖSS), Volgograd, since 1996.
  • New Business Association (NEA), Moscow, since 2009.
  • Institute for Urban Economy , Fund (IUW), Moscow, since 1995.
  • Center for Macroeconomic Analysis and Short- Term Forecasts (ZMAKP), Moscow, since 2001.
  • Center for Strategic Studies of Socio-Economic Development in Southern Russia (ZSSSR), Rostov-on-Don, since 2017.
  • Center for Economic and Financial Research (ZSF), Moscow, since 2000.
  • Economic Expert Group (WEG), Moscow, since 1994.
  • Expert Institute for Social Research (EISF), Moscow, since 1994.

Others

Switzerland is an important continental political refuge for strategic issues, especially the Research Center for Security Policy at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich and the Geneva Center for Security Policy , they are important centers for security policy research and teaching. In France, the Paris-based Fondation pour la recherche stratégique has now established itself as an important think tank .

literature

References and comments

  1. ^ John Baylis, James J. Wirtz: Introduction. In: John Baylis et al. a .: Strategy in the Modern World. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press , Oxford 2007, p. 6.
  2. ↑ See technical terms for translation from Russian. In: Russian-German military dictionary. (Ed.) Horst Hochhut, Military Publishing House of the GDR (VEB), Berlin 1979, p. 157
  3. ^ Thomas Schneider: Lexicon of the Pharaohs. Artemis & Winkler, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1102-7 , p. 230.
  4. ↑ Ssun – Ds' (Ssunzi): Treatise on the art of war . Translated from old Chinese into Russian, German translation. Berlin 1957.
  5. ^ Clifford J. Rogers: The Vegetian Science of Warfare in the Middle Ages. In: The Journal of Medieval Military History. Volume 1, 2003.
  6. ^ Carl von Clausewitz: From the war. Dümmler , Berlin 1832; see. also Peter Paret: Clausewitz and the State. London 1976, and 2007, ISBN 978-0-691-13130-6 .
  7. ↑ Carl v. Clausewitz, Vom Kriege, Berlin 1957, p. 116 f.
  8. ↑ A notable exception was the book by the Russian industrialist and scientist Ivan Bloch entitled The War of the Future in its Technical Economic and Political Relations , which appeared in 1899. A shortened edition was reprinted in 2011 under the title Is War Now Impossible? Being an Abridgement of the War of the Future in its Technical Economic and Political Relations. Kessinger Legacy Reprints, ISBN 978-1-164-94552-9 .
  9. ↑ The major works in the 20s and 30s included: Basil Liddell Hart: The Remaking of Modern Armies. Murray, London 1927; The real war. A True History of the World War 1914-1918. Faber, London 1930; Europe in Arms. Faber, London 1937; Through the Fog of War. Faber, London 1938; for the biography of Liddell Hart see: Alex Danchev : Alchemist of War. The Life of Basil Liddell Hart. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1998, ISBN 0-7538-0873-0 ; and the critical appreciation by: John J. Mearsheimer: Liddell Hart and the Weight of History. Brassey's, London 1998, ISBN 0-8014-2089-X ; Tanks in the Great War were one of Fuller's major works . Murray, London 1920; The Reformation of War. Hutchingson, London 1920; The Foundations of the Science of War. Hutchingson, London 1926; On Future Warfare. Sifton Praed, London 1928; War and Western Civilization. 1832-1932. A Study of War as a Political Instrument and the Expression of Mass Democracy. Duckworth, London 1932; Decisive battles. Their Influence upon History and Civilizations. Scribners, New York 1940.
  10. ↑ Hans Delbrück : History of the art of war in the context of political history. Silke, Berlin 1901.
  11. ↑ Karl-Volker Neugebauer , p. 173.
  12. ^ Karl Linnebach: Defense sciences, their concept and their system . On behalf of the German Society for Defense Policy and Defense Sciences. Berlin 1939.
  13. ^ Author collective: Soviet military encyclopedia . (Selection). Issue 6. Military Publishing House of the GDR, Berlin 1979, p. 76 .
  14. ^ Raymond Aron: Peace and War. A theory of the world of states. S. Fischer, Frankfurt a. M. 1963, new edition 1990, ISBN 3-10-001004-3 ; André Beaufre: Dissuasion et stratégie. Armand Collin, Paris 1964.
  15. ↑ See David Curtis Skaggs: Of hawks, doves, and owls: Michael Howard and strategic policy. In: Armed Forces and Society. Vol. 11 (Summer 1985) No. 4, ISSN  0095-327X , pp. 609-626.
  16. ^ John Baylis, James J. Wirtz: Introduction. In: John Baylis et al: Strategy in the Modern World. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press , Oxford 2007, p. 6.
  17. ↑ John Baylis, James J. Wirtz: Introduction. In :, John Baylis u. a .: Strategy in the Modern World. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press , Oxford 2007, pp. 7-9.
  18. ^ JFC Fuller: The Reformation of War. New York 1923; JFC Fuller: On Future Warfare. Sifton Pread, 1928; Basil Liddell Hart: The Remaking of Modern Armies. Boston 1928.
  19. ^ Bernard Brodie: A Guide to Naval Strategy. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1944.
  20. ↑ Cf. Patrick Fitschen: The Transformation of the US Armed Forces. The realignment of the armed forces of the United States between 2001 and 2006. Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt a. M. 2007, ISBN 978-3-631-56504-9 .
  21. ^ Basil Liddell Hart: Strategy. Penguin Books, New York 1967, new edition 1991, ISBN 0-452-01071-3 ; Alastair Buchan: Was in Modern Society. An Introduction. Fontana, London 1968, ISBN 0-00-631806-1 .
  22. ↑ On the concept of Grand Strategy, see Michael Howard: The Forgotten Dimensions of Strategy. In: Foreign Affairs. Summer 1979, ISSN  0015-7120 , pp. 975-986, and Paul Kennedy: Grand Strategies in War and Peace. Yale University Press, New Haven / London 1991, ISBN 0-300-05666-4 , pp. 1-7.
  23. ↑ Winston Churchill: The Second World War. Vol. I: The Gathering Storm. Cassell & Co., London 1948, foreword and pp. 1-14.
  24. ^ Walter Lippmann: The Public Philosophy. On the Decline and Revival of Western Society. Little Brown & Co, Boston 1955.
  25. ^ See Henry Kissinger: Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy. WW Norton, New York 1957, new edition 1969, ISBN 0-393-00494-5 .
  26. ↑ See Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy. 7th edition. Palgrave / MacMillan, London / New York 2003, ISBN 0-333-97239-2 ; Desmond Ball, Jeffrey Richelson (Eds.): Strategic Nuclear Targeting. Cornell University Press, Ithaca / London 1986, ISBN 0-8014-9507-5 .
  27. ↑ Cf. K. Peter Stratmann: NATO Strategy in the Crisis? Military options of NATO and the Warsaw Pact in Central Europe. Nomos Verlag, Baden-Baden 1981, ISBN 3-7890-0634-3 ; s. a. Helga Haftendorn: Nuclear weapons and the credibility of the alliance. The NATO crisis of 1966/67. Nomos Verlag, Baden-Baden 1994, ISBN 3-7890-3425-8 ; Lothar Rühl: Medium-range weapons in Europe. Their significance in strategy, arms control and alliance policy. Nomos Verlag, Baden-Baden 1987, ISBN 3-7890-1354-4 .
  28. ↑ See Joachim Krause: Arms control. In: Wichard Woyke (Ed.): Handwortbuch Internationale Politik. 12th edition. Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Opladen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8252-0702-1 , pp. 473-484.
  29. ↑ See Hedley Bull: The Control of the Arms Race. Disarmament and Arms Control in the Missile Age. New York 1961.
  30. ↑ See Joachim Krause: Structural change in non-proliferation policy. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-486-56359-9 .
  31. ↑ See: Summary results for executives: Compliance and compliance with contracts and agreements on arms control, non-proliferation, etc. Disarmament. (en.) US State Department, April 14, 2020, 16 pp. Accessed July 17, 2020, URL: [1]
  32. ↑ For example: Compliance Report June 2020. Report of the United States Department of State to Congress of June 2020. “Compliance with and regulatory compliance with agreements and obligations relating to arms control, non-proliferation and disarmament” Translation a. d. Engl. By Rainer Böhme. In: Arms control in discourse. DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2020, July, Appendix pp. 63–170. [2]
  33. ↑ See: Synopsis on the Discourse on Compliance - Russia vs. United States (2017-2020). In: Arms control in discourse. Regulatory Compliance and US Compliance Report. Translation a. d. Soot. and Engl. by Rainer Böhme. DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2020, July, pp. 3–62. [3]
  34. ↑ See Wolfgang Richter: Nuclear Arms Control in Danger. The new arms race and the erosion of arms control are undermining strategic stability. In: (Ed.) Science and Politics Foundation (SWP). German Institute for International Politics and Security: SWP-Aktuell, No. 34, Berlin 2020, May, 8 pp. [4]
  35. ↑ See e.g. B. the report of the National Research University / School of Economics: Sergej A. Karaganow, Dmitrij W. Suslow: The new understanding of multilateral stability and ways to strengthen it. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme and Jörg-Uwe Laasch. In: (Ed.) Dr. Rainer Böhme, Multilateral Strategic Stability Between Nuclear Powers - Realistic? DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2019, November, pp. 7-16. URL: urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-361357 [5] . Original (ru.) "Новое понимание и пути укрепления многосторонней стратегической стабильности" published on September 13, 2019. http://svop.ru/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/REPORT_Rus_1.pdf
  36. ↑ a b Cf. also Joachim Krause: Multilateralism in Security Policy - European and American Perspectives. In: Johannes Varwick (Ed.): NATO - EU. Partnership, competition, rivalry? Budrich, Opladen 2005, ISBN 3-938094-10-9 , pp. 219-238.
  37. ↑ See full text of the document: Decree and Fundamentals ..., German translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Russia's Nuclear Deterrence Policy in the Early 2020s. DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2020, June, pp. 16–23. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-710566 [6]
  38. ↑ See pamphlet from Carnegie Moscow Center: Andrei Arbatov: A New Era of Arms Control: Myths, Realities, and Options. Translation from English by Rainer Böhme. In: (Ed.) Dr. Rainer Böhme, Multilateral Strategic Stability Between Nuclear Powers - Realistic? DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2019, November, pp. 17–40. URL: urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-361357 [7] . Original (en.) "A New Era of Arms Control: Myths, Realities and Options", published October 24, 2019. https://carnegie.ru/commentary/80172?mc_cid=4b57ed8c32&mc_eid=d9c7adc669
  39. ↑ See comment by Wilfried Schreiber and Standpunkt from the Carnegie Moscow Center by Dmitri Trenin: German translation from the Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Russia's Nuclear Deterrence Policy in the Early 2020s. DGKSP discussion papers, Dresden 2020, June, pp. 5–15. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-710566 [8]
  40. ↑ See Carsten Holbraad: Superpowers and International Conflict. Palgrave, London 1979, ISBN 0-333-25814-2 .
  41. ↑ See Karl Polanyi: The Great Transformation. Political and economic origins of societies and economic systems. Vienna 1944. (New edition: Suhrkamp, ​​1997, ISBN 3-518-27860-6 )
  42. ↑ Cf. Frank Umbach: Conflict or Cooperation in Asia-Pacific? China's involvement in regional security structures and the effects on Europe. Oldenbourg, Munich 2002, ISBN 978-3-486-56648-2 ; Aaron L. Friedberg: A Contest for Supremacy. China, America, and the Struggle for Mastery in Asia Pacific. W. W. Norton, New York 2011, ISBN 978-0-393-06828-3 .
  43. ↑ See Paul Berman: Terror und Liberalismus. European Publishing House, Frankfurt 2003, ISBN 3-434-50579-2 ; Bruce Hoffmann: Terrorism - The Undeclared War. New dangers of political violence. Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Frankfurt 2007, ISBN 978-3-596-17053-1 ; Walter Laqueur: War on the West. Terrorism in the 21st Century. Propylaen Verlag, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-549-07173-6 ; Jessica Stern: Terror in the Name of God. Why Religious Militants Kill. Harper Collins, New York 2003, ISBN 0-06-050532-X .
  44. ^ Graham T. Allison: Nuclear Terrorism - the Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe. Owl Books, New York 2004, ISBN 0-8050-7852-5 .
  45. ↑ See Edgar O'Ballance: The Wars in Vietnam, 1954–1980. Hypocrene Books, New York 1981, ISBN 0-88254-601-5 .
  46. ↑ Cf. Herfried Münkler: The new wars. Rowohlt, Reinbek 2002, ISBN 3-498-04487-7 ; Mary Kaldor : New and Old Wars. Organized violence in the age of globalization. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 2007, ISBN 978-3-518-45869-3 ; Christoph Daase: Small wars - big impact. How unconventional warfare changes international politics. Nomos, Baden-Baden 1999, ISBN 3-7890-6208-1 .
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  66. ^ RISS - presidential state-budgeted scientific institution. (en.) Russian Institute for Strategic Studies (RISS). (ru.) Российский институт стратегических исследований (РИСИ); URL: https://riss.ru/
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  69. ^ IIS - (en.) The MGIMO Institute of International Studies. (ru.) Институт международных исследований (ИМИ) Московского государственного института осных международ; URL: https://mgimo.ru/
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  80. ^ NEA - Fund at the Academy of Economics of Russia and the Public Service at the President of the Russian Federation (IAÖF AVwRuÖD). (en.) The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), Foundation. (ru.) Фонд "Бюро экономического анализа" (Фонд БЕА); URL: http://www.beafnd.org/
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  83. ^ ZAST - Russia's leading research institution in the fields of defense and security, defense industry, military-technical cooperation. (en.) The Center for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (CAST). (ru.) Центр анализа стратегий и технологий; URL: http://cast.ru/
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  86. ^ GES - Interregional Social Organization (IGO). (en.) Association of European Studies (AES). (ru.) Ассоциация европейских исследований (МОО АЕВИС); URL: http://aevis.ru/
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  89. ^ IISS - International Nonprofit Organization. (ru.) Международный институт стратегических исследований «Vector» (MICI); URL: https://iisr.ru/
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  104. ^ WEG - Independent Society for Policy Advice, Macroeconomics and Public Finances. (en.) Economic Expert Group (EEG). (ru.) Экономическая экспертная группа (ЭЭГ); URL: http://www.eeg.ru/
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