spotlight

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Spotlight at the proscenium of the Parisian Théâtre des Variétés : Jean Béraud 1888

The limelight or foot light (also foot ramp or simply ramp ) was an important part of historical theater lighting . It consists of an arrangement of light sources at the front edge of the stage, the so-called ramp.

To this day, the spotlight is not a directed spotlight, but floodlight , even if the English spotlight is often translated as "limelight". Although it was lamented for centuries as an “unnatural” stopgap because the center of the stage couldn't be better lit, and although it was a danger to the performers because of the open flames , the limelight persisted into the 20th century. Today it is only of minor importance in the theater. In the figurative sense of “public attention”, the term spotlight is still in use.

In the 19th century, some theaters competed with their limelight for the brightest lighting technology, which was not always beneficial to art and artists and the risk of fire due to the increase in flames and the change in fuels from tallow and vegetable oils to petroleum and camphine to town gas and Oxyhydrogen enlarged. When there were electric headlights , the spotlight was no longer necessary for sheer brightness. For reasons of tradition and for special effects, it is still used here and there. Among other things, its dramatic potential (drop shadows on the faces) in melodrama and its erotic component (highlighted legs) in revue and variety show , which also influenced the lighting of film scenes.

history

From the candle to the gas light

Early references

Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn: William Hogarth 1738

An early mention of the spotlight as stage lighting can be found in Sebastiano Serlio's Le premier livre d'architecture 1545. In the 17th century, architects Joseph Furttenbach ( Architectura recreationis , 1640) and Nicola Sabbatini ( Pratica di fabricar scene e macchine ne 'teatri, 1638 ) discussed ) the spotlight in more detail: Sabbatini said that it brings out the costumes well, but is a hindrance and disadvantage for the performers. It makes them "appear pale and emaciated as if they had the fever". The spotlight has not yet been able to generally prevail over the common lighting of the auditorium and stage using chandeliers .

It was not until the 18th century that the uniform lighting of the stage and auditorium was abandoned during the performance, making way for more differentiated stage lighting, which consisted of lighting the back stage from the alleys and the spotlight at the front edge of the stage. This made the events on the stage more visible than the auditorium. In William Hogarth's copperplate engraving Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn (1738), a row of candles with holders can be seen in the front left of center, which most likely served as footlights. According to the historian Carl Friedrich Baumann, this shows that traveling theater troupes also used this type of lighting.

Controversy

Limelight continued to receive criticism when it caught on, but no better technology could replace it until the late 19th century. The aesthetic of the spotlight has rarely been welcomed. The choreographer Jean Georges Noverre refused, saying that nothing is more mistaken than lighting from the bottom up. Johann Christian von Mannlich found in 1802 that the spotlight was "especially unfavorable for women because of the shadow over the chest and nose".

The spotlight has been argued in favor of utility. For example, the chemist Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier explained around 1766: “You get a product so that the audience doesn't tire so quickly. You save a lot of fuel, which makes a lot of difference if you don't think about the fact that it also makes our theaters smelly and unhealthy. "

Candle and oil lamp

A costumed light cleaner shortens the wicks of the spotlight, before 1800.

The spotlight initially consisted of a row of candles at the front edge of the stage across the width of the stage. Because the candles made from tallow already lost a third of their brightness after about ten minutes of burning, as Johann Gottfried Dingler explained, they had to be serviced with wick scissors during the performance by light cleaners , who often wore costumes suitable for the drama . The candles were sometimes hidden from the audience by an increased border on the ramp. Actresses with long dresses had to be careful not to get too close to the fire.

There was the freestanding spotlight on the edge of the stage and the spotlight that was sunk in a narrow ditch in front of the stage. To avoid dazzling the audience and to intensify the light thrown onto the stage, individual screens per flame or a continuous screen between the flames and the auditorium were installed. The dazzling and endangerment of the actors were accepted. The screens also served as reflectors, which were often cylindrical or shell-shaped. In some theaters, the spotlight was built into a recessed device or into floor flaps so that it could be ignited under the stage and then suddenly light up or darken the front stage, which was also known as the “day machine”.

The Comédie-Française replaced the 48 candles in the limelight with 32 multi-wick oil lamps in the first half of the 18th century . According to Charles Nuitters , the actors on this stage were able to resist replacing the lamps with the brighter gas light, which made the eyes more tired, well into the 19th century.

Argand lamp

Traveling actor with improvised limelight: Honoré Daumier 1858.

The Argand lamp , which had barely flickering and was much brighter due to the improved oxygen supply since around 1800, which was initially operated with vegetable oils and later with petroleum , represented a significant improvement. It was first used in 1784, shortly after its invention, in the Parisian Théâtre de l'Odéon used. The light intensity of the candle exceeded it by a factor of 10. The limelight of the Paris Opera consisted at times of a row of 52 Argand lamps, in the Royal Opera Berlin there were 72. This remained for some stages well beyond the middle of the 19th century the main lighting.

In 1846, the Dresden architect Karl Moritz Haenel mentioned colored spotlight, which was achieved by using colored glass plates : blue-green for moonlight, yellow and red for evening and morning sun. Black screens were used for the Argand lamps when it was dark on the stage, and the gas-powered spotlight made them unnecessary because the gas supply could be throttled. “Changing the lighting”, as the General Theater Lexicon stated, “is best done by the prompter ”.

Gas light

Spotlight in the Parisian Théâtre du Gymnase-Dramatique : Adolph Menzel 1856.
Gas light as a footlight in the Paris Opera for the nuns ballet from Robert le diable : Edgar Degas 1876

Lighting of the theaters with oil gas and later with town gas extracted from hard coal became increasingly popular in the 1810s. London's Dury Lane Theater already had gas-powered spotlights with 80 lamps in the 1820s. Since the gas lighting was still based on open flames, it had a low degree of efficiency , so it was not particularly bright and contributed significantly to the heating, which was not necessarily pleasant for the stage actors. The average temperature on a forecourt in Paris was 37.5 ° C, and the musicians in the orchestra pit were also affected by the heat. Due to the rising hot air , the actors were also exposed to a constant draft.

Because carbon particles were added to the gas to make the flame brighter (if the flammable impurities such as naphthalene were insufficient), the soot, along with the large quantities of carbon dioxide produced and the toxic carbon monoxide , impaired the air quality in the theater. Since complete desulphurisation was not possible, depending on the quality of the gas, traces of hydrogen sulphide caused a smell of rotten eggs.

On the other hand, gas was more economical than oil if one assumed a comparable light intensity. With the new technology, however, the demands also grew, resulting in higher lighting costs. The light quality of gas light as stage lighting was valued, not least because the gas supply and thus the illuminance could be regulated to a certain extent. With numerous experiments, for example with flames pointing downwards, indirect radiation onto the stage and extraction devices under the stage floor, architects and stage technicians tried to get the disadvantages of the gas-powered spotlight under control. The physicist Jules Antoine Lissajous developed such a system for the Paris Opera in 1861 . Foot ramps with an air vent were also installed in the Scala 1868 in Milan and in the Vienna Court Opera .

The largest European cities, London and Paris, were leaders in the development of stage technology due to their density of theaters. Among the few universally acclaimed (and not only bright, but also aesthetically pleasing) uses of the gas-powered Fußlichts heard the ghostly nuns ballet in the moonlight from Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Robert le diable in 1831, which in this equipment until 1893 with 758 performances in the repertoire remained the Paris Opera . As a new contrast, the spotlight as well as the always burning chandelier in the auditorium immediately before this scene at the end of the III. Acts eclipsed. The limelight as moonlight became an essential feature for the romantic ballets La Sylphide (1832) and Giselle (1841). The direction of the lighting was justified by a water level . Painters like Edgar Degas were fascinated by gas light as the spotlight and recorded it in countless variations.

The introduction of the gas in the German-speaking area was a long time coming. In 1829, the architect and set designer Karl Friedrich Schinkel rejected Karl Friedrich Cerf's request to light the stage of the Königsstädtisches Theater Berlin with gas. The competition between the theaters in the larger cities such as Vienna and Berlin as well as the need for representation of the court theaters promoted the switch to gas light in the period that followed. The Theater-Lexikon wrote in 1841: "Even in Germany there are already several [stages] that are completely or partially illuminated by gas." Berlin's Victoria Theater, one of the largest theaters around the middle of the century, had a spotlight in 1859 68 gas flames.

Climax and end

Faces in the spotlight: Edgar Degas 1874 (detail)

Lime and arc light

Since the second third of the 19th century, the kerosene and gas lamps of the limelight have been supplemented or replaced in some places by Drummond's light ("lime light"), which was glistening bright and could be used from a greater distance. Its English name Limelight is now often translated as “spotlight”, although the limestone light was a newer technology than the foot lights, which had to be in close proximity to the actors. With a light intensity that exceeded normal gas light by a factor of around 20, the limestone light was suitable for the construction of spotlights or projectors that did not have to be attached directly to the ramp and could be aimed at the stage actors as pursuit . Covent Garden in London was the first theater to use this lighting technology in 1837. In the 1860s and 70s, it was considered ultra-modern. In the United States, the spectacle The Black Crook (1866) became famous for its lime-light effects and remained in the repertoire of New York City for over sixty years.

Lamps with the highly explosive camphine also gave brighter light (see ether gas lamp ). The carbon arc lamp as the first electrical stage lighting made possible a further amplification, which is not appreciated by all theaters because of its even brighter quality of light and its twitching .

Fire hazard

Spotlight in romantic ballet : Edgar Degas 1874

The danger of fire from the ever brighter lighting increased: the ballerina Emma Livry died in 1863 after she had caught fire in the limelight in the Salle Le Peletier of the Paris Opera , and the Augsburg postal newspaper reported on December 11, 1865: “Miss. Ehlers, one of the beauties of the German troupe, got too close to the ramp on one of the last evenings while she was dancing in Ten Girls and No Men ; her light dress caught fire and in an instant she was on fire. You can hardly expect your livelihood. ”August Fölsch mentions nine deaths due to being too close to the limelight 1870–1878. The explosion of a Camphin footlight in a music hall during the 1866 Virginia City gold rush caused the theater to burn down in no time. The lime light, in turn, posed the risk of an oxyhydrogen explosion .

Two disasters in 1881, the gas explosion in the Nice Opera and the fire in the Ringtheater in Vienna , claimed several hundred lives and caused audience numbers to collapse worldwide. In both cases, after several unsuccessful ignition attempts, too much gas had escaped; in Nice the explosion occurred on the ramp at the beginning of a performance by Lucia di Lammermoor . These catastrophes resulted in the increasing replacement of gas light in the theater by electric light. The incandescent mantle , invented in 1885 , which significantly improved gas lighting, could not stop the electrification of stage lighting .

criticism

Blindingly brightly lit costumes, shadows on the backdrops and shadowy faces: gas-powered spotlight in a caricature by Honoré Daumier from around 1860.

The fact that the limelight of the 19th century, according to the wishes of some theater directors, should show the brightest lighting technology of the present, met with increasing resistance, especially from stage performers. The lack of “naturalness” in the spotlight was already complained at the beginning of the century, and the “wrong and unnatural effect” of the gas-powered spotlight was also criticized later. The composer Richard Wagner turned against the "brightly lit ramp of the front stage", he was disturbed by "the cheek in the naked exhibition of the scenic secret before the eyes of the onlookers". In 1837 , the writer Heinrich Heine ironically stated that the “streak of fire on the ramp” was “a magical shine that could very easily appear unnatural to a prosaic audience, and yet it was far more natural than ordinary nature”.

It was a nuisance when the lower part of the closed curtain was brightly lit by the barely changeable spotlight. Complaints about visual impairment due to air shimmer , smoke and steam are even older . In 1881 a London magazine described “the immense heat that comes from the footlights alone. This corresponds to a number of fire places on the ramp, and every draft from the stage fills the auditorium with a torrent of heat. ”The wall of rising hot air created a refraction of sound , which made the actors on the stage less understandable. The carbon microphones of the Paris theater were also disturbed by the draft of the spotlights in 1881 . Due to the darkening of the auditorium, which became common at the end of the 19th century, and the increasing light intensity of the footlights, there was often a lack of compensatory light from above, which intensified the shadows of the spotlight. The dazzling of the actors also increased: "Singers in particular often complain that they cannot see the conductor's staff with sufficient clarity over the openly burning foot ramp ."

Attempted solutions

The 1878 Swan light bulb (right), one of the first electric spotlights

Attempts to illuminate the front stage with only skylights and sidelights regularly failed because the center remained too dark and the performers overshadowed each other when lit mainly from the side. Ludwig Catel reported about such an attempt around 1802: “[...] but since the proscenium is too wide, not enough light has fallen into the middle. If you wanted to derive the lighting from above, because of the great distance you would not bring light to the actor here either ”. For the Richard Wagner Festival Theater in Bayreuth , which opened in 1876, the plans to replace the spotlight with lighting from above failed “because the brightness of the gas light was too low to allow the actors to be seen sufficiently from the front over a distance of 12 to 15 m to illuminate ".

Only the stage lights with the Fresnel lens that are used to this day , initially with lime light or arc light (generated by the more stable differential arc lamp ), could provide a remedy. These early designs still had the significant disadvantage of only mechanically variable light intensity. Hubert von Herkomer in London and David Belasco in New York experimented with it in the late 1880s. The monotonous, intense spotlight was replaced by other lighting methods at the end of the 19th century, for example by the American dancer Loïe Fuller or the European set designer Adolphe Appia . Both worked with electric (arc) lights and early headlights. Around 1904, Appia hoped to be able to replace the spotlight, “this amazing monster”, with (indirect) Fortuny lighting . Fuller also had her dances illuminated from below through a glass plate or used phosphorescent materials as alternatives to the “permanent glare of the footlights”, as Anatole France acclaimed in 1908.

Conservative clinging

In the entertainment theater at the beginning of the 20th century, however, the limelight remained widespread. Paintings from the vicinity of the Ashcan School show how dancers use the spotlight to stage their legs, for example Dancer in White Before the Footlights (1910) or Footlight Flirtation (1912) by Everett Shinn . Even Max Reinhardt did not want to give up the spotlight, especially for the cabaret smoke and mirrors , and sat with preference color ramps. Even in 1930 it was argued: “However, you will not be able to do without a ramp at all [...] For certain purposes, e.g. B. Ballet , you need [...] a sharp spotlight ”. The eurythmy on the stage at the Goetheanum Dornach continues to this day one of Rudolf Steiner and Ehrenfried Pfeiffer fixed the spotlight designed Art.

New light sources

Incandescent lamps and, for example, the Jablotschkow candle were new electrical illuminants for the footlight, which considerably reduced the risk of fire. The slightly reddish but faint carbon filament lamp was reminiscent of gas light and was therefore preferred. The London Savoy Theater , built in 1881, was still equipped with gas light, but already had a spotlight from a series of incandescent lamps by the inventor Joseph Wilson Swan , who made a personal appearance underlining the advantages of the new light source after the disaster in Nice. Due to their weaker light, these bulbs had to be increased: the first fully electrically lit Brno City Theater , which opened in 1882, needed 142 bulbs for the spotlight. At the turn of the century, Mariano Fortuny tried to make indirect light (generated by powerful arc lamps) the main theater light, which came close to the natural lighting conditions outdoors, but could not assert itself as diffuse light against the emerging headlights. In 1909, Fortuny lighting was introduced in the Kroll Opera House in Berlin as an alternative to the numerous carbon filament lamps, also for the footlights.

Replacement by spotlight

Metal filament lamp

Current variant of the foot light with LED lamps .

Since the 1920s, theater lighting has mainly consisted of electric spotlights based on the metal filament lamp filled with inert gas, which has been fully developed since the 1910s . The heat-resistant material tungsten enabled the production of light bulbs, which no longer had to be lined up on the ramp due to their low light intensity, but were suitable for operating headlights. This allows stronger and more differentiated (that is: precise and controllable) lighting from a greater distance. Around 1915 the maximum light intensity of the carbon filament lamp is given as 100  Hefner candles , that of the metal filament lamp with 1000. In 1928 Osram introduced the 10,000  watt light bulb, two years later the 50,000 watt lamp. The spotlight was replaced by frontal lighting from the auditorium, for example from boxes in the first and second tier. Since then, footlights on the ramp have only played a minor role.

Remnants of tradition

Alfred Wertheimer's 1956 photo of Elvis Presley on his knees in front of the limelight on the stage of what is now the Altria Theater (Richmond, Virginia) became famous . The story from which Charles Chaplin for his "limelight" translated film title Limelight (1952) was still called Footlights . The title alludes to the already old-fashioned lighting in the simple vaudeville theaters in which he began his career at the beginning of the 20th century - and probably also to the fact that the limestone light was also used in early cinematographers .

Remaining functions

Today, the spotlight is no longer a stopgap solution, because the stage could not be better lit, but is used for special effects or a vaudeville atmosphere. It is used, for example, “to create the illusion of depth” or “to optically isolate one person from another”. In the film , the lighting from below, which can seldom be explained by a real light source, is mainly used for gloomy, dramatic moods.

The historical performance practice of operas and ballets of the Baroque era sometimes re-uses a reconstructed limelight. Spotlight is also used to reconstruct 19th century melodramas .

Current technologies

Many newer theater buildings no longer have a built-in spotlight and have to replace it with light strips or fairy lights on the stage floor if necessary .

Even today's electric spotlight with fluorescent lamps , halogen lamps or light-emitting diodes , which are arranged in light chambers, is a floodlight without directional effect, but with variable light intensity and color. For example, there are four connected chambers available for the colors red, green, blue and white, which can be controlled and mixed separately . They have a so-called asymmetrical trough mirror as a reflector, with which a strip-shaped illumination and a good mixture of colors can be achieved.

Today's meaning as a phrase

Although there is no longer a permanent spotlight on most stages, the term has remained a phrase. Today's figure of speech "in the spotlight" after the Duden be as much attention "as much; to be in the focus of [public] interest ”. Actors who push themselves into the foreground, ie into the limelight, are referred to in theater jargon as " Rampensau ", which after the Pons characterizes the "passionate stage artist". That term is also used disparagingly, because integration into the ensemble and respect for the fourth wall have been considered qualities of the actor since the 19th century.

Before the mass media era , the theater was one of the most important places for the public . Obviously, the following historical features of the spotlight laid the groundwork for what it is today:

  • The long period of low light intensity that could only illuminate the foremost strip of the stage and forced the performers to step up to the ramp to be visible. (This importance can be seen in a headline from 2008: "UN climate talks: Developing countries are pushing themselves into the limelight.")
  • The glistening brightness as a reversal of the original situation, especially the limestone light and the arc light in the 19th century. (This aspect is illustrated, for example, by the verse "I was blinded by fame and the limelight" from album 23 (2011) by rappers Bushido and Sido .)
  • The lighting from below , which gave the appearance of grandeur and made it difficult to see the audience in the stalls from the stage (when the auditorium was still lit), which may have promoted the arrogance of the stars. (This characteristic is alluded to in the saying "He who is in the limelight has trouble recognizing the audience" by the journalist Walter Ludin .) In entertainment theater, however, the limelight should also let the legs stand out and shine under the skirt of the actresses, which is in Revue titles like Parade in the Spotlight (1933) reflects.
  • The fire hazard posed by these lighting techniques and actors who ventured too far into the foreground. (For example, in a media review from 1972 it was stated that the aim was “to defend against the beginnings so that the expert can burn up like a comet in the limelight”.)

literature

  • Carl Friedrich Baumann: Light in the theater. From the Argand lamp to the incandescent lamp headlight. Steiner, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-515-05248-8 .
  • Ramy Binyamin Boshra Biskless: The stage lighting in musical theater production, dissertation at the University of Vienna , Institute for Theater, Film and Media Studies 2011, (online, accessed June 8, 2013) (PDF, 271 pages, 5.1 MB)
  • Wolfgang Greisenegger, Tadeusz Kreszowiak (eds.): Throwing a bill. Theater - light - technology. Brandstätter, Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-85033-218-7 .
  • Frederick Penzel: Theater Lighting Before Electricity. Wesleyan Univ. Press, Middletown 1978, ISBN 0-8195-5021-3 .

Web links

Wiktionary: limelight  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Commons : Spotlight  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ The Allgemeine Theater-Lexikon of 1846 defines the ramp as a "frame" for the foot lights: Robert Blum, Karl Herloßsohn, Hermann Marggraff: General Theater Lexicon or Encyclopedia of everything worth knowing for stage artists, amateurs and theater fans, New Edition, Pierer and Heymann, Alternburg, Leipzig 1846, vol. 6, p. 134.
  2. ↑ Sarah Stanton, Martin Banham (Ed.): The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Theater. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-44654-6 , p. 349.
  3. ↑ Johannes Bemmann: The stage lighting from spiritual play to early opera as a means of artistic illusion. [Diss. self-published], Leipzig 1933, p. 115.
  4. ^ Carl-Friedrich Baumann: Light in the theater. From the Argand lamp to the incandescent lamp headlight. Steiner, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-515-05248-8 , p. 24.
  5. ^ Jean Georges Noverre: Observations sur la construction d'une nouvelle Salle de l'Opéra, La Haye, Paris 1807, vol. 2, p. 241.
  6. ↑ Johann Christian von Mannlich: Experiment on the customs, clothing and weapons of the oldest peoples except for Constantine the Great, along with some comments on the Schaubühne , Seidel, Munich 1802, p. 14, note a). URL: http://archive.org/details/versuchubergebra00mann , accessed on July 28, 2013
  7. ↑ Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier: Œuvres , Vol. 3, Paris 1865, p. 96, quoted from Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 69.
  8. ↑ About the lighting and heating abilities of the oil-producing gas, the coal-coal gas, and the oil or thran gas. In: Polytechnisches Journal . 8, 1822, pp. 184-193 (here: 187).
  9. ^ Friedrich Kranich: Bühnentechnik der Gegenwart, Vol. 2, Oldenbourg, Munich 1929, Appendix, Fig. 17.
  10. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 25.
  11. ^ Herbert A. Frenzel: History of the theater. Dates and documents 1470–1840. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Munich 1979, p. 191.
  12. ^ Charles Nuitter: Le nouvel Opéra, Hachette, Paris 1875, p. 216.
  13. ^ Dan Redler, Ben Tzion Munitz: History: 18th Century: Innovations in Stage Lighting. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on December 21, 2015 ; Retrieved June 11, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.compulite.com
  14. ↑ Wolfgang Greisenegger, Tadeusz Kreszowiak (Ed.): Throw a bill. Theater - light - technology. Brandstätter, Vienna 2008, ISBN 978-3-85033-218-7 , p. 61.
  15. ↑ Haenel: About gas lighting in the theater , in: Romberg's Zeitschrift für Praxis Baukunst, 101 (1846), No. LXXV, Heft 3, p. 356.
  16. ↑ Robert Blum, Karl Herloßsohn, Hermann Marggraff: General Theater Lexicon or Encyclopedia of Everything Worth Knowing for Stage Artists, Amateurs and Theater Friends, New Edition, Pierer and Heymann, Alternburg, Leipzig 1846, Vol. 6, p. 134.
  17. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 83.
  18. ↑ a b Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 98.
  19. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 108.
  20. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, pp. 96-98
  21. ^ Attila Csampai, Dietmar Holland, Alexandra Maria Dielitz: Opernführer , Rombach, Freiburg i. Br. 2006, ISBN 978-3-79309-484-5 , p. 334.
  22. ^ Sieghart Döhring: Robert le diable, in: Carl Dahlhaus (Ed.): Piper's Enzyklopädie des Musiktheater, Vol. 4, Piper, Munich 1991, ISBN 3-492-02414-9 , pp. 128f.
  23. ↑ Louis Véron: Mémoires d'un bourgeois de Paris, Librairie nouvelle, Paris 1857, vol. 3, p. 167.URL: http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k39209d/ , accessed on 29. July 2013.
  24. ↑ Act II by Giselle plays "on the edge of a lake": Carl Dahlhaus (Ed.): Piper's Enzyklopädie des Musiktheater, Vol. 1, Piper, Munich 1986, ISBN 3-492-02411-4 , p. 617.
  25. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 109.
  26. ^ Theater-Lexikon: Theoretical-Practical Handbook. Wiegand, Leipzig 1841, p. 501.
  27. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 91.
  28. ↑ E.g. at de.pons.eu or dict.leo.org
  29. ↑ a b Don Burton Wilmeth, Tice L. Miller (Ed.): The Cambridge Guide to American Theater, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York 1996, ISBN 0-521-56444-1 , p. 362.
  30. ^ Ebbe Almqvist: History of Industrial Gases. Kluwer, New York 2003, ISBN 0-306-47277-5 , p. 72.
  31. ↑ Augsburger Postzeitung. No. 292 1865, p. 1996.
  32. ↑ August Fölsch: Theater fires and the protective measures required to prevent them, Otto Meissner, Hamburg 1878, p. 350ff.
  33. ^ Robert D. Armstrong: Nevada Printing History: A Bibliography of Imprints & Publications, 1858-1880. Univ. of Nevada Press, 1981, ISBN 0-87417-063-X , p. 1866.
  34. ^ City of Nice, History of the Opera. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on February 21, 2014 ; Retrieved on July 2, 2013 (French). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nice.fr
  35. ↑ So already with Ludwig Catel: Suggestions for improving the theaters. Berlin 1802, p. 18.
  36. ↑ Anon., Scenery and Decoration of Theaters. Lightning the Stage, in: The Builder. A Journal for the Architect, Engineer, Operative & Artist , London June 12, 1847, p. 281
  37. ↑ Richard Wagner: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen, Vol. 9, 4th edition, Siegel's Musikalienhandlung, Leipzig 1907, p. 279.
  38. ^ Heinrich Heine: About the French stage. Familiar letters to August Lewald, sixth letter, in: August Lewald: Allgemeine Theater-Revue, Vol. 3, Cotta, Stuttgart and Tübingen 1837, p. 199.
  39. ^ For example in Alfred Anger: On the Illumination of theaters. In: The Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Feb. 1831, p. 46.
  40. ↑ Anon .: The Lighting of Theaters, in: The Era, July 23, 1881, URL: http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk/Backstage/LightingTheatres1881.htm , accessed on July 28, 2013
  41. ↑ Th. Weil: Die electrical stage and effect lighting, Hartlebens Verlag, Vienna, Leipzig 1904, p. 4. URL: http://archive.org/details/elektrotechnisc13merlgoog , accessed on July 28, 2013
  42. ↑ Light and lamp. Rundschau , born 1921, p. 626.
  43. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 99.
  44. ↑ Louis Catel: Suggestions for improving the theaters, Lange, Berlin 1802, p. 18
  45. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 309.
  46. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, pp. 210f.
  47. ↑ Richard Nelson and Marcia Ewing Current: Loie Fuller: Goddess of Light, Northeastern Univ. Press, Boston 1997, ISBN 1-55553-309-4 .
  48. ↑ Denis Bablet, Marie Louise Bablet (ed.): Adolphe Appia 1862–1928. Actor - Space - Light, Atlantis, Zurich 1982, p. 48.
  49. ↑ Edward T. James (Ed.): Notable American Women. A Biographical Dictionary, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge (MA) 1971, Vol. 1, ISBN 0674627342 , p. 676.
  50. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 279.
  51. ↑ Electrotechnical magazine. VDE, Berlin 1930, p. 10.
  52. ^ Arnold Jäger: Basics and tasks of the art of lighting. 1977, accessed July 2, 2013 .
  53. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 153.
  54. ^ Edward Garland Fletcher: Electricity at the Savoy, in: Studies in English , Univ. of Texas Press 21 (1941), pp. 154-161
  55. ^ Th. Weil: The electric stage and effect lighting, Hartleben Verlag, Vienna, Leipzig 1904, p. 36
  56. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 197.
  57. ^ Sándor Jeszenszky: Auer von Welsbach and the metal filament lamp. (PDF; 12.4 MB) (No longer available online.) Ignaz-Lieben-Gesellschaft, 2007, p. 8 , archived from the original on January 22, 2016 ; Retrieved July 15, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.ilg.at
  58. ↑ Siegfried Sommer (Ed.): Technik-Wissen 1900–1915, Vol. 8: From electrical current, Welz, Mannheim 2003, p. 13f.
  59. ^ Anneliese Burghart, Bernhard Müller, Wilhelm Hanseder: 100 years of Osram. (PDF; 4.9 MB) Osram GmbH Munich, 2006, p. 37 , accessed on July 22, 2013 .
  60. ↑ Baumann (1988), Licht im Theater, p. 212.
  61. ↑ http://www.alfredwertheimer.com/portfolio/d4s5wztu7hnuayw1yh0dmrqf1zbqdq  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed September 5, 2015@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.alfredwertheimer.com  
  62. ↑ Ramy Binyamin Boshra Biskless: The stage lighting in music theater production, dissertation Univ. Vienna 2011, p. 69.
  63. ↑ Examples see Fiche ADEC 56, no. 6-6, Dec. 2010, p. 2. URL: [1] (PDF; 373 kB) accessed on June 26, 2013.
  64. ↑ A production of Handel's opera Radamisto (1720) in the Badisches Staatstheater Karlsruhe 2008, see Gerhard Menzel: Karlsruhe auf neue Pfaden? - An approximation of 1720. Retrieved June 20, 2013 .
  65. ^ Charles H. Randall, Joan LeGro Bushnel: Hisses, Boos & Cheers, Or, A Practical Guide to the Planning, Producing, and Performing of Melodrama, Dramatic Publishing, Woodstock (IL) 1986, ISBN 0-871-294214 , pp. 24.
  66. ↑ Cf. Max Keller: DuMont's manual of stage lighting. DuMont, Cologne 1986, ISBN 3-7701-1579-1 , pp. 83, 122.
  67. ↑ Skylight and foot ramps, catalog. (PDF; 1.1 MB) (No longer available online.) Revolux Berlin, 2004, pp. 7–11 , archived from the original on November 26, 2013 ; Retrieved June 8, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.revolux.com
  68. ↑ Spotlight. In: Dictionary Duden online. Retrieved July 10, 2013 .
  69. ↑ Rampensau. In: Pons online dictionary. Retrieved July 10, 2013 .
  70. ↑ See a theater review in the daily newspaper : " Jens Harzer is not a rampage, but an eminent ensemble player.", TAZ, Aug. 26, 2011
  71. ↑ UN climate talks: Developing countries are pushing themselves into the limelight. In: euractiv.com. December 12, 2008, accessed July 10, 2013 .
  72. ↑ Aphorism on the subject: fame. In: aphorismen.de. Retrieved July 15, 2013 .
  73. ↑ Germany Archive 1972, Vol. 5, p. 758.
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on August 16, 2013 .