German Samoa

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German Samoa Islands,
Kingdom of Samoa
Location German Samoa Islands
Flags_in_the_colonies_of_ the_German_ Empire # Flags_ab_1891
Federal coat of arms of Germany # German Empire
( Details ) ( Details )
Capital : Berlin , German Empire
Administrative headquarters: Apia
Administrative organization: 11 districts
Head of the colony: Kaiser Wilhelm II , represented by the governor
Colony Governor: Wilhelm Solf
Erich Schultz-Ewerth
Residents: around 33,500 inhabitants
(as of 1911)
Currency: Gold mark
Takeover: 1878 - 1900
Today's areas: Samoa

German Samoa was a German colony in the western part of the Samoa Islands from 1900 to 1914 (de facto) and 1919 (de jure) . With the islands of Upolu , Savaiʻi , Apolima and Manono, it comprised the area of ​​what is now Samoa . Apart from the leased area Kiautschou in China , German Samoa was the only German colonial area in the Asia - Pacific region that was administered separately from German New Guinea .

In 1914 the area was occupied by New Zealand troops , placed under their military administration and in 1919 transferred to the administration of New Zealand as a C mandate of the League of Nations in accordance with the provisions of the Versailles Peace Treaty . Western Samoa remained under the supervision of New Zealand as a UN trust territory after the Second World War , from which it was given independence again in 1962. In official usage, the colony was only called Samoa, not German Samoa.

history

In 1722 the Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen was the first European to set foot on Samoa. The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes reached the archipelago in 1839 and appointed John C. Williams as the United States' trade agent in Samoa. The British appointed George Pritchard, a missionary from the London Missionary Society , as consul in 1847 . Since Samoa was an important base on the sea route from the Panama Canal to China and Australia , it was claimed by Great Britain , the United States and the German Empire .

From the late 1850s onwards, Hamburg merchants succeeded within a few years in gaining a position of priority over the British, Australian and American competitors. The head of the main agency of the Hamburg trading house Joh. Ces. Godeffroy & Son in the Samoan capital Apia , Theodor Weber , was appointed Hamburg consul in Apia on April 28, 1864 . In 1868 he became consul of the North German Confederation and in 1872 consul of the German Empire for Samoa and Tonga . Weber, who over the years acquired considerable private fortune, made the trading house the largest landowner in Samoa by purchasing 30,000 hectares of fertile land on Upolu.

On July 16, 1878 units of the corvette SMS Ariadne under the command of Captain Karl Bartholomäus von Werner occupied the villages of Saluafuata and Falealili on Upolu and hoisted the German flag there. This began the German involvement in a colonial conflict with the USA and Great Britain over the archipelago. In 1878 and 1879, Great Britain, the United States, and Germany signed trade agreements with Samoa.

Power struggles over Samoa

Map of the Samoa Islands with the capital Apia, around 1890

In 1879 the three powers interested in Samoa (Three Powers) intervened in conflicts between the Samoans to help their preferred candidate for the royal dignity, Malietoa Talavou, to victory in the dispute for power. On September 2, 1879, the Three Powers declared Apia and the area surrounding the city a neutral zone under the equal, joint administration of the consuls of these states. This municipal administration had the task of protecting the trade of Europeans and regulating the relations between Europeans and Samoans.

The German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck had a bill introduced into the Reichstag on April 14, 1880, the Samoa bill , according to which the German Reich was to guarantee the Disconto-Gesellschaft and other investors an interest rate set at 4.5% to ensure that as a result of his ventures in Samoa bankrupt trading company Joh. Ces. Godeffroy & Sohn to take over. A majority in the Reichstag rejected the request. The German Trading and Plantation Company of the South Sea Islands in Hamburg (DHPG) succeeded in acquiring the Samoan possessions of the Joh. Ces company with the capital of private investors, despite the lack of political backing. Godeffroy & Sohn with their extensive coconut palm plantations . The Deutsche Handels- und Plantagengesellschaft controlled almost half of the agricultural area of ​​Samoa around 1877. On March 10, 1881, the three powers installed Malietoa Laupepa , who was mainly supported by the British, as the successor to Malietoa Talavou, who died on November 9, 1880, as treaty king, Tupua Tamasese Titimaea, favored by the Germans, and, at least initially, in the struggle for power opposed the American sponsored Mata'afa Iosefo . In July 1887, a Samoa conference between the German Empire, Great Britain and the United States in Washington failed because the other powers refused to recognize a German mandate over Samoa.

Since 1880 there was a dispute among the Samoans about leadership in the country. Traditionally there was no central royal power in Samoa. Various Mata'i ( heads of families) fought for supremacy. The tensions between the local power groups and their protecting powers led to civil war-like conflicts in 1887–1889 and 1893/94 .

Because of a brawl at an imperial birthday party on March 22, 1887 in Apia between Europeans and Samoan guests of honor, including supporters of Malietoa Laupepa, the German consul Heinrich Becker had Laupepa disempowered and deported to Jaluit via Cameroon and Hamburg on July 17, 1887 . Becker made Tupua Tamasese Titimaea the king of the treaty and the artillery lieutenant Eugen Brandeis his advisor. On August 24, 1887, the German marine infantry occupied Apia. Tupua Tamasese was declared king under the salute of German warships.

Flag hoisting on Samoa on March 1, 1900 (photo montage with the imperial letter of protection in the background)
Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe , leader of the Mau-a-Pule movement of 1909
10th anniversary of the flag-raising in Samoa on March 1, 1910
Hoisting of the Union Jack in Samoa, August 30, 1914
Emergency note from 1922, in the text of which the loss of the German colony is deplored.

On the night of January 8th to 9th, 1889, a fire probably started by Mata'afa's supporters under the leadership of the American John Klein destroyed the German consulate and a large part of Apias. When the German consul Wilhelm Knappe arbitrarily declared a state of war on January 19, 1889 and the commandant of the gunboat SMS Adler took over the command in Apia, the English and American consul threatened to take countermeasures. Knappe was dismissed by Chancellor Bismarck, who rejected his demand for immediate annexation as "Ab irato (acted in anger)". His successor was Oscar Wilhelm Stübel . The Americans also recalled their consul and the commander of their corvette Adams , Capitain Leary. On November 8, 1889, the three powers reinstated the Malietoa Laupepa as king. In the tense situation there would have been armed clashes, had it not happened on 15/16. March 1889 the cyclone of Samoa destroyed several combat-ready warships and killed 52 American and 93 German sailors. The natural disaster brought the weakened competitors to the negotiating table.

Tridominium

At the Berlin Conference of June 1889, the longstanding power struggles were initially settled by the agreements of the Samoa Act . A formally independent Kingdom of Samoa was created under the joint administration of the Three Powers . The three great powers decided to convert the neutral territory around Apia into a municipal district. The judiciary was in the hands of the British and Americans, while the municipal council was headed by a German civil servant. Arnold Freiherr Senfft von Pilsach became the first municipal president . This tridominium worked more poorly than well until 1899.

Malietoa Laupepa died in August 1898. His long-standing competitor Mata'afa Iosefo returned from exile on a German warship from the Marshal Islands and was proclaimed a Tupu by the Samoans with the support of German troops .

The Anglo-Saxon powers supported the son of the late Malietoa Laupepa, Malietoa Tanumafili I. In January 1899, war broke out in Apia. British and American ships, the USS Philadelphia , the HMS Royalist and the HMS Porpoise , shelled the capital in March 1899 as it became clear that the German protégé Mata'afa would prevail. On March 23, 1899 Tanumafili was crowned the anti-king.

In order to prevent the conflict between Germans on the one hand and the Americans and British on the other from escalating, a commission of representatives of the three colonial powers came to Samoa in May 1899. On the USS Badger in the port of Apia, CNE Eliot, second secretary to the British ambassador in Washington, Bartlett Tripp, former ambassador of the United States to Austria-Hungary , and the German diplomat Hermann Speck von Sternburg negotiated an agreement on the partitioning of Samoa.

In the same year, the German statesman Wilhelm Solf , probably from the British side, was proposed to apply for the post of municipal president. He arrived in Samoa on May 3, 1899 and was elected to office on August 6, 1899.

German colony

The dispute over Samoa was finally settled with the Samoa Treaty of November 14, 1899. Great Britain withdrew from Samoa due to the Boer War that broke out in October 1899 , so that Eastern Samoa ( Tutuila , Manuainseln , Rose Atoll , Swains Island ) became American property and remained until today, while Western Samoa fell to the German Empire. The United States signed the Samoa Treaty on December 2, 1899 in Washington. The exchange of the ratifications took place on February 16, 1900. With a decree of February 17, 1900, the Samoa Islands west of the 171th degree of longitude west were placed under "German protection". On March 1, 1900, the imperial flag was hoisted on the Mulinu'u peninsula near Apia as a sign of the occupation of West Samoa . The first official act of the new governor Wilhelm Solf was the abolition of the royal rule and the establishment of Mata'afa Iosefos, who had the vast majority of the population behind him, as Ali'i Sili (Supreme Chief). Mata'afa was assigned an assembly of dignitaries (faipule) , which consisted of the local district chiefs and representatives of the respected Samoan families.

As early as 1903, Solf had to defend himself against attacks from the ranks of the German settlers who criticized his administration. Since the hopes of the German immigrants for quick profit had not been fulfilled, Richard Deeken , the president of the German Samoa Society, questioned Solf's personal suitability for the office of governor. In Deeken's opinion, Solf did not stand up enough for the interests of the small settlers and preferred the German Trade and Plantation Society. The planters' association led by Richard Deeken called for the establishment of a military government in Samoa and the introduction of compulsory labor for all Samoans. It was not until the end of 1904 that Solf was able to assert himself against Deeken's influence in the Reichstag and obtain his banishment and sentencing in Germany for mistreating Chinese coolies .

In 1904, the half-Samoan Pullack, son of a German customs officer from Apia, founded a Samoan copra trading company, the so-called Oloa movement or Cumpani , through which the Samoans tried to free themselves from the economic dependence of the Germans. This attack on the German trade monopoly threatened the economic foundations of the colonial power. Soon there was a clear loss for the plantations run by whites. Although Pullack was deported on charges of fraud, the Oloa movement did not end until 1905.

The Mau uprising of 1909 was not fundamentally directed against German rule, which was viewed positively by most Samoans. It was loosely organized and exploited traditional tensions among Samoan family groups. Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe (also called Lauati) gathered a large number of fighters, whose goal was the replacement of Mata'afa Iosefos by Malietoa Tanumafili I (1879-1939). When there was fighting between the warring parties in March 1909, Solf had three German warships patrol between the islands. Solf suppressed the Lauati insurrection non-violently through diplomatic means. He succeeded in negotiating to dissuade the insurgents from their plans. Lauati surrendered on April 1, 1909 and was exiled with 71 other Mau a Pule fighters to Saipan on the Mariana Islands .

When Mata'afa died on February 6, 1912, the position of Tupu was permanently overturned. Two influential chiefs were appointed advisers to the governor, who, however, was in no way bound by their advice or suggestions.

First World War

The First World War in Samoa ended German colonial rule over the islands within a few weeks. A governorate council convened by Governor Erich Schultz-Ewerth on August 5, 1914 and expanded to include representatives of the settlers and family associations decided not to oppose any military occupation of German Samoa. The colonial administration had all its important documents and money loaded onto the mail steamer State Secretary Solf and sent the ship to Pago Pago in neighboring and neutral American Samoa . The ship arrived there on August 6, 1914, just two days after the British declaration of war on Germany , and was interned by the US authorities .

On August 27, 1914, the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, consisting of the battle cruiser HMAS Australia , the light cruisers HMAS Melbourne and HMAS Sydney , the French armored cruiser Montcalm , the New Zealand light cruisers HMNZS Psyche , HMSNZ Philomel and HMNZS Pyramus and the two freighters Moeraki and Monowai of the Union Steam Ship Company from Fiji to Apia. The fleet arrived there on the morning of August 29th. After the port had been searched for mines in vain , around 1500 New Zealand soldiers landed on Upolu. The governor's deputy, Chief Justice Tecklenburg, informed the British commander of the expeditionary forces that Apia was an open city and therefore should not be shelled and that the governor was absent - who was in the neighboring village of Vaitele. The deadline for the unconditional surrender was then slightly extended, but the German colony was finally occupied without a fight.

Since there was no formal surrender, the German governor was deported to Auckland and from September 17, 1914, detained on the quarantine island of Motuihe . Guns were positioned on the beach at Apia and low trenches were dug at the crossroads. The New Zealanders announced that German law would continue to apply and initially assured the German civil servants that they would continue to be employed in their positions with full salary. Between September 7 and 12, 1914, all German officials who had remained in New Zealand's service resigned from their positions in order not to have to be regarded as aides to the occupation. On September 12, 1914, they were brought to New Zealand and interned. Since the German radio station had been rendered unusable before the occupation, the New Zealanders built their own radio system into the existing radio tower, but achieved a shorter range. On September 14, 1914, the large cruisers of the East Asian cruiser squadron , Gneisenau and Scharnhorst, appeared in front of Upolu. At Mulifanua the local German overseer and a planter were taken on board. They held a meeting with Maximilian von Spee before he continued the journey towards South America. The fight hoped for by some Germans and feared by the New Zealanders did not materialize. German colonists who had already set out to provide Spee as reinforcement and guide, were taken into captivity.

A replacement for the German officials came from New Zealand. New Zealand officers and civil servants for the most part brought in their wives. For the Germans, an obligation to register and a police hour were set, even a blackout was imposed. On Christmas 1914, New Zealand soldiers ransacked Apia's bars and shops in search of alcohol because their superiors refused to allow them to be alcohol-free. At the beginning of April 1915, the predominantly young, inexperienced occupation force was replaced by 150 older New Zealanders between 40 and 45 years of age. A planned internment of all Germans on the island was initially averted on the intervention of the Samoan chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi I , who was considered to be friendly to the Germans . Nevertheless, more and more German citizens and their family members were gradually brought into New Zealand captivity. On April 25, 1916, by order of the occupation authorities, all remaining Germans had to close their shops and liquidate warehouses. This now also threatened the independent existence of the last German planters who had previously received generous credit from the German shopkeepers.

Planned symbols for German Samoa

In 1914, a coat of arms and a flag for German Samoa were planned, but no longer introduced due to the outbreak of war.

  • Planned coat of arms

  • First draft for a planned flag

  • Second draft for a planned flag

population

In 1911 there were about 33,500 native and 557 European residents (including 329 Germans and 132 English), 1,025 so-called "mixed race" and 1,546 Chinese .

The German colonial administration denied lending to Samoans and forbade them to gamble and trade in alcohol and weapons. In order to end disputes, on February 28, 1903, Solf set up a so-called "Land and Title Commission" made up of experts in European law and Samoan conventions and regulations, which examined legal claims and tried to strengthen the land rights of the locals against German settlers. The Commission also helped protect traditional Samoan values.

In response to a request from the Mata'i on June 25, 1903, Solf initiated the general exemption of the Samoans from work for Europeans. As a result, European planters increasingly brought Chinese contract workers (so-called " coolies ") to the colony as cheap labor. They often complained about unworthy working conditions, as they had to spend ten or more hours a day in the fields without being allowed to leave the plantations. In addition, the farmers regularly made use of the flogging , which was forbidden to the locals. It was not until December 1909, after diplomatic intervention by the Chinese government, that corporal punishment was also abolished for Chinese workers in German Samoa.

Economy and Infrastructure

EM Lilien : Advertising poster (1905)

The basis of the Samoan economy was the coconut plantations and cotton plantations , the main export goods were copra and cocoa . Rubber , bananas , coffee , tobacco , vegetables and fruits were also grown on the islands . Wilhelm Solf ordered that every Samoan family had to plant 50 coconut palms annually on their fallow land. The grants from Berlin , which were required during the first eight years of German rule, were no longer required after 1908. The only other German colony that could exist without subsidies from the Reich was Togoland . Both protected areas were therefore regarded as so-called “ model colonies ”. The colonial rulers promoted the development of the public school system. By 1914, 320 schools had been established in Samoa, teaching bilingual German and Samoan.

A government hospital for Europeans opened on December 9, 1903, and a hospital for Samoans, including an attached polyclinic , opened in Motootua in January 1905. Samoan women were trained to be nurses .

On October 23, 1906, the local telephone network Apias went into operation. In 1904 the street lighting was switched from petroleum lanterns to gas light . In 1913, Telefunken began building a large telegraph radio station in Tafaigata, about 8 kilometers from Apia. A separate narrow-gauge railway was built for the transport of materials . The work could largely be completed by the beginning of the First World War. The construction of an electricity station and a water pipe did not get beyond the preparatory work.

Colonial administration

Governor Wilhelm Solf in Apia in 1910

On August 14, 1900 the Samoan self-government was solemnly introduced. The Samoans regulated internal affairs independently. The Samoa Treaty contained the abolition of the office of Tupu (chief), which had repeatedly caused disputes between 1880 and 1900. Wilhelm Solf negotiated with the chiefs to rearrange the internal affairs of Samoa. Mata'afa received the title of "Supreme Chief" (Samoan: Ali'i Sili ), who should serve as a mediator between the governor and the population. The council of the Mata'i (Samoan: Faipule) should support the Alii Sili. Kaiser Wilhelm II became the new head of Samoa and was given the official title Tupu Sili . Solf divided the two islands into eleven districts, each headed by a chief and a judge. He appointed a Mata'i head of each village who performed legal and executive functions, and in August 1905 he appointed an advisory board made up of the heads of the most powerful family associations ( Fono o Faipule ) instead of the chief councilors Tumua and Pule . At a traditional meeting (Samoan: Fono ), Mata'afa and the district chiefs were sworn in as German officials. The government council, which emerged from the municipal council, was in fact an advisory citizens' committee.

The poll tax introduced in 1901 was used exclusively for the purposes of Samoan self-government and was also administered by the Samoans.

Self-administration also included its own jurisdiction. In Samoa, there was, as in Guinea , no imperial colonial force , but only police forces , the Fitafita were called. The police force consisted of 30 men, mainly sons of the Mata'i, and was led by a German police master. The Fitafita was mainly intended for the orderly service, the service as boat crews, auxiliary policemen , honor guards and postmen . 20 to 25 state police officers were available as police enforcement and security organs.

A special feature of the German colonial administration of Samoa were the elements of internationality. Submissions could be made to the administration in English . The answers were usually in German . English was the language of the courts and in the “German” school English had a privileged position. Until August 8, 1914, a British citizen, Richard Williams, as a German civil servant, determined the guidelines of the administration on Savaiʻi.

Solf formulated the core of his policy in a letter dated November 25, 1901 to the former Imperial Commissioner on the Marshall Islands , Ernst Schmidt-Dargitz: "All radical means are evil, time and goodness and justice are the best government means in Samoa."

The German colonial history of Samoa is assessed differently by historians. The end of the civil wars, the protection of Samoan land outside of Apia from being sold to non-Samoans and the establishment of the “regional and title court” to regulate dubious claims (creation of land registers) have been effective to the present day and are the successes of the majority of colonial historians counted by the German colonial administration.

A large part of the colonial historians judged the colonial administration headed by Wilhelm Solf as governor as one of the most progressive and humane of the time. The self-government introduced by Solf as well as the peaceful coexistence of locals and German settlers was unique at the beginning of the 20th century and was essentially successful.

Other historians see Samoa, the “pearl of the South Seas”, above all as a means of gaining national prestige in international comparison.

“As a conclusion, the observation remains that the German colonial administration in Samoa consists of a mixture of romanticising ('protection' of the Samoans and their 'nature-bound' culture), discriminatory (Samoan, Chinese, Melanesian ' inferiority ', denial of German rights) and political motives (limited Samoan self-government) practiced racism. "

literature

  • James Wightman Davidson: Samoa mo Samoa. The Emergence of the Independent State of Western Samoa. Oxford University Press, Melbourne 1967.
  • German Colonial Society: Small German Colonial Atlas . Publishing house Dietrich Reimer, Berlin 1899.
  • Hans-Henning Gerlach, Andreas Birken : The South Seas and the German Seepost, German colonies and German colonial policy . Volume 4, Königsbronn 2001, ISBN 3-931753-26-3 .
  • Karlheinz Graudenz, Hanns-Michael Schindler: The German colonies . Weltbildverlag, Augsburg 1994, ISBN 3-89350-701-9 .
  • Peter J. Hempenstall: Pacific islanders under German rule: a study in the meaning of colonial resistance. Australian National University Press, Canberra 1978, ISBN 0-7081-1350-8 .
  • Gordon R. Lewthwaite: Life, Land and Agriculture to Mid-Century. In: James W. Fox, Kenneth Brailey Cumberland (Eds.). Western Samoa. Whitcomb & Tombs, Christchurch 1962.
  • Joachim Schultz-Naumann: Under the emperor's flag, Germany's protected areas in the Pacific and in China then and now . Universitas Verlag, Munich 1985, ISBN 3-8004-1094-X .

Web links

Wikisource: German Samoa  - Sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hermann Joseph Hiery : The First World War and the end of German influence in the South Seas (page II) ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  2. ↑ Hermann Joseph Hiery: For introduction: The Germans and the South Seas . In: Hermann Joseph Hiery (Ed.): Die Deutsche Südsee 1884-1914, a manual . Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2001, ISBN 3-506-73912-3 .
  3. ↑ RM Watson: History of Samoa, Chapter IV - Settlement Government and Trade (1839–1869).
  4. ↑ Aleš Skřivan: The Hamburg trading house Johan Cesar Godeffroy & Son and the question of German trading interests in the South Seas. Hamburg 1995, publications by the Association for Hamburg History, Volume 81, pp. 129–155.
  5. ^ A b Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf. ( Memento from May 29, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Federal Archives , From the Archives, Prehistory (I)
  6. ^ Rosemarie Schyma: South Seas. DuMont, Cologne 2009, ISBN 978-3-7701-2709-2 .
  7. ^ A b Hermann Joseph Hiery: On the historical significance of a German world traveler. An afterword to Otto Ehlers by Hermann Joseph Hiery. In: Otto E. Ehlers: Samoa. The pearl of the South Seas. (PDF; 1.6 MB) Lilienfeld Verlag, Düsseldorf 2008, ISBN 978-3-940357-04-5 .
  8. ^ Norbert Wagner (ed.): Archive of German Colonial Law. Convention of September 2, 1879 regarding the municipal administration of Apia. (RT-Vhdl., 4th LP, 3rd session, volume 65, file number 101, p. 728; PDF; 2.0 MB) p. 311.
  9. ^ Hoffmann: Fair weather capitalist. The time of July 31, 2003, No. 32
  10. ↑ a b c Jürgen Ritter: The unspoiled island. one day, contemporary stories Der Spiegel
  11. ↑ King Fonoti Tafa'ifa of Samoa: The Kingdom of the three Powers and their Associates in Samoa.
  12. ↑ Latest releases, 8th year. No. 14, dated February 19, 1889 , Berlin State Library - Prussian cultural property, digitization of the Prussian official press.
  13. ^ Norbert Wagner (ed.): Archive of German Colonial Law. Proclamation of January 19, 1889. (RT-Vhdl., 7th LP, 4th Session, 5th Vol. Appendices, File No. 138, Appendix 2 to No. 45, p. 878 .; PDF; 2.0 MB) Brühl 2008, p. 316.
  14. ↑ Dieter Giesen: Colonial politics between irritation and illusion. Prolegomena on a legal and social history of German colonial efforts in the Pacific using the example of Samoas (1857-89). In: Dieter Wilke (Hrsg.): Festschrift for the 125th anniversary of the Legal Society in Berlin. Berlin 1984, p. 212.
  15. ↑ Latest releases, 8th year. No. 18, from March 5, 1889 , State Library in Berlin - Prussian cultural property, digitization of the Prussian official press.
  16. ^ Norbert Wagner (ed.): Archive of German Colonial Law. Proclamation of November 8th, 1889 (RT-Vhdl., 8th LP. 1st session, 1st volume annexes, file no.64, annex to no.10, p. 568; PDF; 2.0 MB), Brühl 2008, p. 318.
  17. ^ A b Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf. ( Memento of November 18, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Federal Archives , From the Archives, Prehistory (II)
  18. ↑ Anneliese von der Groeben: XIV 8 - Memories of my parents' house. Theodore Radkte (Ed.): Senfft von Pilsach, Part 3.
  19. ^ Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Federal Archives , From the Archives, Solf took office (II)@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.barch.bund.de  
  20. ^ RM Watson: History of Samoa, Samoa under the Berlin General Act (1889-1899). , Apia 1917.
  21. ^ Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf. ( Memento from November 19, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Federal Archives , From the Archives, Wilhelm Solf took office (I)
  22. ^ A b Stan Sorensen, Joseph Theroux: The Samoan Historical Calendar, 1606-2007. Government of American Samoa
  23. ^ A b c Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Bundesarchiv , From the archive, Samoa becomes a German colony (I)@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.barch.bund.de  
  24. ↑ a b c Kathrin DiPaola: Samoa - "Pearl" of the German colonies? 'Images' of the exotic other in history (s) of the 20th century. (PDF; 1.2 MB) Diss. University of Maryland , 2004, pp. 116–125.
  25. ↑ National Archives
  26. ↑ NZ troops arrive to annex German Samoa in 1914 (pictures)
  27. ↑ Vaimoana Tapaleao: Day NZ Took Samoa from Germany . In: The New Zealand Herald. 29th August 2014.
  28. ^ A b Frieda Zieschank: The war breaks out, in: Ulrike Keller (Ed.): Travelers in the South Seas (since 1520). Promedia, Vienna 2004 (Original: Leipzig 1918), ISBN 3-85371-224-X , pp. 159–175.
  29. ^ German Colonial Atlas with Yearbook 1918, The Samoainseln (Schifferinseln). , German Colonial Society, Berlin 1918.
  30. ↑ Bernhard Großfeld (Ed.): Legal comparator - misunderstood, forgotten, suppressed. Münster studies on comparative law, Volume 62, 2000, p. 78.
  31. ↑ Guido Knopp et al. a .: The world empire of the Germans . Piper Verlag, Munich / Zurich 2011, ISBN 978-3-492-26489-1 , p. 172.
  32. ↑ Joachim Schultz-Naumann: Under the emperor's flag, Germany's protected areas in the Pacific and in China. Universitas Verlag, Munich 1985, ISBN 3-8004-1094-X .
  33. ↑ Hermann Joseph Hiery: School and training in the German South Seas, The German school and the government school for natives in Apia. In: Hermann Joseph Hiery (ed.): Die Deutsche Südsee 1884–1914. A manual. Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2001, ISBN 3-506-73912-3 .
  34. ^ Hermann Joseph Hiery: The German administration of Samoa 1900-1914, infrastructure and state health policy. In: Hermann Joseph Hiery (ed.): Die Deutsche Südsee 1884–1914. A manual. Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2001, ISBN 3-506-73912-3 .
  35. ↑ Reinhard Klein-Arendt: “Kamina calls Nauen!” The radio stations in the German colonies 1904-1918. 3rd edition, Cologne: Wilhelm Herbst Verlag, 1999, ISBN 3-923925-58-1 , p. 236ff.
  36. ^ Norbert Wagner (ed.): Archive of German Colonial Law. Governor 's address of August 14, 1900 (PDF; 2.0 MB) (Denkschr., RT-Vhdl., 10th LP, 2nd session, 5th vol., P. 2906 (2954 f.)), Brühl 2008, p. 332.
  37. ^ Hermann Joseph Hiery: The German administration of Samoa 1900-1914, The Samoaner In: Hermann Joseph Hiery (ed.): The German South Sea 1884-1914. A manual. Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2001, ISBN 3-506-73912-3 .
  38. ^ Horst founder: History of the German colonies. Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8252-1332-3 , p. 183.
  39. ↑ James Wightman Davidson: Samoa mo Samoa: the emergence of the independent state of Western Samoa. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1967, p. 83.
  40. ^ Christian Buhlmann, Antje Märke: A German "model colony" - Samoa under the cosmopolitan Wilhelm Solf.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Federal Archives , From the archive, Samoa becomes a German colony (III)@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.barch.bund.de  
  41. ^ Heinrich Schnee (ed.): Police troops. In: German Colonial Lexicon. Volume 3, Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig 1920, p. 71 ff.
  42. ^ Hermann Joseph Hiery: The German administration of Samoa 1900-1914, The European settlers In: Hermann Joseph Hiery (ed.): The German South Sea 1884-1914. A manual. Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2001, ISBN 3-506-73912-3 .
  43. ^ Eberhard von Vietsch: Wilhelm Solf. Ambassadors between the ages. Rainer Wunderlich Verlag. Tübingen 1961. (fn. 4), p. 65.
  44. ↑ Roland Samulski: The 'sin' in the eye of the beholder - racial mix and German racial policy in the Samoa protected area 1900 to 1914. In: Frank Becker : Rassenmischehen. Mixed race -. Racial segregation. On race politics in the German colonial empire. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-515-08565-3 , p. 355.


Coordinates: 14 °  S , 172 °  W