Tolai

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Traditional Tolai dancers at a village festival ( Gazelle Peninsula 1918)
Tolai village ( Matupi harbor island around 1910)
Tolai populate the fertile lowlands and offshore islands (top right in green), the high Baining Mountains separate the peninsula from the rest of New Britain
Flag of the province of East New Britain with masks of the Tolai and Baining people in a ring of shell money
Tolai sculpture : wood, plant fibers, feathers, scale plates , color pigments ( Gazelle peninsula 19th century)

The Tolai are an indigenous people on the island of New Britain (formerly Neupommern) in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea . With over 120,000 members, they make up more than half of the total population in the eastern province of East New Britain . They settle almost exclusively on the Gazelle Peninsula , where they came from the opposite island of New Ireland probably 250 years ago . They speak Kuanua , an Austronesian language also known as "Tolai", which includes various dialects.

The Tolai people form a matrilineal society , which is divided into two comprehensive matriarchal lineages ( matri-moieties ) through which land ownership is regulated and inherited, and between which there is marriage . This guarantees women economic independence, but management roles are often taken on by men, and after marriage it is usually the husband or his family ( patrilocal ) who take up residence .

As early as 1870, the Tolai had contacts with European traders who searched the coasts of Melanesia in search of ( compulsory ) labor for their plantations in Australia and other South Pacific areas . The resulting on plantations lingua franca of Papua New Guinea, today's official language Tok Pisin , therefore, relates to 10% of their words from the Kuanua Language-language Tolai.

Name and origin

"Tolai" as a name for the inhabitants of the eastern part of the Gazelle Peninsula does not come from them, but was derived from a local greeting (in the sense of "buddy, friend") and finally adopted by them as a proper name, they had their own Not. The early German researchers called them "Toleute", the early missionaries "Gunantuna". They were not a uniform group with a common tradition, language or sense of identity, but neither did they oppose standardization. The earliest mention of the name "Tolai" comes from a 1936 edition of the Rabaul Times newspaper .

It is believed that the ancestors of the Tolai came over from the island of New Ireland (New Ireland, formerly Neumecklenburg) about 250 years ago ; to the southern residents there, especially the small matrilineal Lak people , there are still great cultural similarities (for example the shell money and the duk-duk - secret society).

Settlements

The Tolai inhabit a flat area of ​​about 800 km² in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula, mainly around the two towns of Rabaul and Kokopo ( map view ) and along the coasts, as well as the port island of Matupi and partially the offshore Duke of York Islands . On most of the coasts of the peninsula the plain turns into hills and mountains after about 1000 meters, the whole area of ​​the Tolai is separated from the west of New Britain by the high Baining Mountains (up to 1500 m high) . In the fertile lowlands, which get their water from the many springs in the mountains, a relatively uniform population was able to spread, but is now suffering from a very high population density.

Local communities of up to 300 Tolai live in villages that consist of scattered groups of houses ( hamlets ) in the forest-like landscapes and often have a simply built church and school. While traditional materials are used to build in rural areas, most houses around the towns of Kokopo and Rabaul consist of two floors with copper roofs, glass windows and, above all, their own water tank.

After Rabaul in 1937 when the outbreak of Tavurvur had been destroyed -Vulkans, the great eruption buried the city in 1994 again by volcanic ash . Rabaul was rebuilt elsewhere, since then Kokopo (30 km southeast, 20,000 inhabitants, formerly Herbertshöhe) is the capital of the province of East New Britain , in which the Tolai make up over half of the total population.

economy

Traditional households are self-sufficient with their own gardening ( horticulture ), mostly in communities of a few small households ; several such scattered hamlets together form a village. On the fertile soil, fertilized by the ashes of many volcanic eruptions , very productive taro and yams as well as sweet potatoes are grown; there are 70 types of bananas. While the men are responsible for creating a (larger) garden through slash and burn , the women predominantly take on its management . The high biodiversity on the peninsula has led to many specialized small production units and a lively exchange of goods between one another, which in the past was only handled with traditional mussel money (see below ). Even before contact with Europeans, the Tolai settlement area covered a network of local markets , which enabled the mutual exchange between coastal and inland inhabitants and their supply.

The year is divided into two halves: taubar is the time of the southeast winds (May to October), Labur the time the northwest monsoon winds ( rainy season from November to April). On the coasts, depending on the season, men fish with nets and large hand-woven baskets made of pandanus leaves , while women take over the catch and sell it at local markets. A popular delicacy is the eggs of the Bismarck grouse (family of large foot fowl ), which men dig up in the warm ground near volcanic craters .

Coconut palms grow everywhere , the components of which serve basic needs: the nutritious nuts provide food and liquid and are an essential cooking ingredient, the braided palm fronds are used for roofing and as mats because of their water-repellent surface, and the palm trunks are used as building and fuel. The early European traders were already interested in the local copra (dried coconut meat), the German colonial administration strengthened the plantation economy from 1902, especially around their headquarters in Kokopo (see History of the Gazelle Peninsula ). In addition to copra, cocoa also became an important export good from the 1950s onwards .

In addition to traditional gardening, many Tolai take on paid work . Because they are considered reliable, they were already used as foremen during colonial times and later in the period after the Second World War and rose to management positions. Tolai work as doctors, lawyers, teachers and in government administration, also in other parts of Papua New Guinea .

Land ownership

The ancestral land is assigned to local Vunatarai , subsets of the matrilineal clans who own and administer the land , although their members may live scattered across many villages. The management of the Vunatarai allocates land to the group members and regulates the rights of use of non-members. Although men are generally not part of the maternal line of succession, they can transfer a piece of land from their mother's clan to a son for life to support him - after death, however, disputes often arise about the return of the land to the clan. Even before the volcanic eruption in 1994, the number of land disputes among the Tolai was among the highest in all of Papua New Guinea; mostly it was and is about the fact that fathers want to bequeath a piece of land from their matrilineal clan to their own children instead of to their mother's nephews.

Around 40% of their ancestral land was expropriated by the German colonial rulers and given to foreigners - until today it has not been returned to the Tolai.

Since the first contacts, the number of Tolai has grown from an estimated 30,000 to over 120,000, which significantly overpopulates the limited area of ​​the lowlands and increases social tensions. Accordingly, Tolai also spread into the neighboring mountains and occupy the ancestral land of the neighboring people of the Baining , who are viewed by them as inferior.

Shell money

Shell money from the island of New Ireland east of the Gazelle Peninsula (around 1900)
Ceremonial presentation of loloi rings made from shell money ( Rabaul 1913)

The traditional tabu shell money (also tambu, diwarra ) of the Tolai is used today as an official means of payment and is used in small amounts in markets and sometimes in shops. It fulfills important tasks within the Tolai community, but is hardly widespread outside of one's own language group. In 1875, the first Christian missionaries reported that the Tolai had established trade relations with the small Nakanai people in the west of the island in order to obtain the valuable shells of the small sea snail Nassarius arcularius from the north coast for the manufacture of their mussel money.

units

The sharpened snail shells are pulled up on thin plant fibers and counted in units of ten. The largest unit is a shell chain that extends from fingertip to fingertip between two outstretched arms (Pokono) , also known internationally as a fathom (derived from the seafarer's length measure fathom "thread" ). A Pokono with 300 to 400 mussels is worth 3  kina (local currency), around 1 euro (2013).

For storage, hundreds of mussel strings are tied together to form a narrow ring (loloi) of various sizes (up to 1 m) and wrapped with particularly durable pandanus leaves. These loloi - comparable to gold bars - are stored in shell money chambers or huts that each family and also the Vunatarai (local subgroup of the matrilineal clan ) builds especially for this purpose. On ceremonial occasions, the Loloi rings are brought out and proudly presented. To establish good relationships or to compensate for special services, individual loloi are also "given away". As the bride price , the husband still has to hand over a loloi to the bride's parents today (400 shell cords, around 400 euros).

Spiritual meaning

The Tolai's tambu or tabu shell money is based on a spiritual , religious concept that determines respect when dealing with it: shell money fulfills an essential task in the event of a person's death, it is a condition for their successful transition to the “abode of the spirit beings ". The goal of a person is to collect as many loloi rings as possible during their lifetime, which are only cut open at their own funeral service and distributed to the mourners present. The amount of shell money distributed determines the continued reputation of the deceased as well as their successful entry into the afterlife. If there is no shell money to distribute in the event of death, it is a great shame for the remaining members of the clan and the lineage (maternal ancestry group). The deceased person is then condemned to wander around in perpetual misery in the "land of IaKupia".

After more than a hundred years of Christianization , much of the underlying traditional belief system has been lost, but shell money is still respected as a "solid" connection between the living and their ancestors . By participating in the distribution at funerals, each Tolai collects shell money, most of which comes from his (maternal) ancestors and their ancestors and so on.

With this system of passing on, the entire shell money of the large matrilineal group ( moiety ) remains within the group, because the father and members of his large maternal group (the other of the two Tolai lineages) are not included in the distribution. The deep symbolic meaning of shell money is the aspect of the physical continuation of a deceased person with their descendants, but also with the living of their maternal clan (as a subgroup of the great lineage). The living will in turn pass on their “inherited” shell money to their descendants and their maternal relatives if their accumulated loloi are cut open and distributed after their death.

Culture of giving

The traditional way of dealing with shell money was similar in some respects to the use of money in the Western economy and involved making profit through skillful use. The difficulty of obtaining and processing the mussels prevented the devaluation of taboo money, and the permission of the local big man (leader) required for its production prevented overproduction .

The Tolai's taboo or tambu money was and still is a gift, a medium of exchange and a means of payment. It is part of a gift economy and closely integrated into social, cultural, religious and political contexts (see also the explanatory approach as a "total social phenomenon" according to Mauss and the Kula ritual of mussel exchange on the Trobriand Islands). Taboo money is still used in ceremonies to this day, and there are transactions among the Tolai that can only be paid for with taboo while others are paid for with money only.

Official means of payment

In the German colonial period in 1902 the use of shell money in trade with Europeans "in the interests of the natives" was forbidden so that they

"If you wanted to buy something from Europeans, you first had to earn money through proper work."

In 1914, shell money was to be banned entirely. Since 2002, the use of traditional Tolai mussel money has been officially promoted as a regional complementary currency in the eastern province of East New Britain . The aim is to strengthen the local traditions and economic cycles on the Gazelle Peninsula and to remain independent of external influences. Taboo money can even be used to pay income taxes there. It had been shown that the continued use of shell money within the Tolai had contributed to their stability compared to the west of the island of New Britain and that it had shielded them from the harmful effects of economic globalization .

Tolai Exchange Bank

In February 2002, the world's first mussel bank was opened in the east of the peninsula near the town of Rabaul : The Tolai Exchange Bank changes mussel money into hard currency, 3  kina for 1  fathom / pokono (around 1 euro). Conversely, taboo cords can also be bought there to give away at festivities, especially from city dwellers who have lost other options for obtaining shell money. The amount of shell money in circulation on the Gazelle Peninsula is estimated at 2 million fathom (around 2 million euros).

Social organization

The Tolai society is fundamentally divided into two kinship groups, ethnosociology calls the parts of such a two- group system moieties (halves, lineages). Dual systems with two major lineages can be found in many of the more than 1000  indigenous peoples and ethnic groups in the Pacific region.

Two maternal lines (moieties)

While most two-group peoples consist of a mother-side ( matrilinear ) and a father-side ( patrilinear ) organized large group, the two lineages of the Tolai are derived from two ancestral mothers , thus forming two matri-moieties . Only the mother passes on membership in her large group to her children, not the father (he belongs to the other moiety), so children always belong to their mother's moiety. Each moiety is divided into numerous local matrilineal clans and lineages (ancestry groups). The kinship of the mother still plays an essential role in mutual support and ceremonial celebrations , while the kinship of the father (i.e. the other moiety) is irrelevant. The relatives of the Tolai correspond to the system of the Iroquois- Indians of North America: The children of same-sex siblings of the parents (i.e. of mother-sister and father-brother) have the same names as their own siblings - in contrast to the cousins , those of the mother- brother or of the father sister descended (see also cross-cousin marriage for this distinction ). The two Moieties of the Tolai have no corporate functions ; their main role is to regulate marriages.

Prohibition of marriage within a lineage

The Tolai only marry between the two large groups, marriages within the same moiety are forbidden, they are taboo and are punished with expulsion from both moieties, and in the past even with death. Such a marriage rule is called exogamous : spouses must be sought outside their own descent group, both mothers of a married couple must belong to different moieties. It is common to pay a “ bride price ” in the form of shell money. The married couple usually found a new household ( small family ) in the vicinity of the husband's parents ( virilocal rules for following the residence ), some husbands also move in with their wives; there are no binding regulations in this regard. Divorce is not a problem, but marriages were considered stable until the 1990s. In the past, polygyny ( polygyny : one man can marry several women) was an important part of the Tolai culture, but it is rarely found today.

The early German researchers recognized the dual system of the Tolai people, wrote Georg Thilenius , then director of the Hamburg Museum of Ethnology , after the Hamburg South Sea Expedition 1908–1910 :

“Each district, like the whole people, is divided into two clans, each with its own totem. Mixing in the same clan is considered incest. The children belong to the mother's clan, they are not related to their father. The mother brother has greater parental power, any concerns are brought to him. "

- German Colonial Lexicon  (1920)

Political organization

The social relationships of the Tolei with one another are determined on the one hand by the local communities in the hamlets and villages , on the other hand by supra-regional clan and lineage affiliations, which are derived from maternal ancestry. Each hamlet (cluster of a few houses) maintains close relationships with hamlets in other villages in which members of the same lineage live. These connections are strengthened by marriage, reciprocal trade and joint ceremonial activities, supported by widespread motorization and well-developed road networks .

The Tolai tradition had no central power , inheritable leadership or chieftainship - its social organization was formed through the interplay of local communities and lineage subgroups (see also society without a head and segmentary society ). In the local communities those men were recognized as leaders ( big man ) , who distinguished themselves through leadership qualities and entrepreneurship , but above all could organize ceremonial celebrations on a large scale with their accumulated shell money (see below ). Since the 1950s, the Tolai have been organized into local councils , mostly building on their existing local subdivisions.

Culture

Duk-Duk - dancers of the Tolai men's secret society (1907)
Human double stone figure (with male and female side) of the iniet men's union , it represents ancestors or guardian spirits (1907)

In the traditional Tolai culture, death cults , secret men's societies, magic , bride price , polygamy and tribal wars play a role. Various secret societies had and in some cases still have an important religious, political and cultural significance. Thus, the secret society of example, was iniet - Federal banned by the German colonial government after she is said to have played an important role in the murder of various Europeans. Another secret society of the Tolai is the Duk-Duk , to which only men belong.

Skull masks were used by the Tolai, and little is known about their spiritual background. These masks were made from facial skulls over-modeled with a putty mass of clay and the juice of the fruits of the Parinarium bush. The lower jaws of the skulls were reattached with the putty. On the front, eyes, nose and mouth have been sculpted and given a color. Many masks wear hairstyles made from plant fibers with decorative elements made from feathers. At the beginning of the 20th century, these masks were so popular with collectors that the Tolai are said to have made them on request.

music

From 1949 the Tolai musician Blasius To Una (* 1925) composed four songs in his mother tongue Kuanua with guitar accompaniment. He was often heard on the radio and was believed to be the first Papua New Guinea musician to reach a larger audience. From the 1960s onwards, pop bands in Papua New Guinea began using electric guitars and often no longer sang their songs in the regional languages, but in pidgin . Blasius To Una is considered the best singer of this time on Kuanua with his country & western style influenced songs. On a long-playing record published in 1978, he alternated between singing and speaking.

Since 1971 there has been the annual Tolai Warwagira Festival for choral music and string bands in Rabaul .

One of the most famous singers in Melanesia is Tolai George Mamua Telek , born in 1959 near Rabaul, who began as a singer in string bands in the 1970s and has played the traditional music of his Tolai people with American in power bands since the 1980s Brings together pop music and Caribbean reggae .

Famous Tolai

History of the Tolai

The island of New Britain was discovered for the Europeans in 1700 by the British three-time circumnavigator William Dampier and named New Britain . The Gazelle Peninsula was named after the Prussian warship Gazelle , which visited Blanche Bay on an expedition in August 1875 and measured the natural harbor there.

Proselytizing

In 1875 the English Reverend George Brown founded a station on the offshore Duke of York Island for the Evangelical Wesleyan Mission of Australia and from there initiated the missionary work of the Gazelle Peninsula. From 1881 onwards, Catholic Sacred Heart missionaries began to convert the local population to Christianity . In 1890 the Catholic "Vicariate Neupommern" was established and from 1894 the increased missionary work of the two churches had its first effects. Although “the low level of culture, polygamy and cannibalism” were seen as obstacles, in 1912 the number of Christians was already over 20,000.

German colonial rule

During the German occupation (1885-1914), the island of New Britain was under the name "Neupommern" (after the Prussian province of Pomerania ) part of the " German Colonies " and from 1899 part of " German New Guinea ". In the same year the seat of the colonial administration was moved to Herbertshöhe (today Kokopo ) on the Gazelle peninsula, in the Tolai area (colonial German "Toleute"). Albert Hahl , governor of the whole of German New Guinea since 1902 , had a relationship with a Tolai woman and had a child with her. He reduced the usual punitive expeditions against locals who refused to bow to foreign rule and the continued land grabbing , and appointed local chiefs (Luluai) as mediators between the German administration and the local population. Hahl also expanded education and medical care for the locals. In 1908, the Hamburg South Sea Expedition of the Museum of Ethnology also visited the Gazelle Peninsula for “ethnographic research”.

Australian administration

In 1914, New Britain was conquered by Australian troops and administered as a mandate of the League of Nations of Australia after the First World War .

Second World War

US air raid on Rabaul , location of up to 200,000 Japanese troops (1943)
Countless Japanese warships, for refueling in the Simpson port of Rabaul , flee from US bombers (1943)

During the Pacific War , fierce fighting between the Allies and the Japanese took place on the land of the Tolai , and one third of the Tolai population is said to have died. After a day-long battle for Rabaul (1942) , the Japanese Empire made the port city on the Gazelle Peninsula its most important outpost in all of Southeast Asia and expanded it into a fortress with a huge and partially underground supply base . The local population was badly treated and many Tolai were forcibly recruited as auxiliary workers . As a result, the US Navy bombed the base several times and successfully interrupted its supply lines. As a result, the Tolaib population suffered greatly from lack of food and medical care. Rabaul was temporarily manned by up to 200,000 soldiers and was only returned after the Japanese surrender at the end of 1945.

Australian administered trust territory

From 1949 the Gazelle Peninsula was under Australian administration as part of the territory of Papua and New Guinea . Shortly before the independence of Papua New Guinea, the Australian government commissioner Jack Emanuel was slain by a Tolai group on a plantation in 1971 when the experienced and recognized arbitrator wanted to resolve a dispute among locals. Despite a thorough police investigation, it remained unclear whether it was about land ownership or whether it was a politically justified act of the then very active Mataungan movement. This movement had many supporters among the Tolai and played an important role in the achievement of self-government on the island and the subsequent independence of all of Papua New Guinea.

independence

In 1973 Papua New Guinea became independent and in 1975 received full sovereignty .

literature

Newest first:

  • Alexander Solyga: Taboo - the shell money of the Tolai: An ethnology of money in Papua New Guinea . Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-496-02851-2 (economic-ethnological study, received the prize of the city and the University of Bayreuth in 2011).
  • Bettina Beer : Interethnic Relationships and Transcultural Kinship Using an Example from Papua New Guinea . In: Erdmute Alber u. a. (Ed.): Relationship Today - Positions, Results and Perspectives . Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-496-02832-1 , p. 145–171 (28 pp., Bettinabeer.info [PDF; 320 kB ] the professor of ethnology at the ETH Zurich examines in her field study the marriage of a patrilineal Wampar man with a matrilineal Tolai woman - little about the Tolai).
  • Horst founder : Papua New Guinea: one last Christian utopia . In: Franz-Joseph Post u. a. (Ed.): Christian message of salvation and worldly power - studies on the relationship between mission and colonialism (=  Europe-overseas ). tape 14 . LIT Verlag, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-8258-7366-8 , p. 105–126 ( excerpt from page 107 in the Google book search - on proselytizing the Gazelle Peninsula around 1900).
  • Richard Parkinson : Thirty Years in the South Seas. Country and people, customs and traditions in the Bismarck Archipelago and on the German Solomon Islands. Strecker & Schröder, Stuttgart 1907 ( searchable in the Google book search; additional materials from the University of Sydney on the English translation 2010: PDF file; 340 KB, 38 pages ).
  • William Taufa, Heinrich Fellmann: About the shell money (a taboo) on Neupommern, Bismarck Archipelago (German New Guinea). In: Announcements of the seminar for oriental languages ​​at the Friedrich Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin, Dept. 1: East Asian Studies. Volume 5, 1902, pp. 92-102.
  • Richard Parkinson : In the Bismarck Archipelago - Experiences and observations on the island of New Pomerania (New Britain) . F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1887 (the book is searchable in the Google book search - Parkinson, 1844–1909, was a German South Sea explorer and planter on the Gazelle Peninsula).

English:

  • Jacob L. Simet: Copyrighting traditional Tolai knowledge? In: Kathy Whimp, Mark Busse (Ed.): Protection of Intellectual, Biological and Cultural Property in Papua New Guinea . Asia Pacific Press / ANU E Press, Australian National University, Canberra 2013, ISBN 978-1-922144-92-8 , pp. 62–80 ( online and download from anu.edu.au ).
  • Tolai . In: Barbara A. West (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania . Infobase Publishing, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-8160-7109-8 , pp. 816 (the encyclopedia describes over 400 peoples).
  • Keir Martin: Chapter Three: Land, Customary and Non-Customary, in East New Britain . In: James F. Weiner, Katie Glaskin (Eds.): Customary Land Tenure and Registration in Australia and Papua New Guinea (=  Asia-Pacific Environment Monographs ). tape 3 . ANU E Press, Australian National University, Canberra 2007, ISBN 978-1-921313-26-4 , pp. 39–56 (first published in 1999; online and download from anu.edu.au ).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Gunantuna - Aspects of the person, the self and the individual among the Tolai . Crawford House, Bathurst Australia 1999, ISBN 1-85065-429-8 ( book review in The Free Library ; the book is searchable in Google Book Search - the British professor of social anthropology, 1924-1999, was a recognized expert on the Tolai people, like his wife Trude Scarlett Epstein).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: The Paranoid Ethos in Melanesia - The case of the Tolai . In: Journal de la Société des Océanistes . tape 110 , no. 1 . Société des Océanistes, Paris 2000, p. 3-18 , doi : 10.3406 / jso.2000.2112 .
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Adoption among the Tolai . In: Journal de la Société des Océanistes . tape 99 , no. 2 . Société des Océanistes, Paris 1994, p. 141–157 , doi : 10.3406 / jso.1994.1932 .
  • Klaus Neumann: Tradition and Identity in Papua New Guinea - Some Observations regarding Tami and Tolai . In: Oceania . Volume 62, No. 4 . Oceania Publications, University of Sydney, June 1992, pp. 295-316 , JSTOR : 40332507 (English).
  • Klaus Neumann: Not the Way it Really Was - Constructing the Tolai Past (=  Pacific Islands Monograph Series . No. 10 ). University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1992, ISBN 0-8248-1333-2 ( excerpt in the Google book search - the doctoral thesis from 1988 examines the memory patterns in current descriptions of long ago incidents).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Changing Patterns of Tolai Residence and Marital Choice . In: Ethnology . Volume 30, No. 1 . Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, USA January 1991, p. 49-64 ( preview in JSTOR ).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Matupit Revisited: Social Change, Local Organization, and the Sense of Place . In: Journal de la Société des Océanistes . tape 86 , no. 1 . Société des Océanistes, Paris 1988, p. 21-40 , doi : 10.3406 / jso.1988.2840 .
  • Trude Scarlett Epstein: Capitalism, Primitive and Modern - Some Aspects of Tolai Economic Growth . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1980, ISBN 0-87855-397-5 (Indian edition from 1979 as a reading sample in the Google book search - first edition: 1968).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tambu - The Shell-Money of the Tolai . In: R. H. Hook, George Devereux (Eds.): Fantasy and Symbol - Studies in Anthropological Interpretation . Academic Press, London 1979, ISBN 0-12-355480-2 .
  • Andrew Strathern: By toil or by guile? The use of coils and crescents by Tolai and Hagen big-men . In: Journal de la Société des Océanistes . tape 31 , no. 49 . Société des Océanistes, Paris 1975, p. 363-378 , doi : 10.3406 / jso.1975.2723 .
  • Hermann Janssen, Mary Mennis, Brenda Skinner (eds.): Tolai myths of origin . Jacaranda Press, Milton Australia 1973, ISBN 0-7016-8179-9 (the book is searchable in Google Book Search).
  • Richard Frank Salisbury: Vunamami - Economic Transformation in a Traditional Society . University of California Press, Berkeley / Los Angeles / London 1970, ISBN 0-520-01647-5 ( excerpt in Google book search).
  • Arnold Leonard Epstein: Matupit: Land, Politics, and Change among the Tolai of New Britain . University of California Press, Berkeley / Los Angeles 1969, ISBN 0-520-01556-8 ( excerpt in Google book search).
  • George Brown: Pioneer-missionary and explorer, an autobiography. A narrative of forty-eight years' residence and travel in Samoa, New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea and the Solomon islands . Hodder & Stoughton, London 1908, p. 69–416 ( online and download at archive.org ).
  • Tolai literature, articles, and videos at the National Library of Australia .
  • Literature on the Tolai in nationallianzen.de .

Documentaries

  • 2018: Komnairima: Video playlist for Tolai culture on YouTube. 2007–2018 (English: 200 own video productions).
  • 2018: Video List: East New Britain Travel Videos on Australia.com. 2005–2018 (English: 70 videos on Tolai culture).
  • 2012: Komnairima: Tabu - about the shell money culture on YouTube , New Britain 2012 (9 minutes, English: making loloi rings from shell money, the filmmaker is a brother of the Tolai musician George Telek ).
  • 2010: Guido Knopp : The German Empire . Part 3: Adventure South Seas. Broadview TV for ZDF, Germany 2010 (44 minutes: also covers the Gazelle Peninsula and the Tolai, especially with regard to cannibalism).
  • 1995: Charles Chess, Caroline Yacoe: Time of the tubuan. Chess Productions, Honolulu 1995 (30 minutes, English: the figure of tubuan belongs to the Tolai iniet men's secret society: "Introduces the people and art of Papua New Guinea, then focuses on a Tolai male initiation ceremony. The ceremony showcases a mask known as the tubuan which represents the power of the men's secret sacred society. ").
  • 1962: Video: Peoples of Papua and New Guinea. Department of Territories, Australian Commonwealth Film Unit, Sydney 1962 (47 minutes, English: "Part 2: Rabaul sequences. The Tolai people").

Web links

Commons : Tolai  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Gazelle Peninsula  - Tolai Area
Commons : shell money

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Orientation. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 (English, the British professor of social anthropology, 1924–1999, was a recognized expert on the Tolai people).
  2. ↑ a b Lexicon entry: Neupommern. In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon. Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 2, p. 638 ff.
  3. ^ Ethnologue entry: Kuanua - A language of Papua New Guinea. M. Paul Lewis et al. a. (Ed.): Ethnologue: Languages ​​of the World . 17th Edition, SIL International, Texas, 2013, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  4. ↑ a b Bettina Beer : Interethnic Relationships and Transcultural Kinship Using an Example from Papua New Guinea . In: Erdmute Alber u. a. (Ed.): Relationship Today - Positions, Results and Perspectives . Dieter Reimer Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-496-02832-1 , p. 145–171, here pp. 157, 159–160 ( PDF file , 320 kB, 28 pages). Quote p. 157: "The Tolai, on the other hand, follow the rules of a matrilineal descent according to the ideal, which also establishes land rights." Pp. 159–160: "The passing on of the name from Gertrud's mother (or a classifying mother) to Amanda can, however, be significant when it comes to documenting membership in the matrilineal clan and applying for land in its current settlement area. "
  5. ^ A b Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Marriage and Family. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  6. ^ A b Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Kinship. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed on July 12, 2018 (English): “The dual division is the pivot of Tolai social organization. Every Tolai belongs to one of two matrimoieties, the chief function of which is the regulation of marriage. Sexual relations within the moiety constitute the most heinous of offenses, which in the past called for the death of the guilty parties. By birth every Tolai is also affiliated with the clan of the mother. The clan is a dispersed unit, associated with a place (or places) of origin, from which members scattered over the course of time to form separate branches or local matrilineages elsewhere within the area. The clan (or segments of it) provides an elaborate network of kin relations covering many different local communities, and to this day it continues to provide a basis for cooperation in a variety of economic activities and above all in ceremonial affairs. "
  7. ↑ a b c d e Georg Thilenius : Neupommern - 5th population. In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon . Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 2, p. 638 ff.
  8. ^ Klaus Neumann: Tradition and Identity in Papua New Guinea - Some Observations regarding Tami and Tolai . In: Oceania . Volume 62, No. 4 . Oceania Publications, University of Sydney, June 1992, pp. 295–316, here p. 295 (English, partial view in JSTOR ).
  9. ↑ See on the Lak people : Steven M. Albert: Lak. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed on July 12, 2018 (English, Albert wrote his doctoral thesis after field studies 1985–1986 with the matrilineal Lak people in the south of the island of New Ireland ). For the Patpatar language (Patpatar-Tolai) see the Lak: Ethnologue entry: Patpatar - A language of Papua New Guinea. M. Paul Lewis et al. a. (Ed.): Ethnologue: Languages ​​of the World . 17th Edition, SIL International, Texas, 2013, accessed on July 12, 2018 : “Alternate Names: Gelik, Patpari. Population: 7,000 (1998 SIL). Location: New Ireland Province, south central Namatanai district. Dialects: Pala, Patpatar, Sokirik. "
  10. ↑ See the encyclopedia entry by Karl Sapper , Krauss: Bainingberge on the Baining Mountains . In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon. Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, volume 1, p. 117 f. Quote: »Baining Mountains, still little known main mountain range of the Gazelle Peninsula, Neupommern (German New Guinea), up to 1500 m high, densely forested and sparsely populated by the Baining; it seems to be made up of older and younger igneous rocks as well as raised coral limestone (up to a height of 525 m). The older igneous rocks determined so far are monzonite, augite diorite, augite diorite porphyrite and augite porphyrite. On the northern edge of the Baining Mountains, south of Lassulbucht and Massawa, are the plantings of some German Queenslanders. Recently a few other settlers have also settled. Two small arrowroot production factories have also recently been set up to export this product. The New Guinea company also has a branch here, and it mainly produces cocoa ”.
  11. ^ Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Settlements. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  12. ^ A b c d e Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Economy. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  13. ^ Keir Martin: Chapter Three: Land, Customary and Non-Customary, in East New Britain . In: James F. Weiner, Katie Glaskin (Eds.): Customary Land Tenure and Registration in Australia and Papua New Guinea (=  Asia-Pacific Environment Monographs ). tape 3 . ANU E Press, Australian National University, Canberra 2007, ISBN 978-1-921313-26-4 , pp. 39–56, here pp. 39–40 (English; first published in 1999; online and download from anu.edu.au ).
  14. ^ Trude Scarlett Epstein: Capitalism, Primitive and Modern: Some Aspects of Tolai Economic Growth . Australian National University Press, Canberra 1980, ISBN 0-87855-397-5 , pp. 1 ( Page 1 in the Google book search: Indian edition from 1979 - first edition: 1968).
  15. ↑ Hermann Joseph Hiery : The Baininger. Some historical notes as an introduction . In: Karl Hesse : A Jos! The world in which the Chachet-Bainingers live - legends, beliefs and dances from the Gazelle Peninsula of Papua New Guinea (=  sources and research on the South Seas ). tape 2 . Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 978-3-447-05662-5 , pp. viii ( Preface page viii in Google Book Search).
  16. ↑ See the ethnologue entry for the Nakanai language : Nakanai - A language of Papua New Guinea. M. Paul Lewis et al. a. (Ed.): Ethnologue: Languages ​​of the World . 17th Edition, SIL International, Texas, 2013, accessed July 12, 2018 : “Alternate Names: Nakonai. Population: 13,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Location: West New Britain Province, Hoskins district, northwest coast. 42 villages. Dialects: Bileki (Lakalai, Mamuga, Muku), Losa (Auka, Loso), Maututu, Ubae (Babata), Vere (Tarobi, Vele). “ Note: There are overlaps with the Lakalai people .
  17. ↑ Carolyn Leigh, Ron Perry: Guide to Artifacts. In: Art-Pacific. Tucson Arizona USA, 2011, accessed on July 12, 2018 (English, Leigh and Perry have been collecting art from New Guinea since 1964): “Strings of shell disks or beads (called heishe in the US) are often valued by the fathom which equals 6 feet or slightly less than 2 meters. ""
  18. ↑ Stephen DeMeulenaere: Tabu Shell Money - Traditional / Historical System. In: Complementary Currency Resource Center. Without place, 2012, archived from the original on June 9, 2015 ; accessed on July 12, 2018 .
  19. ↑ See on the monetary values of shell money and the production of a loloi ring: Komnairima: Tabu - about the shell money culture on YouTube , New Britain 2012 (English documentary, 10 minutes; the filmmaker is a brother of the Tolai musician George Telek ).
  20. ↑ Jeffrey Clark: Shit beautiful: tambu and kina revisited . In: Oceania . Volume 65, No. 3 . Oceania Publications, University of Sydney, March 1995, pp. 195–211 (English, online in The Free Library ; partial view in JSTOR ). The article reviews Arnold Leonard Epstein's psychoanalytic investigation into the meaning of the Tolai shell money: Tambu - The Shell-Money of the Tolai . In: R. H. Hook, George Devereux (Eds.): Fantasy and Symbol - Studies in Anthropological Interpretation . Academic Press, London 1979, ISBN 0-12-355480-2 .
  21. ^ A b Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Religion and Expressive Culture. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  22. ↑ Georg Thilenius : Money of the natives. In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon. Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 1, p. 692: Quotation: »The importance of drawing money lies in the fact that it can be stored and capitalized just like commercial money; so the wealthy natives at the Blanche Bay in New Pomerania amassed large amounts of shell money and lent it against interest. A devaluation of these forms of money prevents either the limited edition (East Asia) or, as with shell money, the difficulty of obtaining it. […] The Diwarra Neulauenburgs [note: Duke of York Islands] or the tambu of the Blanche Bay [note: on the Gazelle Peninsula] consists, like many other oceanic forms of shell money, of small cut and strung on threads Slices of a particular shell that are difficult to obtain and laborious and time consuming to work on; a devaluating overproduction was all the less to be feared since the chief's permission was necessary for production. "
  23. ^ Sigrun Preissing: Tabu - The shell money of the Tolai in Papua New Guinea . In: Journal for Social Economy . Volume 46, No. 160-161 . Gauke Verlag for Social Economy, Kiel April 2009, p. 38–40, here pp. 38–39 ( PDF file , 233 kB - the ethnologist discusses shell money on 4 pages under the aspects of “exchanging, giving, alternative currency”). Quote p. 38: »The Tolai are today a relatively homogeneous group, to which 100,000 people feel they belong. [...] A fundamental difference is that taboo is far more than our institution money, a fait social total in the sense of Marcel Mauss. This means that the traditional Tolai exchange with taboo of social, culture, religion and politics was inseparable and is difficult to separate even today. Taboo is a traditional medium of exchange, gift and currency. [...] is still used in a ritual context. Any ritual of a sacred character traditionally involved taboo. […] Even in the case of serious rule violations, Tolai were not excluded from the community, but re-committed to the community through taboos to other members. [...] a social institution. It's about the integration of society. «P. 39:» Taboo is anchored in rituals to this day, and everyday give and take is a constitutive part of their social life for most Tolai. Today there are transactions with the Tolai that can only be made with taboo, others are only paid with money. Some are in a gray area. "
  24. ^ Encyclopedia entry: German New Guinea. In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon . Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 2, p. 315 ff.
    Quotation: “One of the most important provisions enacted in the interest of the natives is the abolition of shell money, which was used in dealings with Europeans as early as 1902 was forbidden in order to induce the natives, if they wanted to buy something from Europeans, that they first had to earn money through proper work. "
  25. ^ Margrit Kennedy, Bernard A. Lietaer: A dual currency for cultural sustainability - Papua New Guinea . From the American (2003) by Elisabeth Liebl. In: Regional Currencies: New Paths to Sustainable Prosperity . 2nd Edition. Riemann Verlag, 2009, ISBN 978-3-641-03368-2 ( reference in the Google book search - without page numbers).
  26. ↑ See details on marriage behavior in: Arnold Leonard Epstein: Changing Patterns of Tolai Residence and Marital Choice . In: Ethnology . Volume 30, No. 1 . Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, USA January 1991 (English; preview in JSTOR ).
  27. ^ A b Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - Sociopolitical Organization. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  28. ↑ Horst Founder : Papua New Guinea: One Last Christian Utopia . In: Franz-Joseph Post u. a. (Ed.): Christian message of salvation and worldly power - studies on the relationship between mission and colonialism (=  Europe-overseas ). tape 14 . LIT Verlag, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-8258-7366-8 , p. 105–126, here p. 111 ( page 111 in the Google book search).
  29. ↑ Permanent exhibition: Masks of the South Seas: exhibits. Hamburg South Sea Expedition 1908–1910 , Museum für Völkerkunde Hamburg , 2003, accessed on July 12, 2018 .
  30. ↑ Antje Kelm: Skull masks from New Britain . In Alfried Wieczorek, Wilfried Rosendahl (ed.): Skull Cult - Head and skull in the cultural history of mankind . Schnell and Steiner, Regensburg 2011, ISBN 978-3-7954-2454-1 , p. 171-177, 380 .
  31. ↑ a b Overview: Historical Periods in Papua New Guinea Music. In: Music Archive for the Pacific. Southern Cross University , Lismore Australia, accessed July 12, 2018 (English, probably 1996). Source used there: Michael Webb, Don Niles: Periods in Papua New Guinea Music History . In: BIKMAUS: A Journal of Papua New Guinea Affairs, Ideas and the Arts . Volume 7, No.
     March 1 , 1987.
  32. ↑ George Telek : Biography. The Blunt Label, Australia, 2004, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  33. ^ Joseph Schmidlin : Neupommern, Katholische Mission (apostolic vicariate). In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon. Quelle and Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 2, p. 638 ff. Quote: “As part of the South Sea region, the Bismarck Archipelago was already entrusted to the Marists for the missionary work in 1844, but it was only since 1881 that the missionaries of St. Heart of Jesus to be addressed. In 1890 the Vicariate of Neupommern was established. Bishop Couppé had almost no success with his missionaries until 1894; the low level of civilization, polygamy and cannibalism were too great obstacles. From 1894 onwards the mission took an unexpected boom […] In 1912 the number of Christians was 20,417, that of catechumens in 1934. The mission is thus far superior to the evangelical one (from Australia). [...] The secret of the success lies above all in the fact that the apostolic vicar has the local helpers of the places to be evangelized trained as students or workers beforehand. The mission schools do a lot for the German language. "
  34. ^ Encyclopedia entry: Hamburgische Südsee-Expedition . In: Heinrich Schnee (Ed.): German Colonial Lexicon. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig 1920, Volume 2, p. 13 ( online at uni-frankfurt.de).
  35. ^ A b Arnold Leonard Epstein: Tolai - History and Cultural Relations. In: Countries and Their Cultures. Gale Group, USA, 1996, accessed July 12, 2018 .
  36. ↑ Hermann Joseph Hiery: The Baininger. Some historical notes as an introduction . In: Karl Hesse: A Jos! The world in which the Chachet-Bainingers live - legends, beliefs and dances from the Gazelle Peninsula of Papua New Guinea (=  sources and research on the South Seas ). tape 2 . Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 978-3-447-05662-5 , pp. xxvi (preface).