Powhatan

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Distribution of the tribes in Virginia around 1610

With Powhatan , Powatan or Powhatan Confederacy a powerful in the 17th century chiefdom of more than 30 Indian tribes of the coastal region around Tidewater east of Fall Line and the north Great Dismal Swamps in the east of present-day US state of Virginia called. The name is derived from the indigenous name Powhatan (Powatan) / Paqwachowng for the village and the tribe settling there (near the current capital of Virginia - Richmond ) as well as the navigable course of the James River (formerly: Powhatan River) to the Chesapeake Bay , as its chief Wahunsonacock built the Confederation between 1597 and 1607. The English took over this name and called the tribal alliance as well as its Paramount chief Wahunsonacock as Powhatan or as Chief / King Powhatan .

The tribes of the alliance were linguistically as well as culturally part of the Virginia-Algonquin and are generally summarized together with the North-Carolina-Algonquin in the south under the term Southeastern Algonquin . The tribes all spoke different, but mutually understandable dialects of Powhatan or Virginia-Algonquin , which like the Carolina-Algonquin (also: Pamlico) is one of the Eastern Algonquin languages .

residential area

The dominion of the Powhatan Confederation around 1607 comprised the Tidewater Region (coastal region) and the south of the Delmarva Peninsula (also: Eastern Shore of Virginia ) of the Atlantic coastal plain in the east of what is now the US state of Virginia and extended westward from Chesapeake Bay to Piedmont . The region is characterized by four large tidal rivers or their estuaries (mouths) into the Chesapeake Bay (from northwest to southeast): the Patawomeck (Tidal Potomac) River , the Rappahannock River , the Pamunkey (York) River and the Powhatan (James) River ; whose rivers mostly run parallel to each other less than 30 km apart. The Powhatan lived along the rivers mentioned and their tributaries east of the Fall Line , as the rivers were only navigable as far as here due to waterfalls or rapids for the tribes . In the south the area was bounded by the Blackwater River (so called because it is a black water river ) and the Great Dismal Swamps . Thus their tribal area was east of an imaginary line of cities (from north to south): Washington, DC (Potomac River), Fredericksburg (Rappahanock River) and Richmond (James River). In addition, the area is characterized by three large peninsulas , which are traditionally mostly called Neck in Virginia :

There is also another smaller peninsula called Pamunkey Neck , located between the Mattaponi River and the Youghtanund (Pamunkey) River in the south (the two largest headwaters of the York River).

The Powhatan (James) River also takes in other significant tidal rivers near Chesapeake Bay - such as the Appomattox River , Chickahominy River, Nansemond River and Elizabeth River .

The Chickahominy living in the "center" of this area along the river of the same name , from its confluence with the Powhatan (James) River near the later Jamestown in Charles City County to today's New Kent County had not joined the alliance and were able to maintain their independence.

Neighboring Powhatan peoples

When the English landed on the coast of Virginia, they entered a world shaped by mutual alliances, trade and war between neighboring peoples. The Powhatan were no exception here, as they had to fight on their borders with often hostile races, including some of the most powerful peoples of the time.

Along the entire Atlantic coast and the estuaries inland, the Powhatan had to reckon with attacks and raids by the now almost completely forgotten Iroquois-speaking Susquehannock (in Powhatan: Sasquesahanough - "people of the muddy river"), which were almost routinely organized by meticulously organized and large-scale military campaigns terrorized neighboring Algonquin tribes. They used their canoes for the fast transport of the warriors as well as their food and were able to bridge large distances in the water-rich area in a very short time; It is also reported that they had particularly sophisticated and variable weapons. The Susquehannock were described as noble, daring, but also aggressive, warlike, imperious (imperious) and bitter enemies of the Iroquois and Algonquin peoples and were considered one of the most dangerous and fearsome tribes in the region along the central Atlantic coast. The English and Swedes were also impressed by their enormous height, which set them apart from the neighboring tribes. Presumably out of fear of the constant attacks by the Susquehannock, there were no Powhatan settlements directly on the Atlantic coast or in the mouth of the rivers into Chesapeake Bay, but mostly a few kilometers inland.

And further in the far north south of Lake Erie , along the Niagara River and on the Allegheny Plateau, lived the much feared Massawomeck (closely related to either the Erie or the Susquehannock, later called "Black Minquas" part of the Susquehannock or "White Minquas") , possibly also part of the Mingo (Ohio-Iroquois) ), who regularly went for raids far south into the Shenandoah Valley and the Northern Tidewater Virginia.

In the Piedmont west of the Fall Line as far as the Blue Ridge Mountains , the two confederations of the Monacan belonged to the Eastern Sioux peoples (along the Upper James River west of Richmond) and the Man (n) ahoac (Mahock) ( Mahock) who settled north of them ( comprising at least eight tribes, along the Rapidan River and the Rappahannock River west / above the waterfalls near Fredericksburg) to the most powerful enemies of the Powhatan tribes.

In addition to the Powhatan, there were other powerful - but linguistically and culturally closely related - political alliances in the area of ​​the Chesapeake Bay - such as the chiefdoms of the Piscataway (Conoy) (Piscataway, Anacostan, Mattawomen, Nanjemoy, Potapoco, Pamacocack - possibly also loosely belonging to the Patuxent and Mattapanient) on the north bank of the Potomac River, who ruled most of the tribes in southern Maryland under the leadership of the Tayac (chief) and those on the other bank of Chesapeake Bay also under the leadership of a Tall'ac (female form: Tallakesk ) living Nanticoke in the river basin of the Nanticoke River as well as the Pocomoke (Pocomoke, Annemessee, Acquintica, Gingoteague, Manoakin, Monie, Morumsco, Nusswattux and Quandanquan) along the rivers: Pocomoke, Great Annemessex, Little Annemessex and Manokin.

Associated tribes

Between 1572 and 1597, Wahunsonacock , who the English called King / Chief Powhatan , inherited the chieftainship over the tribes on the Powhatan (James) River in his native land below the waterfalls, the Powhatan, the Arrohateck and Appamatuck as well as over the tribes along the Pamunkey (York) ) River , the Pamunkey, Youghtanund and Mattaponi (sometimes the Orapak, Kiskiack and Werowocomoco are also added to this.) Through clever politics, diplomacy and violence (with the Pamunkey he had the tribe that could provide the most warriors in the region ) Wahunsonacock finally succeeded in uniting over thirty tribes of the Virginia-Algonquin into one tribal empire. First the Kecoughtan were subjugated and partially resettled in 1597, then step by step until 1607 almost all other tribes along the James and York Rivers under the leadership of Wahunsonacock as Mamanatowick ("Great King or Leader", i.e. Paramount chief ) under brought and united a central control. As Mamanatowick , he usually determined allies or relatives as Wereonce (district chief) or Weroansqua (female district chief) for the subject and tributary tribes. It is likely that contacts with Europeans encouraged the emergence of larger political entities among the Virginia-Algonquin. Some of the most recently acceded or subjugated tribes, such as the Chesapeake and other peoples from southern Virginia, were never fully integrated into the alliance. The Chickahominy alternately allied themselves with their Powhatan neighbors or with the English to maintain their independence.

The tribes mostly lived along rivers , on the banks of which they built their settlements and the English therefore mostly named the tribes after their main village or after the river on which it was located. Geographically and therefore also politically, the Powhatan Confederation can be divided very well on the basis of the large rivers - as the greater the distance from the confederation's heartland along the Powhatan (James) River and along the Pamunkey (York) River, the influence of central power decreased and the tribes decreased on the fringes of the Powhatan area a greater autonomy could be obtained - however, they were strong allies of the Powhatan. The listing of the tribes below is based on geographical patterns and thus along the rivers that inhabited them; It is mostly assumed that the communication, trade and interaction (both in peace and in war) between tribes living along the same river were easier and therefore more intense, that these Powhatan tribes were often culturally and linguistically closer and each other differed from other Powhatan tribes (some historians therefore suspect different geographical dialect continua of the Powhatan or Virginia-Algonquin along the rivers , whose dialects usually differed only slightly from one place (or tribe) to the neighboring place (or tribe), so that always communication with the speakers in the immediate vicinity was possible without any problems - the further the distance, the greater the differences and correspondingly more difficult communication with each other). The indicated tribal numbers or number of warriors are based on estimates or reports which mostly go back to Captain John Smith (1580–1631) and William Strachey (1572–1621). The last mentioned year numbers refer to the first mention as well as the last mention of the respective tribe - z. B. 1585/1627 for the Chesapeake (source: Handbook of North American Indians ).

tribe from Chesapeake Bay upstream along the Powhatan (James) River and on the Virginia Peninsula
Chesapeake / Chesepian / Cassapecock lived in the confluence area - called Hampton Roads - of the rivers James River, Nansemond River and Elizabeth River in the Chesapeake Bay, their area included the present day cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth , Chesapeake and Virginia Beach. Their main village Skicoke was probably near the confluence of the Southern Branch and Northern Branch of the Elizabeth River in the urban area of Norfolk , another two villages called Apasus and Chesepioc were near Chesapeake Bay in what is now Virginia Beach . To the west of them lived the Nansemond; originally not a member of the Powhatan Confederation, according to archaeological evidence originally spoke a variant of the languages ​​of the North Carolina Algonquin , were destroyed and exterminated by the Powhatan before 1607, according to William Strachey, but their villages were afterwards by members of the Powhatan Tribes repopulated; their chief installed afterwards was Keyghanghton , approx. 100 warriors (335 tribal members). (1585/1627).
Nansemond engl. Pronunciation: "NAN-suh-mawnd", their land - which they called Chuckatuck - lay on both sides of the Nansemond River - and comprised the present-day cities of Suffolk and Chesapeake, four villages are known by name (the main village Nansemond , then Mattanock , Teracosick and Mentoughquemec ) , on Dumpling Island were their temples and the seat of the Weroance , but the English burned the sanctuary and the settlement down in 1609; their chief chief was Weyhohomo , other chiefs were Ampuetough, Weyingopo and Tirchtough ; approx. 200 warriors or 665 tribal members (according to Smith; Strachey) - however, according to the descendants, approx. 300 warriors or 1,200 tribal members. (1585 - today one of the state-recognized tribes of Virginia).
Appamatuck / Appomattoc / Apamatic along the Lower Appomattox River in the areas of the cities of Petersburg and Colonial Heights and the counties of Chesterfield and Dinwiddie in SW Virginia; The leading chief (Werowance) was Coquonasum and resident in the village of Wighwhippoc on the north bank of the Wighwhippoc Creek of the same name (now: Swift Creek), his sister Opussoquionuske / Opossunoquonuske (called by the English: Queen of Appamattuck / Hattica ) was a female chief (Weroansqua) the main settlement Mattica / Hattica ; 60 warriors or 200 tribal members (according to Smith) or 20 warriors or 65 tribal members and 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1607/1705).
Arrohateck / Arrohattoc lived in six villages east of the Powhatan on both sides of the James River in the area of Henrico County , Virginia, their main village was also on the James River on the site of what is now commonly known as Henrico area outside Richmond; their chief was Ashuaquid ; approx. 100 (according to Smith) or 200 tribal members (according to Strachey) - Feest estimates it to be at least 300 tribal members. (1607/1611).
Kecoughtan / Kikotan / Kiccowtan / Kikowtan lived in the area of ​​the Hampton Roads , their only known village of the same name was either in the urban area of ​​today's Hampton or Newport News , in 1597 Wahunsonacock (Powhatan) had killed the Weroance of Kecoughtan and his son named Pochins was appointed as successor, some members of the Kecoughtan tribe were violent relocated inland on the Piankatank River. (1607/1610).
Paspahegh lived opposite the Quiyoughcohanock mostly on the north bank of the James River and near the confluence of the James and the Chickahominy Rivers in today's Charles City and James City Counties and had several settlements upstream on both sides of the Chickahominy - Namqosick and Cinquaoteck on the east side of the Chickahominy and three not by name known villages - including the main village - on the west side, their villages closest to Jamestown (James Fort) ; their chief was Wowinchopunck (and remained so after the submission to Wahunsanocock (Powhatan)); 40 warriors or 135 tribe members (according to Smith and Strachey) - however Feest believes that these numbers are too low, and quotes George Percy (1607: 139-140), who stated that the Paspahegh chief was with the English "one hundred sauages ​​armed" attended and the next day "fortie of his men with a deere." sent. (1607/1610).
Potchiack / Potchayick lived along the James River in what is now Surry County , formed a new tribe in the early 17th century from scattered groups of the Nansemond, Warraskoyack and Quiyoughcohannock; approx. 30 warriors or 100 tribal members (according to Hening 1669). (1661/1669).
Powhatan / Powatan lived east of the falls (Fall Line) on both sides along the Powhatan (James) River and north of Kingsland Creek, their eponymous main village Powhatan (about "settlement at the falls") was in the immediate vicinity of the falls ( called Paqwachowng ) near the Today's capital of Virginia, Richmond, they also lived in at least three smaller villages not known by name (according to Smith), Archer (1607a: 86) mentions another village on Mayo Island in the James River on the opposite bank of the river from the main village, which he Pawatahs Towre (Powhatan Town) called; their chief was Parahunt , son of Wahunsanocock (Powhatan); According to Smith they had 40 warriors or 135 tribal members, Strachey estimates about 50 warriors or 165 tribal members, with up to 300 tribal members (according to Feest) being more likely due to the number of settlements. (1607/1670).
Quiyoughcohannock / Quiockohannock / Coiacohanauke lived on both sides of the James River in several villages downstream of the Weanock, who settled to the west, their main village called Quiyoughcohannock was the spiritual center of the Powhatan tribes, three villages are known by name: Quiyoughcohannock as well as Nantapoyac (possibly Zuñiga's Manattockapoyoughco ) and Chawopo , dashann from the earlier Quiyoughcohannock - Chief Chopoke / Choapock was led, there were also two other villages not known by name along the Chippoak Creek, often incorrectly referred to as Tappahannock after the capital of the northern Rappahanock ; their chief - appointed by Wahunsonacock (Powhatan) - was Pepiscumah (Pipisco) - other well-known leaders were the Weroansqua Oholasc and the Weroance Tatahcoope ; Estimates range around 25 warriors or 85 tribal members (according to Smith), 60 warriors or 200 tribal members (according to Strachey) up to approx. 300 and possibly more (according to Feest). (1607/1627).
Warraskoyack lived northwest of the Nansemond, in the southwest and west the north bank of the Blackwater River formed the natural border with the hostile Iroquois-speaking Nottoway (Cheroenhaka) , in the south lived along the Chowan River the Chowanoke, which belongs to the North Carolina-Algonquin, and bordered in the north their area on the south bank of the James River, their center was along the Pagan River and its confluence with the James River (near present-day Smithfield ) in the Isle of Wight County and they inhabited at least three villages; their chief was Tackonekintaco ; approx. 40 warriors (according to Smith) or 60 warriors (according to Strachey) and thus approx. 135 or 200 tribe members. (1585/1627).
Weanock / Weyanock / Weanoc / Weyanoke lived on both sides of the James River above the Quiyoughcohannock and Paspahegh and south of the Arrohateck and Appamatuck in what is now Charles City County , in the north their area bordered on that of the Chickahominy , who were able to maintain their autonomy from the Powhatan tribes; According to Smith, their main village (Tindall's "Pomonke" ) and two other villages not known by name were on the north bank of the James River - Archer (1607a: 82) adds another village on the north bank - and south of the James River he mentions three more villages (The second of these is Tindall's "Wynough" , possibly identical to Zuñiga's "Weanock" ), Strachey (1953: 64) also mentions a Weanock " province " called Cecocomake near Powell Creek in what is now Prince George County . After 1623 the settlements Tanx (Little) Weanock north and Great Weanock south of the James River are mentioned and at least until 1627 there were still two Weanock villages; their chief was Kaquothocun ; approx. 100 warriors (according to Smith) or 150 warriors (according to Strachey, who accepts 50 warriors for Cecocomake ) and thus approx. 335 or 500 tribe members. (1607/1707)
tribe along the Pamunkey (York) River and its headwaters - Youghtanund (Pamunkey) River and Mattaponi River - as well as the southern Middle Peninsula and in the Pamunkey Neck
Kiskiack / Chisiack / Chiskiack lived along the south bank of the York River in what is now York County in the north of the Virginia Peninsula between the Paspehegh in the west and the Kecoughtan in the east; their chief was Ottahotin ; approx. 40-50 warriors or 135-170 tribe members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1607/1677).
Cantauncack / Candaungack lived on the north bank of the York River, between Carter and Cedarbush Creeks; their chief was Ohonnamo ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1629).
Werowocomoco / Werowacomoco Since the first capital of the Powhatan Confederation was located in their area, the tribe resident there, whose area was along the York River upstream to the confluence of the Pamunkey River and the Mataponi River including the capital, Werowocomoco / Werowacomoco - the name derives from werowans (weroance) - "chief, leader" and komakah (-comoco) - "settlement" and therefore roughly means: "settlement (area) of the chief". The capital Werowocomoco itself was on the north bank of the York River in Gloucester County near today's Yorktown - this is where the chief Wahunsonacock (Powhatan) resided until 1609 when he moved his capital to Orapaks / Orapax / Orapakes ; approx. 40 warriors or 135 tribal members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1607/1611).
Caposepock (e) / Kaposecocke / Kupkipcock lived along the north bank of the Pamunkey River; their chief was Weyamat - probably was Kaposecocke but only one of the largest villages within the Pamunkey tribe and therefore the leading chieftain (Werowance) of the Pamunkey tributary; however approx. 400 warriors or 1,300 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Orapaks / Orapax / Orapakes lived between the upper reaches of the Chickahominy River and the Pamunkey River in the north directly on the western border in close proximity to the hostile Eastern Sioux tribes, south of them lived the real. Powhatan and north of the Youghtanund and directly downstream the Chickahominy they had the powerful autonomous Chickahominy as neighbors, since 1609 Orapaks / Orapax / Orapakes, the second capital of the Powhatan Confederation - Werowocomoco had been abandoned due to the settlement pressure by the colonists - in their area, this was because of the better defense in a swamp area in western New Kent County on the north bank of the Upper Chickahominy River, from 1609 to 1611/1614 the chief Wahunsonacock (Powhatan) resided here; approx. 50 warriors or 165 tribesmen (according to Strachey). (1607/1611).
Pamareke / Pamuncoroy / Pamakeroy lived along the south bank of the Pamunkey River - are sometimes attributed to the Pamunkey; their chief was Attasquintan ; however approx. 400 warriors or 1,300 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Pamunkey engl. Pronunciation: "Puh-MUN-kee", lived on both sides of the river of the same name above its confluence with the York River in today's King William and New Kent Counties , had several main villages, the largest and most powerful tribe within with about 300 warriors and 1000 tribal members the Confederation (according to Smith & Strachey), Wahunsonacock (Powhatan) and his daughter Matoaka ( Pocahontas ) belonged to this tribe. (1607 - today one of the state-recognized tribes of Virginia and since 2015 also one of the federally-recognized tribes of the USA).
Paraconosko / Paraconos Pamunkey River; their chief was Attossomunck (originally a Weroance of the Tauxenent / Doeg); approx. 10 warriors or 35 tribesmen. (1608/1611).
Potaunk / Pataunck / Potawuncack lived along the south bank of the Pamunkey River; their chief was Essenataught ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Shamapent / Shamapa lived south of the Pamunkey River; their chief was Nansuapunck ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Quackohamaock / Quackohowaon / Ochahannanke / Ochahannauke lived either on both sides of the Mattaponi River or along the north bank of the Pamunkey River; their chief was Vropaack ; approx. 40 warriors or 135 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Youghtanund / Youghtamund lived northwest of the Pamunkey, along the Pamunkey River to the confluence of the North Anna and South Anna Rivers that form the Pamunkey River; their chief was Pomiscatuck ; approx. 60 warriors or 200 tribal members (according to Smith) or 70 warriors or 235 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1607/1611).
Cattachiptico / Cattachipico / Cakkiptico / Chepecho / Chepeco the main village Cattachiptico was on the site of today's Pampatike Farm on the Pamunkey River in today's King William County , other smaller villages were along the Totopotmoy Creek (Manskin Creek) and possibly along the Mattaponi River, presumably these villages all belonged to a sub-tribe the Pamunkey - the Manaskint / Manskin , who also had close ties to the Youghtanund - during the Second Powhatan War, the headquarters of Opechancanough was in Cattachiptico ; their chief was Opopohcumunck (possibly Opechancanough is meant); approx. 300 warriors or 1,000 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Menapacunt / Mummapacune / Mummapacun lived between the north bank of the Pamunkey River to the Mattaponi River, their tribal area was most likely upstream (and thus northwest) of the powerful Mattaponi and Pamunkey tribes; their chief was Ottondeacommoc ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Strachey). (1608/1611).
Mattaponi / Mattapanient engl. Pronunciation: "MATTA-puh-nye", lived along the middle reaches of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi Rivers up to their confluence with the York River in today's King William and King and Queen Counties , their main village was named Mattapanient according to Smith , another Cinquoteck village was in what is now West Point (at the confluence of Pamunkey and Mattaponi); their chief was Werowough ; Approx. 30 warriors or 100 tribal members (according to Smith) or 140 warriors or 465 tribal members (according to Strachey) - are not allowed to join the small chieftainship, also known as Mattapanient , along the Patuxent River in northern Calvert and eastern Prince George's County of Maryland who were under the suzerainty of the Patuxent or the mighty Piscataway . (1607 - today as Mattaponi and Upper Mattaponi two of the state-recognized tribes of Virginia).
Payankatank / Piankatank lived in several villages - Smith calls three villages - along the Piankatank River in what is now Middlesex County , in the west their area bordered on the Opiscopank / Opiscatumek, in the south on the Werowocomoco / Werowacomoco and in the north lived directly on the other side of the Rappahannock River the Lower Cuttatawomen, according to Strachey, they were defeated by the Powhatan tribes in 1608, 24 warriors were killed and all women and children were taken prisoner, the area and the villages were then repopulated with former residents of Kecoughtan; Smith gives two numbers: 1608 approx. 40 warriors or 135 tribal members and 1624 approx. 50-60 warriors or 165-200 tribal members, according to Strachey approx. 40-50 warriors or 135-200 tribal members - according to Feest possibly up to to 300 tribal members. (1608/1611).
tribe along the Rappahannock River northwards to the Patawomeck (Tidal Potomac) River and on the northern Middle Peninsula and the Northern Neck
Rappahannock engl. Pronunciation: "Rap-uh-HAN-ick", were the dominant tribe in the Rappahannock River Valley, settled in 13 villages on both sides of the river named after them, their main village was Topahanocke / Tappahannock , their main hunting grounds were south of the river. Due to their military strength and the geographical distance to the center of the Powhatan Confederation, they were able to obtain partial autonomy; their chief was Taweeren ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1608 - today one of the state-recognized tribes of Virginia).
Opiscopank / Opiscatumek (1608/1611).
Lower Cuttatawomen / Corrotoman lived in what is now Lancaster County as direct neighbors of the Moraughtachund / Moratico in the northwest and the Wicocomoco / Wighcocomoco in the north - their area bordered on the Rappahannock River in the south and on the Chesapeake Bay in the east; 30 warriors or 100 tribal members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1608/1656).
Matchotic / Mattehatique sometimes referred to as Lower Matchotic , lived between the Rappahannock River and the Patawomeck (Potomac) River, north of them lived the Pissaseck and south of them lived the Chicacoan (Seccawoni) - further upriver another group called Upper Matchotic is identified; sometimes the tribal name Matchotic is used as a collective term for the Tauxenent (Doeg), Patawomeck (Potomac), Cuttatawomen, Pissasec and Onawmanient in today's Northumberland , King George and Westmoreland counties . (1608/1659 or 1669).
Moraughtachund / Moratico lived on the north bank of the Rappahannock south of the mighty Rappahannock tribe and north of the Lower Cuttatawomen in what is now Lancaster and Richmond counties ; their chief was Ottondeacommoc ; 80 warriors or 270 tribal members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1608/1669).
Pissaseck / Pissasec lived from the north bank of the Rappahannock to the south bank of the Potomac River, between the Matchotic (Mattehatique) in the south and the Potomac (Patawomeck) in the north. (1608/1611).
Nantaughtacund / Nausatico / Nanzatico lived on both sides of the Rappahannock River in what is now Caroline , King George and Essex Counties above the mighty Rappahannock tribe and south of the Potomac (Patawomeck); From the mid-17th century. was understood under the anglicized name Nanzatico a new strain of scattered Nantaughtacund, the Portobago / Portobacco from Maryland, the Patawomeck, the Matchotic / Mattehatique, the Rappahannock and smaller groups, the cities Nanzemond , Warisquock and Ausaticon are known by name for this time, the entire tribe (including some refugees from neighboring tribes - with the exception of the Portobago / Portobacco and Rappahannock) was deported by the English to Antigua in 1705 after a murder committed by tribesmen and thus ceased to exist as an ethnic group; their chief was Vropaack , about 150 warriors or 500 tribe members (according to Smith and Strachey). (1608/1705).
Upper cuttata women lived along the north bank of the Upper Rappahannock River in what is now King George County , in the north their area bordered that of the Patawomeck / Potomac and directly on the other side of the river in the south lived the Nantaughtacund; approx. 20 warriors or 70 tribal members (according to Smith & Strachey). (1608/1611).
Wicocomoco / Wicocomico / Wighcocomoco / Wicomico lived on the southern tip of the Northern Neck along the south bank of the Potomac River in its confluence with the Chesapeake Bay; according to Stephen Potter, their main village was on the upper reaches and slightly north of the Little Wicomico River and another village called Cinquck near the mouth and south of Little Wicomico in Northumberland County ; their chief was Mosco ; In 1655 the colonial rulers ordered the Chicacoan to join forces with the Wicocomoco (between 1656/1659 the Lower Cuttatawomen had also joined them) and as a common new tribe under the leadership of the English chief Machywap, they set up a reservation (about 18 km²) settle near Dividing Creek south of the Great Wicomico River; approx. 130 warriors or 435 tribal members (according to Smith and Strachey). (1608/1719).
Chicacoan / Sekakawon / Sekakawoni / Seccawoni / Cekakawwon lived along the Coan River , a tributary of the Potomac River, in today's Northumberland County , about 30 warriors or 100 tribal members (according to Smith), other sources about 435 tribal members (according to Smith and Strachey). (1608/1660).
Onawmanient lived south of the Upper Cuttatawomen in Nominy Bay in what is now Westmoreland County ; approx. 100 warriors or 335 tribal members (according to Smith).
Patawomeck / Potomac / Potomack lived in at least ten villages along the south bank of the Patawomeck (Potomac) River; approx. 160 warriors or 540 tribal members (1612) or approx. 200 warriors or 670 tribal members (1624 - both data according to Smith), according to Strachey approx. 160 warriors or 540 tribal members. (1608/1668).
Tauxenent / Doeg / Taux / Tacci / Doag / Dogue / Dogi lived in four villages north of the Patawomeck along the south bank of the Upper Patawomeck (Potomac) River above Aquia Creek in today's Caroline , Prince William , Fairfax and King George Counties , their main village Tauxenent was on "Doggs Island" or "Miompse / May -Umps "(the peninsula south of Washington, DC now known as Mason Neck ), other villages were Pamacocack (later Anglicised to Quantico ) along Quantico Creek, Yosococomico along Powell's Creek, Niopsco along Neabsco Creek and Namassingakent on the north bank of the Dogue Run, Assaomeck on the south bank of Hunting Creek and Namoraughquend near present-day Roosevelt Island; 40 warriors or 135 tribe members (according to Smith & Strachey), a population that is probably too low. (1607/1675).
tribe lived on the southern Delmarva Peninsula were mostly only nominally a member of the Powhatan Confederacy from the mainland because it geographically through the Chesapeake Bay were separated from them
Accomac / Accawmack / Accawmacke / Accowmack lived on the southern Delmarva peninsula , had about 2000 tribe members, had their own confederation under the leadership of Debedeavon († 1657) when they first came into contact with the English in 1608; these also called Debedeavon "the Laughing King"; however only about 80 warriors or 270 tribe members (according to Smith) - more recent archaeological / historical investigations and comparisons with other sources make a much larger population number more likely; were mostly referred to as Gingaskins by the colonists in the late 17th century .
Accohannock / Accohanoc / Occohannock lived along Accohannock Creek in what are now the counties of Accomack and Northampton north of Accomac in Virginia; were under the leadership of Kiptoteke , the brother of Debedeavon, and were therefore probably politically tribute to the Accomac Confederation; approx. 40 warriors or 135 tribal members.

history

Powhatan on a map of Virginia, published from 1612

Arrival of the English

At the beginning of the 17th century, the domain of Wahunsonacocks comprised around 200 villages with around 10,000 inhabitants. Powhatan's power was expressed in an almost oriental style of court. His residence was called Werowocomoco and was on the north bank of the York River near the present-day city of Yorktown .

In May 1607 an English expedition reached the lower Chesapeake Bay and drove a wide stream called the James River upstream. The colonists of the Virginia Company of London went ashore at a favorable point and built a fort. Captain John Smith was appointed governor of the young colony . The newcomers were by no means welcome to the Indian residents, as they had had bad experiences with the Europeans in the past . Two weeks later, Powhatan warriors attacked to test the strength of the English. The attack was repulsed with cannons and muskets. The colonists soon ran out of groceries, and in the fall Captain Smith drove to Powhatan on the York River to get corn and other groceries. Small gifts were exchanged and mutual friendship was guaranteed. The Indians provided the English with urgently needed food.

In the same year, Smith was commissioned to explore the country and look for a passage to India. On the Chickahominy River, the English were attacked and overwhelmed by Powhatan's younger half-brother, Opechancanough . Smith was brought to Werowocomoco while his companions were killed. According to Smith's own statements, the chief's daughter Pocahontas is said to have saved him from death.

Virginia Algonquin Chiefs by Theodor de Bry, 1590

In 1609 Powhatan was crowned king by the English in a ceremony at the behest of King James I. Of course, he had no idea of ​​European royalty and did not take the matter seriously. The English, mostly adventurers and not farmers, were still unable to support themselves and continued to need food from the Indians. The earlier peaceful trade relations and ties were undermined by the increasingly imperious and demanding tone of the English colonists. During his trips through the coastal area on the Chesapeake, John Smith repeatedly confiscated Indian corn stores when he could not purchase the corn through trade.

As the settlement pressure of the English colonists increased, Powhatan moved in 1609 to Orapakes , which was on the upper reaches of the Chickahominy Rivers in the middle of a swamp. A few years later he moved his residence again, this time further north to Matchut on the north bank of the Pamunkey River.

When some English were killed near Kecoughtan in 1610 , the colonists destroyed the village. Then they attacked two villages of the Warraskoyack, destroyed the city of the Paspahegh and killed the Queen, women and children and burned the city of the Queen of Appamatuck .

Wars against the colonists

Opechancanough, chief of the Pamunkey

→ Main article: English Powhatan Wars

Finally, the initially friendly interaction with one another had completely disappeared. It became apparent to the Powhatan that the English demands for scope and arbitrariness were becoming unbearable and the English no longer respected Indian sovereignty. In 1618 the head of the Powhatan Confederation died and Opechancanough, chief of the Pamunkey, succeeded him. On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan, supported by Chickahominy and some tribes from the Potomac River, attacked the English settlements under his leadership and killed 350 colonists, about a quarter of the English population, in a coordinated attack. A decade of reciprocal attacks followed, but the Indians failed to drive the English out because many tribes on the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers were neutral. The colonists continued to harass their Indian neighbors, for example destroying crops and food supplies. A relationship of trust never returned, even when open hostilities ceased. A 1632 law threatened severe punishment for the settler who voluntarily spoke to an Indian and did not immediately take him to the English commanders. In 1632, peace was finally made between the Powhatan League and the colonists.

In the next few years the colony expanded significantly and the Indians were unable to stop British expansion. A large-scale war broke out again when the aged Opechacanough began another joint attack against the colonists on April 18, 1644. Nearly 500 colonists were killed in this raid. The English population at the time was more than 8,000, and the Powhatan had no prospect of success. After two years, the war ended with the capture of Opechacanough under Governor William Berkeley . In the treaty of October 1646, the colonists stipulated the conditions under which the Indians' land was decisively reduced and their freedom of movement restricted. The captured 90-year-old Opechancanough complained bitterly to Berkeley about his public display. Berkeley granted the complaint and ordered that he be treated according to the dignity of his class. Shortly afterwards, he was shot in the back by an English guard and killed.

The end of the confederation

The Powhatan group broke up after the war of 1644-1646 and the death of Opechancanough. The tribes on the James River in particular could no longer be ruled by the Pamunkey, who had dominated until then. The steadily growing Virginia colony and the dwindling number of the Indian population eventually led to the end of the Powhatan Confederation.

Powhatan today

The English set up small reservations for some tribes, which have continued to shrink over the centuries, but some still exist today. The reservations and land allocations of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey, in which some descendants of the former Powhatan Confederation still live, should be mentioned here. The Powhatan language is extinct. There have been several unsuccessful attempts to revive this using the word lists collected by Smith and William Strachey .

However, most of the Powhatan's descendants live in Oklahoma and Canada .

The political activist, writer and scientist Jack D. Forbes (* January 7, 1934, † February 23, 2011), who mainly through his extensive criticism of Western civilization (Wétiko psychosis) and as an advocate for a better higher education for young Indians became known, was the most famous Indian of the 20th and 21st centuries of Powhatan-Renape and Lenape descent.

Today's tribes of the former Powhatan Confederation

The only tribes in Virginia that still have reservations today are the Pamunkey and Mattaponi, who were able to secure them through contracts in 1646 and 1677, the other tribes are so-called citizen tribes (read: landless).

Federally recognized tribes

The Pamunkey had already been officially recognized as a tribe at the federal level in 2016, and in 2018 three other tribes were also recognized as federally recognized tribes ; the linguistically and culturally related - but politically independent - Chickahominy have also been recognized as "Chickohimy Tribe" and "Eastern Chickahominy".

  • Pamunkey Indian Tribe (Your reservation covers approx. 4.9 km² and is located on historic tribal land along the Pamunkey River adjacent to today's King William County , population: 200 tribal members)
  • Upper Mattaponi Tribe (officially recognized by Virginia as a state recognized tribe in 1983 , the administrative seat is the hamlet of Adamstown on the upper reaches of the Mattaponi River; this area was recognized as Indian land in records of the 17th century. In 1921, the Upper Mattaponi Tribe of Adamstown split from Mattaponi Tribe from and organized as an independent official tribal group. By purchasing land you now own about 130,000 m² of land in Hanover County , population: 575 tribal members)
  • Rappahannock Indian Tribe (formerly: United Rappahannock Tribe , descendants of various Powhatan tribes, Rappahannock, Morattico (Moraughtacund), Portobacco and Doeg, the members now mostly live in Essex , Caroline and King and Queen counties , population: 500 tribal members)
  • Nansemond Tribe (formerly: Nansemond Indian Tribal Association , officially recognized by Virginia as a state recognized tribe in 1985 , mostly descendants of the Christianized Nansemond , they now live near the city of Suffolk in the metropolitan area of Hampton Roads , population: 200)

State recognized tribes

  • Mattaponi Indian Tribe (officially recognized by Virginia as a state recognized tribe in 1983 , the reservation is in King William County along the Mattaponi River near West Point, Virginia, population: 450 tribal members)
  • Patawomeck Indians of Virginia (officially recognized by Virginia as a state recognized tribe in 2010 , 80% live within 10 miles of their historic settlement Patawomeck in Stafford County along the Potomac River, population: 1,500 tribesmen)
  • Nottoway Indian Tribe of Virginia (2010 officially recognized by Virginia as a state recognized tribe , mostly descendants of Nottoway and traditionalist Nansemond , Chowanoke, Susquehannock, Meherrin and Tuscarora, now live from Southampton County to Surry County in the Tidewater Region, population: 180 tribe members )
  • Cheroenhaka (Nottoway) Indian Tribe (officially recognized as a state recognized tribe by Virginia in 2010 , mostly descendants of Nottoway as well as Meherrin, Tuscarora, traditionalist Nansemond and Chowanoke, now live in Southampton County mostly on traditional tribal land - known as Cattashowrock Town (reservation) - nearby the County Seat Courtland, population: 500 tribal members)
  • Powhatan Renape Nation (officially recognized by New Jersey as a state recognized tribe in 1980 , descendants of various Powhatan tribes - mostly Rappahannock and Nanticoke - who moved to what is now Burlington County and Camden Counties in southern New Jersey, and around the towns of Morrisville, Medford and Delair near Pennsauken Township. The tribe maintained the 96-acre Rankokus Indian Reservation in what is now Rancocas State Park from 1982 to 2011 , but it was closed in 2011 due to lack of maintenance.)

See also

List of North American Indian tribes

literature

Web links

Commons : Powhatan  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Virginia Algonquians. In: Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. P. 253.
  2. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - Piedmont - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  3. ↑ Their main settlement was Rassawek , the easternmost settlement / tribe Mowhemencho , other settlements / tribes were Massinacak / Mahock and Mowhemenchough , the Monahassanugh (later known as Nahyssan or Tutelo) and the Monasukapanough (later known as Saponi)
  4. ↑ the actual Manahoac (according to Jefferson (1801), in Stafford and Spottsylvania Counties ), the Hassinunga (in the headwaters of the Rappahannock River), the Ontponea (in Orange County ), the Shackaconia (on the south bank of the Rappahannock River in Spottsylvania County), the Stegaraki ( along the Rapidan River in Orange County), the Tanxnitania (on the north bank of the Upper Rappahannock River in Fauquier County ), the Teginateo (in the headwaters of the Rappahannock River in Culpeper County ) and the Whonkentia (near the source of the Rappahannock River in Fauquier County)
  5. ^ National Geographic - Powhatan's Chiefdom
  6. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - Patuxent River Basin - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  7. ↑ Indigenous Cultural Landscapes Study for the Nanjemoy and Mattawoman Creek Watersheds
  8. ^ Indigenous Cultural Landscapes Study for the Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail: Nanticoke River Watershed
  9. ^ Pocomoke Paramountcy Location of recorded towns and historic bands of the Pocomoke Nation
  10. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - The Algonquian-Speaking Indians of Maryland
  11. ↑ SECTION 5.0 DELMARVA ETHNOHISTORY
  12. ^ Colonial Williamsburg Archaeological Reports: Toward a Resource Protection Process: James City County, York County, City of Poquoson, City of Williamsburg
  13. ↑ Helen C. Rountree: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia: Their Traditional Culture , University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-2455-1 , July 10, 2013 - 232 pages
  14. ↑ COLONIAL A Study of Virginia Indians and Jamestown: The First Century, Principal Investigator: Danielle Moretti-Langholtz, Ph.D. The College of William & Mary
  15. ↑ Encyclopedia Virginia - Tsenacomoco (Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom)
  16. ↑ Living with the Indians - Where did the Powhatan Indians live?
  17. ^ Virginia Algonquians. In: Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. P. 257.
  18. ↑ Usually only the number of warriors of the individual tribes is known, the number of tribes is therefore tried to be determined with a ratio of 1: 3, 1: 3.3 or finally 1: 4, the studies by Christian F. Feest Seventeenth Century are decisive Virginia Algonquian Population Estimates (1973)
  19. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - James River Basin - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  20. ↑ WE HAVE A STORY TO TELL - Native Peoples of Chesapeake Region
  21. ↑ Virginia's First People Past & Present - Nansemond Tribe
  22. ^ The Mariner's Museum - Native Americans - Wereonces and Their Tribes
  23. ↑ The tribal name common today as Nottoway is - as happened with other peoples - a derivation from the Algonquin name for all Iroquois as Nadawa / Nadowe , literally "big (poisonous) snake" and means something like "great powerful enemy"; comparable to the origin of the name for the peoples of the Sioux , who were first referred to by the French as Nadouessioux and later simply as Sioux - this name is derived from the Ojibwe exonym for this language and tribal group and means "they are the lesser enemies" ( compared to the Iroquois). The Nottoway referred to themselves in their own language (Dar-sun-ke) as Cheroenhaka - "people at the fork of the river", as they lived in the river basin of the Nottaway and Blackwater Rivers and the Chowan River.
  24. ^ US Geological Survey. Geographic Names Information System: Pamunkey River
  25. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - York River Basin - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  26. ↑ Virginia's First People Past & Present - Pamunkey
  27. ↑ Homepage of Pampatike Farm
  28. ↑ The information regarding the number of warriors (and herewith the population) for the. Addition of Strachey listed tribes - the Cantauncack, Menapacunt, Pataunck, Ochahannauke, Kaposecock (s) Pamareke, Shamapa, Orapaks, Chepeco and Paraconos - excel at far from Smith's usual population figures for the Powhatan tribes. Lt. Feest therefore seem to prefer Strachey's population figures for the York and Mattaponi Rivers to those of Smith (especially with regard to the mighty Mattaponi) - but are probably given too high for the tribes along the Pamunkey River (the approx. 400 warriors or 1,300 tribal members mentioned in each case alone) for the Pamareke and Kaposecock (e) are questionable - as both are often viewed as subgroups of the powerful Pamunkey - which according to Smith & Strachey only numbered about 300 warriors or 1,000 tribal members).
  29. ↑ Virginia's First People Past & Present - Mattaponi Tribe
  30. ↑ Virginia's First People Past & Present - Upper Mattaponi Indian Tribe
  31. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - Rappahannock River Basin - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  32. ↑ Christopher Steadman: The Powhatan Chiefdom: 1606 , Old Dominion University, Model United Nations Society, 2015
  33. ↑ Virginia's First People Past & Present - Rappahannock
  34. ↑ Captain John Smith Chesapeake National Historic Trail - Lower Eastern Shore - Indian Towns & Natural Resources They Relied On
  35. ↑ a b c d Siegfried Augustin: The history of the Indians. From Pocahontas to Geronimo. Nymphenburger, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-485-00736-6 , p. 25 f.
  36. ^ A b c Seventeenth-Century Indian Wars. In: Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. P. 95 f.
  37. ^ Virginia Algonquians. In: Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. P. 254.
  38. ^ Virginia Algonquians. In: Bruce G. Trigger (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 15: Northeast. P. 265 ff.