Alexander III (Pope)

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Pope Alexander III (* around 1100 or 1105 in Siena , probably as Rolando Bandinelli ; † August 30, 1181 in Civita Castellana near Viterbo ) served as head of the Roman Church from September 7, 1159 until his death . For almost twenty years he fought against the schism of the papacy with the German Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa and the English King Heinrich II . He is considered one of the most important popes of the High Middle Ages. During his tenure, the third Lateran Council took place in 1179 . Alexander III was the only Pope in history to be confronted with a total of four counter-popes in a row.

In the older research, Alexander III. usually identified with the Decretist “Magister Rolandus” from Bologna. However, this view has been challenged by John Noonan (1977), Rudolf Weigand (1980), and Kerstin A. Jacobi (2003).

Life

Rota of the Pope on a privilege from 1175 with the motto Vias tuas Domine demonstra michi

Rolando Bandinelli came from a noble Sienese family. Little details are known of his early educational path, but the influence of Gratian , Petrus Abelardus , Bernhard of Clairvaux , Gilberts of Poitiers and Hugos of St. Viktor on him can be recognized. Presumably in the period before 1142 he was a lecturer in theology in Bologna , where he mainly taught canon law , and later he became a member of the cathedral chapter in Pisa .

After he was in his service since the end of 1148, he was in 1150 by Pope Eugene III. appointed cardinal deacon of Santi Cosma e Damiano . In 1151 he was promoted to cardinal priest of San Marco , and in 1153 he was finally papal chancellor of the Roman Church. At the same time he was one of the most important advisers to Pope Eugen III. as well as his successors Anastasius IV and Hadrian IV.

In 1157, as papal legate, he brought Emperor Friedrich I Barbarossa to the Diet of Besançon, the letter of Pope Hadrian IV, which was largely written by himself. The first scandal was triggered by the address, in which it said, "Greetings from our most holy Father, Pope Hadrian and the entirety of the cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, the one as your father, these as your brothers." Cardinals on the same level as the emperor. This profoundly contradicted Friedrich Barbarossa's sacred conception of imperialism and the equality of emperor and pope.

In the letter, the imperial dignity was referred to as the papal beneficium . This term was ambiguous and could be translated both as "Benefit", but also as " Fief ". In order to prevent the risk of the papal side creating facts if the imperial side accepted this ambiguity without being contradicted, Friedrich's Chancellor, who later became Archbishop of Cologne, Rainald von Dassel , chose the tightening translation as a fiefdom. The papal intention became evident when Bandinelli did not contradict Rainald's translation, but with his statement "From whom does the emperor hold his office if not the Pope?" (A quo ergo habet, si a domno papa non habet imperium? ) added fuel to the fire. The emperor was outraged. There was a scandal and the present Count Palatine of Bavaria, Otto I. von Wittelsbach , even threatened Bandinelli with the sword. At the instruction of Frederick I, however, the legate was granted safe conduct for the journey home.

Pope election

After the death of Hadrian IV, Orlando (Rolando) Bandinelli was elected as his successor on September 7, 1159 by a clear majority of Gregorian -minded cardinals. However, a minority friendly to the emperor voted for Octaviano de Montecello . Since unanimity had previously been agreed for a lawful election, they considered Orlando not to be elected. When Orlando's followers nevertheless put the papal cloak on him, Octaviano tore it off again. The tumult broke out and Orlando took refuge in the Vatican fortress near St. Peter.

schism

On September 18, 1159 Orlando was in Cisterna near Rome in an election by his supporters as Pope Alexander III. approved. Two days later it was consecrated by Cardinal Bishop Hubald von Ostia in Ninfa, southeast of Velletri near Norma . Even if Alexander III. thus was considered elected in the prescribed form and consecrated Pope for the majority of the cardinals, Octaviano was born on October 5, 1159 by Cardinal Bishop Imar of Tusculum in Fara northeast of Rome consecrated and thus to the anti-pope Victor IV. raised.

In 1160 Pope Alexander III refused to appear at the Synod of Pavia convened by Emperor Frederick I , true to the principle that a Pope does not allow himself to be judged by anyone , while his opponent, Viktor IV, had attended in person. In his letter of invitation, the emperor had already indicated who he believed to be the rightful Pope and named Octaviano de Montecello as Pope Viktor, Rolando Bandinelli as Chancellor Roland. Obviously, an open-ended meeting was not intended. On February 13, 1160 was therefore about Alexander III. As an enemy of the Reich and a schismatic, the Reichsacht and the ban from church pronounced after the synod had previously confirmed the election of the antipope on February 11, as expected. Also on February 13, 1160 , Viktor IV excommunicated Alexander III. not least because of the conspiracy of Alexandrian cardinals with the city of Milan against the emperor, over which Friedrich Barbarossa had imposed the imperial ban and against whom he waged war several times since 1153.

In response, Alexander III excommunicated. thereupon on March 24th 1160 the emperor and the antipope in turn, announced by his legate , Cardinal Johannes von Anagni, in the Milan Cathedral. At the synod held in Toulouse in October 1160 , Alexander III. recognized by England , France , Ireland , Norway and Spain as the lawful and sole Pope. In Germany belonged Welf VI. , the Archbishop of Mainz, Konrad I. von Wittelsbach , the Archbishop of Salzburg, Eberhard von Salzburg and the great theologian of his time, Provost Gerhoch von Reichersberg to the party Alexander III. But since Frederick I conquered Milan in 1162 , Alexander III was able to. no longer hold in Italy and fled to France via Genoa. In a note to the French Chancellor, the Bishop of Soissons, Friedrich Barbarossa protested against the admission of Alexander into France at the zenith of his military power. Since Alexander had given a marriage dispensation to one of the sons of the English monarch, thereby damaging the territorial interests of the French crown, Alexander's relationship with the French monarchy was not free of tension.

The French monarch Louis VII and the German Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa had agreed a meeting on the imperial border in Saint-Jean-de-Losne on the Saône on August 29, 1162 , at which both popes were before an equal arbitration court in the presence of a large one Number of imperial princes were summoned, to which Alexander III. however, refused to appear, which threatened to dupe the French king. The late arrival of Friedrich Barbarossa at the place of negotiation in Burgundy prevented the French monarch from losing face, who only arrived at the Saône Bridge in the company of an envoy Alexander III. appeared and then withdrew to Dijon . The emperor's chancellor, Archbishop of Cologne Rainald von Dassel , gave a speech in Latin, German and French, in which he uncompromisingly stated the emperor's fundamental claim to the occupation of the episcopal chair at the center of his empire, Rome, without taking into account any objections of the provincial kings 'to be able to reside. This speech promoted the desired decision of the assembly in favor of Viktor IV, but represented an affront to the remaining Western kingdoms represented.

Apparently at the insistence of the French king, envoy Alexander III appeared on a court day in August 1163. at the Stauferkaiser, who initiated negotiations, which certainly gave rise to hopes for a favorable outcome of the talks. As a result of the death of Viktor IV. On April 20, 1164 in Lucca, Rainald von Dassel hurried there without consulting the emperor in order to elect Guidos von Crema as the new antipope Paschal III. enforce. As a result, the Archbishop of Cologne prevented any understanding with Alexander III.

Worse still: At the court conference in Würzburg in May 1165, the Cologne metropolitan succeeded in proclaiming the Würzburg oaths , according to which the emperor made an express commitment, never to Alexander III, but exclusively to Paschal III. and to recognize successors elected by his party as Pope. In addition to the emperor and his chancellor, the English ambassadors present and the ecclesiastical and secular princes of the empire also swore the oath on the antipope. Prelates and lay princes who were not interested in such an escalation of church policy, but also Alexandrian-minded church princes such as Wittelsbach Archbishop Konrad von Mainz or Hillin von Fallemanien then distanced themselves from the emperor. Against the Cistercians , who had been pro-Alexandrin since the beginning of the schism , the emperor even used armed force.

Alexander III, who returned to Italy in 1165 and operated from Benevento , did not limit himself to prayer and spiritual disputes: Barbarossa's rigorous policy in northern Italy was led by Alexander III. new allies too. In March 1170 he threatened all who disrupted the cohesion of the Lombard League with church censorship and excommunication in the papal bull Non est dubium . He not only allied himself with the imperial opponent Milan, but even financed a mercenary army . In return, in 1168 the Lombard League named the stronghold against Barbarossa and his allies after him: Alessandria .

Due to an outbreak of the dysentery , according to other sources of malaria in the imperial army, from which the Archbishop of Cologne Rainald von Dassel also died, the spiritual leader of the resistance, but above all due to the great faithlessness of his liege, Henry the Lion and the accompanying defeat of the Emperor against the Lombards at Legnano on May 29, 1176, Alexander III triumphed. finally about Emperor Friedrich I .: Already towards the end of 1167 Alexander III. made contact with the emperor through the French Cistercian abbots Alexander von Citeaux and Pontius von Clairvaux . In March 1169 the emperor met with the ambassadors of Alexander, where he made the demand that Alexander III. may his son Heinrich , who is to be elected king, anoint as co-emperor, Heinrich would then recognize Alexander as pope, while Barbarossa wanted to postpone his recognition until the question of schismatic ordination to priests, bishops and abbots had been clarified. A short time later, however, Frederick recognized the successor Calixt III, chosen by the cardinals of the late antipope . on.

Reconciliation with the emperor and end of the schism

Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa submits to Pope Alexander III in Venice in 1177.

The contacts between the Hohenstaufen imperial court and 'his' antipope had been since the death of Victor IV, at the latest since Paschal III. rudimentary, as the antipope barely had any great political weight. Since 1170 the emperor no longer insisted on the Würzburg oaths. The votes at court, which are aimed at a settlement with Alexander III. urged, gained weight; Abbot Hugo von Bonnevaux was invited to Lombardy. An imperial delegation negotiated a provisional contract with the Curia in Anagni to end the schism ("Vorfriede von Anagni"), which provided for mutual compromises on the question of schismatic consecration and a return of the Mathildic goods to the church. Alexander III accepted almost all bishops invested by Barbarossa, including such illustrious personalities as the Archbishop of Mainz and Chancellor Christian I von Buch or the Archbishop of Cologne Philipp von Heinsberg , who, contrary to the papal excommunication of the emperor in the investiture dispute, had admitted to this. After an agreement was reached on the venue for the peace negotiations, the Republic of Venice , which was under the Byzantine influence, Friedrich Barbarossa managed to delay Alexander III. to move to renounce the return of the fallen Mathildic goods. Finally, Alexander III reconciled. and Frederick I on St. Mark's Square in Venice in a moving scene. On July 24, 1177, Friedrich Barbarossa performed the strator service ; he kissed Alexander's feet and held the Pope's stirrups . In the Peace of Venice, the Emperor Alexander III recognized. on August 1, 1177 as the rightful Pope. The Imperial Chancellor and Archbishop of Mainz Christian I von Buch, one of Alexander's most determined opponents for many years, submitted to Alexander in connection with the Peace of Venice and militarily restored order in the Papal States (from Alexander's point of view). The Roman commune, however, expelled Alexander shortly after the Third Lateran Council (March 5–19, 1179), so that he spent his old age in various places within the Papal States.

Church dispute with the English king

Alexander had already achieved another triumph over the second most powerful man of his time. The English King Henry II had subordinated the church to the state through the Constitutions of Clarendon around 1164 . After a six-year dispute, Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in this regard . King Henry II of England had to fight with Alexander III. pick up part of the Constitutions of Clarendon and undergo a flagellation in Canterbury Cathedral on June 12, 1174 and then pray for a whole night at the tomb of the canonized Thomas Becket on his knees.

Lateran Council

To avoid further schisms, Alexander III. convened the Third Lateran Council. In March 1179 the council decided that a two-thirds majority of the cardinals' votes was necessary for a valid papal election . As a lawyer, Alexander III devoted himself. the canonical laws of marriage . He decided on new signs of usury and thus enacted new rules for prices and interest . It also affirmed the Holy See's sole competence for canonizations.

Pope Alexander III died in exile from Civita Castellana . His bones were transferred to Rome. However, his grave was destroyed by Roman citizens.

literature

Web links

Commons : Alexander III.  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ Georg Waitz and Bernhard von Simson (eds.): Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum separatim editi 46: Ottonis et Rahewini Gesta Friderici I. imperatoris. Hannover 1912, p. 174 ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica , digitized version )
  2. ^ Friedemann Needy : Die Staufer , Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-89678-288-6 , p. 26f.
  3. ↑ Georg Waitz and Bernhard von Simson (eds.): Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum separatim editi 46: Ottonis et Rahewini Gesta Friderici I. imperatoris. Hanover 1912, p. 177 ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica , digitized version )
  4. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , p. 69.
  5. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , p. 221.
  6. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , p. 286.
  7. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , pp. 83f.
  8. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , pp. 88f.
  9. ↑ a b c d Friedemann Needy: Die Staufer , Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-89678-288-6 , p. 14.
  10. ^ Jacques Le Goff (ed.): Fischer world history. Volume 11: The High Middle Ages. Frankfurt am Main 2005 (ND), ISBN 3-596-60011-1 , p. 96.
  11. ^ Heinrich Pleticha (Ed.): Nations, Cities, Steppe People - The World in the Late Middle Ages, Gütersloh 1989, ISBN 3-570-09656-4 , p. 252.
  12. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , pp. 104f.
  13. ^ Friedemann Needy: Die Staufer , Darmstadt 2006, ISBN 3-89678-288-6 , p. 15.
  14. ↑ Ferdinand Opll: Friedrich Barbarossa , Darmstadt 2009, ISBN 978-3-89678-665-4 , pp. 119ff.
  15. ↑ Jacques Le Goff (Ed.): Fischer Weltgeschichte Volume 11: Das Hochmittelalter , Frankfurt am Main 2005 (ND), ISBN 3-596-60011-1 , p. 242.
predecessor Office successor
Hadrian IV Pope
1159–1181 		Lucius III.
personal data
SURNAME Alexander III
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Rolando Bandinelli (presumed maiden name)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Pope (1159–1181)
DATE OF BIRTH around 1105
PLACE OF BIRTH Siena
DATE OF DEATH August 30, 1181
Place of death Civita Castellana near Viterbo