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{{short description|Sacred sound and spiritual symbol in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism}}
{{Short description|Sacred sound in Indic religions}}
{{Italic title}}
{{About|the sacred sound and spiritual symbol in dharmic religions|other uses|Om (disambiguation)|and|Aum (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Aum|other uses|Aum (disambiguation)|and|Om (disambiguation)}}
{{italic title}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
[[File:Aum Om black.svg|thumb|''Om'' [[Ligature (writing)|ligature]] in [[Devanagari]] script]]
[[File:Om symbol.svg|thumb|''Om'' [[Ligature (writing)|ligature]] in [[Devanagari]] script]]
[[File:004 Gopura, Aum Sign (26596636998).jpg|thumb|''Om'' ({{script|Taml|ௐ}}) in [[Tamil script]] with a ''[[trishula]]'' at [[Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple]], [[Singapore]]; ''Om'' appears frequently as an [[Religious image|icon]] in temples (''[[mandir]]''s) and spiritual retreats]]
[[File:004 Gopura, Aum Sign (26596636998).jpg|thumb|''Om'' ({{script|Taml|ௐ}}) in [[Tamil script]] with a ''[[trishula]]'' at [[Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple]], [[Singapore]]; ''Om'' appears frequently as an [[Religious image|icon]] in temples (''[[mandir]]s'') and spiritual retreats]]
[[File:Golden Mandala with Om symbol at Hindu temple in Malaysia.jpg|thumb|A [[rangoli]] featuring ''Om'' surrounded by stylised [[Peafowl#Indian peafowl|peacock]]s; ''Om'' often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of [[Indic religions]]]]
[[File:Golden Mandala with Om symbol at Hindu temple in Malaysia.jpg|thumb|A ''[[rangoli]]'' featuring ''Om'' surrounded by stylised [[Peafowl#Indian peafowl|peacock]]s; ''Om'' often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of [[Indic religions]]]]
[[File:OM in Rakhi.jpg|thumb|A ''[[Raksha Bandhan|rakhi]]'' in the shape of ''Om'']]
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}


'''''Om''''' (or '''''Aum''''') ({{audio|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|listen}}; {{lang-sa|ॐ, ओम्|translit=Oṃ|translit-std=IAST}}, ISO&nbsp;15919: ''Ōṁ'') is a symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, [[mantra]], and an invocation in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Constance |url= |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Ryan |first2=James D. |date=2006 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5 |pages=319–20 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/824698506 |title=Sonic liturgy: ritual and music in Hindu tradition |date=2012 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-108-2 |location=Columbia |pages=25 |oclc=824698506}}</ref> Its written representation is the most important symbol of Hinduism.<ref name="wilke4352">{{Cite book |last1=Wilke |first1=Annette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC&pg=PA435 |title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism |last2=Moebus |first2=Oliver |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3110181593 |location=Berlin |page=435}}</ref> It is the essence of the supreme Absolute,<ref name=":1" /> consciousness,<ref name="james4822">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege19962">{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnUFxccJ4igC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-1640-2 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com2">"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/om Om]". ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]],'' ''[[Brahman]],'' or the cosmic world.<ref name="David Leeming 20052">David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA2">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 318</ref><ref name="annette2">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 435–456</ref> In Indic traditions, ''Om'' serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of [[Vedas|Vedic]] authority and a central aspect of [[soteriological]] doctrines and practices.<ref name=":2">{{Cite thesis |last1=Gerety |first1=Moore |last2=McKean |first2=Finnian |date=2015-05-20 |title=This Whole World Is OM: Song, Soteriology, and the Emergence of the Sacred Syllable |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/17467527 |publisher=Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences |pages=33 |issn=1746-7527}}</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu texts]].<ref name="annette2" />
'''{{IAST|Ōṃ}}''' (or '''''Aum''''') ({{audio|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Titodutta-ওঁ.wav|listen}}; {{lang-sa|ॐ, ओम्|Ōṃ|translit-std=IAST}}) is the sound of a sacred spiritual symbol in [[Indic religions]]. The meaning and connotations of ''Om'' vary between the diverse schools within and across the various traditions. It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]].<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), ''A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan'', {{ISBN|978-8170173489}}, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during [[meditation]] in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 244">[[Jan Gonda]] (1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner">[[Julius Lipner]] (2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415456760}}, pp. 66–67</ref>


''Om'' emerged in the [[Vedic Literature|Vedic corpus]] and is said to be an encapsulated form of [[Samaveda|''Samavedic'']] chants or songs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (''[[Samskara (rite of passage)|samskara]]'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[Pranava yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112">David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691140865}}, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122">Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791453902}}, pages 1–4</ref> It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]].<ref>T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993), ''Elements of Hindu Iconography'', Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120808775}}, p. 248</ref><ref>Sehdev Kumar (2001), ''A Thousand Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan'', {{ISBN|978-8170173489}}, p. 5</ref> As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during [[meditation]] in Hinduism, [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="The Indian Mantra pp. 2442">[[Jan Gonda]] (1963), ''The Indian Mantra'', Oriens, Vol. 16, pp. 244–297</ref><ref name="lipner2">[[Julius Lipner]] (2010), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415456760}}, pp. 66–67</ref>
In [[Hinduism]], wherein it signifies the essence of the Ultimate Reality (''[[parabrahman]]'') which is consciousness (''[[paramatman]]''),<ref name="james482">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Om", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 482</ref><ref name="Holdrege1996">{{Cite book |last=Holdrege |first=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnUFxccJ4igC |title=Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-1640-2 |page=57}}</ref><ref name="merriam-webster.com">"[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/om Om]". ''Merriam-Webster'' (2013), Pronounced: \ˈōm\</ref> ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual symbols.<ref name="wilke435">{{Cite book |last=Wilke |first=Annette |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC&pg=PA435 |title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism |last2=Moebus |first2=Oliver |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-3110181593 |location=Berlin |page=435}}</ref><ref name="Krishna Sivaraman 2008">Krishna Sivaraman (2008), ''Hindu Spirituality Vedas Through Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812543}}, page 433</ref> It refers to ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'' (Self within) and ''[[Brahman]]'' (ultimate reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge).<ref name="David Leeming 2005">David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Hajime Nakamura, ''A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy'', Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819634}}, page 318</ref><ref name="annette">Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), ''Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 435–456</ref> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu text]]s.<ref name=annette /> It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]]'' and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (''[[Sanskara (rite of passage)|sanskara]]'') such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[Pranava yoga]].<ref name="David White 2011">David White (2011), ''Yoga in Practice'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691140865}}, pp. 104–111</ref><ref name="Alexander Studholme 2012">Alexander Studholme (2012), ''The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791453902}}, pages 1–4</ref>


The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as '''Onkara/Omkara''' and '''Pranav/Pranava''' among [[#Common names and synonyms|many other names]].<ref name="Misra2018">{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104 |title=The Om Mala: Meanings of the Mystic Sound |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-87471-85-6 |pages=104–}}</ref><ref>"[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=OM&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 OM]". ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Köln, Germany</ref>
The syllable ''Om'' is also referred to as '''Onkara (Omkara)''' and '''Pranava''' among [[#Common names and synonyms|many other names]].<ref name="Misra20182">{{Cite book |last=Misra |first=Nityanand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104 |title=The Om Mala: Meanings of the Mystic Sound |date=25 July 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-93-87471-85-6 |pages=104–}}</ref><ref>"[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=OM&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 OM]". ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', University of Köln, Germany</ref>


== Common names and synonyms ==
== Common names and synonyms ==
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* ''{{IAST|Praṇava}}'' ({{lang|sa|प्रणव}}); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Pranava, ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Praṇava}}'' ({{lang|sa|प्रणव}}); literally, "fore-sound", referring to ''Om'' as the primeval sound.<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Pranava, ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, page 522</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 74-75, 347, 364, 667</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Oṅkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओङ्कार}}) or ''{{IAST|oṃkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओंकार}}); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the [[Creationism#Hinduism|act of creation]].<ref>Diana Eck (2013), ''India: A Sacred Geography'', Random House, {{ISBN|978-0385531924}}, page 245</ref><ref>R Mehta (2007), ''The Call of the Upanishads'', Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807495}}, page 67</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=omkara&trans=Translate&direction=AU Omkara], ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany</ref><ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 435</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Oṅkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओङ्कार}}) or ''{{IAST|oṃkāra}}'' ({{lang|sa|ओंकार}}); literally, "''Om''-maker", denoting the first source of the sound ''Om'' and connoting the [[Creationism#Hinduism|act of creation]].<ref>Diana Eck (2013), ''India: A Sacred Geography'', Random House, {{ISBN|978-0385531924}}, page 245</ref><ref>R Mehta (2007), ''The Call of the Upanishads'', Motilal Barnarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807495}}, page 67</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=omkara&trans=Translate&direction=AU Omkara], ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', University of Koeln, Germany</ref><ref>CK Chapple, W Sargeant (2009), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 435</ref>
** ''{{lang|pa-Latn|[[Ik Onkar|Ik Oṅkār]]}}'' ({{lang|pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an [[Names of God#Sikhism|epithet of God]] in [[Sikhism]]. (see [[#Sikhism|below]])
** ''{{lang|pa-Latn|[[Ik Onkar|Ik Oṅkār]]}}'' ({{lang|pa|ੴ or ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}); literally, "one ''Om''-maker", and an [[Names of God#Sikhism|epithet of God]] in [[Sikhism]]. (see [[#Sikhism|below]]).
* ''{{IAST|Udgītha}}'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}); meaning "song, chant", a word found in [[Samaveda]] and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it, which is also used as a name of the syllable.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n123/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 12 with footnote 1</ref>
* ''{{IAST|Udgītha}}'' ({{lang|sa|उद्गीथ}}); meaning "song, chant", a word found in [[Samaveda]] and ''bhasya'' (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n123/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 12 with footnote 1</ref>
* ''{{IAST|[[Akṣara]]}}'' ({{lang|sa|अक्षर}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
* ''{{IAST|[[Aksara|Akṣara]]}}'' ({{lang|sa|अक्षर}}); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
** ''{{IAST|Ekākṣara}}''; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single [[Ligature (writing)|ligature]]. (see [[#Written representations|below]])
** ''{{IAST|Ekākṣara}}''; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single [[Ligature (writing)|ligature]]. (see [[#Written representations|below]])


== Origin and meaning ==
== Origin and spiritual significance ==
The etymological origins of ''ōm''/''āum'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the [[Upanishads]] having proposed multiple [[Sanskrit]] etymologies for ''āum'', including: from "''ām''" ({{lang|sa|आम्}}; "yes"), from "''ávam''" ({{lang|sa|आवम्}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" ({{lang|sa|अव्}}; "to urge") or "''āp-''" ({{lang|sa|आप्}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">{{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |date=1981 |title=On the Primary Meaning and Etymology of the Sacred Syllable ōm |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49902 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=50 |pages=195–214 |issn=2323-5209}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Praṇava Upaniṣad in [[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha Brāhmaṇa]] 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142}} In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] introductory [[Grammatical particle|particle]] "''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{lang|sa|अथ}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Asko Parpola]] proposes a borrowing from [[Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern [[Tamil language|Tamil]] "''ām''" ({{lang|ta|ஆம்}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">{{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |isbn=9780190226909 |location=New York}}</ref>
The etymological origins of ''ōm'' ''(aum)'' have long been discussed and disputed, with even the [[Upanishads]] having proposed multiple [[Sanskrit]] etymologies for ''aum'', including: from "''ām''" ({{lang|sa|आम्}}; "yes"), from "''ávam''" ({{lang|sa|आवम्}}; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "''āv-''" ({{lang|sa|अव्}}; "to urge") or "''āp-''" ({{lang|sa|आप्}}; "to attain").<ref name="PSSOM">{{Cite journal |last=Parpola |first=Asko |date=1981 |title=On the Primary Meaning and Etymology of the Sacred Syllable ōm |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49902 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=50 |pages=195–214 |issn=2323-5209}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Praṇava Upaniṣad in [[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha Brāhmaṇa]] 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142}} In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] introductory [[Grammatical particle|particle]] "''*au''" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" ({{lang|sa|अथ}}).<ref name=PSSOM/> However, contemporary [[Indology|Indologist]] [[Asko Parpola]] proposes a borrowing from [[Proto-Dravidian language|Dravidian]] "''*ām''" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "''*ākum''", cognate with modern [[Tamil language|Tamil]] "''ām''" ({{lang|ta|ஆம்}}) meaning "yes".<ref name=PSSOM/><ref name="PRoH">{{Cite book |last=Parpola |first=Asko |title=The Roots of Hinduism : the Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization |date=2015 |isbn=9780190226909 |location=New York}}</ref> In the [[Jaffna Tamil dialect]] spoken in Sri Lanka, ''aum''' is the word for yes.{{cn|date=June 2023}}


Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. [[Max Müller]] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation", explain various meanings that the syllable may be in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, [[Brahman]], [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], and Self-knowledge".<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up ''Chandogya Upanishad''], Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>
Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable ''Om'' evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. [[Max Müller]] and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend ''Om'' as a "tool for meditation" and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, [[Brahman]], [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], and Self-knowledge".<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n111/mode/2up ''Chandogya Upanishad''], Oxford University Press, pages 1-21</ref><ref name="deussenmeaningofom">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772</ref>


The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads, the [[mysticism#Indian religions|mystical]] texts associated with the [[Vedanta]] philosophy. It has variously been associated with concepts of "cosmic sound" or "mystical syllable" or "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name=annette /> In the [[Aranyaka]] and the [[Brahmana]] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name=annette /> The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), ''Ganapati: The Song of Self'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424391}}, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, for example suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name=annette /><ref>[http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/vedas/aitereya/the_aitareya_brahmanam_of_the_rigveda__s.pdf Aitareya Brahmana 5.32], Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See {{Cite book |last=Arthur Berriedale Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSgYAAAAYAAJ |title=The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=256}}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name=annette /> The [[Samaveda]], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract [[Tala (music)|musical meters]] from it.<ref name=annette />
The syllable ''Om'' is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.<ref name="annette2"/> In the [[Aranyaka]] and the [[Brahmana]] layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".<ref name="annette2"/> The symbolic foundations of ''Om'' are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 207</ref><ref>John Grimes (1995), ''Ganapati: The Song of Self'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791424391}}, pages 78-80 and 201 footnote 34</ref> The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of ''Om'' (''a'' + ''u'' + ''m'') correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.<ref name="annette2"/><ref>[http://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/vedas/aitereya/the_aitareya_brahmanam_of_the_rigveda__s.pdf Aitareya Brahmana 5.32], Rig Veda, pages 139-140 (Sanskrit); for English translation: See {{Cite book |last=Arthur Berriedale Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSgYAAAAYAAJ |title=The Aitareya and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇas of the Rigveda |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1920 |page=256}}</ref> However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/AitareyataittiriyaUpanishadsWithShankaraBhashya-English/page/n87/mode/2up?view=theater | title=Aitareya &Taittiriya Upanishads with Shankara Bhashya - English }}</ref> The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate ''Om'' with ''bhur-bhuvah-svah'', the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to ''Om'', such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".<ref name="annette2"/> The [[Samaveda]], the poetical Veda, orthographically maps ''Om'' to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (''Oum'', ''Aum'', ''Ovā Ovā Ovā Um'', etc.) and then attempts to extract [[Tala (music)|musical meters]] from it.<ref name="annette2"/>


== Pronunciation ==
== Pronunciation ==
When occurring within spoken [[Classical Sanskrit]], the syllable is subject to the normal rules of [[sandhi]] in [[Sanskrit grammar]], with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the [[Guṇa#Sanskrit grammar|guṇa]] [[Indo-European ablaut|vowel grade]] of ''u'', not the [[vṛddhi]] grade, and is therefore pronounced as a [[monophthong]] with a [[Vowel length|long vowel]] ({{IPA-sa|oː|}}), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''.{{efn-ua|see [[Pāṇini]], [[Aṣṭādhyāyī]] 6.1.95}}<ref name="Whitney1950">{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney) |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=12, 27–28}}</ref> Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilated]] into the preceding vowel as [[Nasal vowel|nasalisation]] ({{transl|sa|raṅga}}). As a result, ''Om'' regularly pronounced {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in the context of Sanskrit.
When occurring within spoken [[Classical Sanskrit]], the syllable is subject to the normal rules of [[sandhi]] in [[Sanskrit grammar]], with the additional peculiarity that the initial ''o'' of "''Om''" is the [[Guṇa#Sanskrit grammar|guṇa]] [[Indo-European ablaut|vowel grade]] of ''u'', not the [[vṛddhi]] grade, and is therefore pronounced as a [[monophthong]] with a [[Vowel length|long vowel]] ({{IPA-sa|oː|}}), ie. ''ōm'' not ''aum''.{{efn-ua|see [[Pāṇini]], [[Aṣṭādhyāyī]] 6.1.95}}<ref name="Whitney1950">{{Cite book |last=Whitney |first=William Dwight |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sanskrit_Grammar_(Whitney) |title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana |date=1950 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=12, 27–28}}</ref> Furthermore, the final ''m'' is often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilated]] into the preceding vowel as [[Nasal vowel|nasalisation]] ({{transliteration|sa|raṅga}}). As a result, ''Om'' is regularly pronounced {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in the context of Sanskrit.


However, this ''o'' reflects the older [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[diphthong]] ''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet [[monophthong]]ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often [[Archaism|archaically]] considered as consisting of three [[phoneme]]s: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LpJ1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546&dq=aum+three&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjo3JOV7szcAhUCL6wKHYwIC58Q6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=aum%20three&f=false The Book of Secrets]'', unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. {{ISBN|9780880507707}}.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). ''Milk, Honey and Grapes'', p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. {{ISBN|9781438209159}}.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT287&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWvpr3_8zcAhVDd6wKHehnCgIQ6AEIQzAF#v=onepage&q=%22om%22%20%22three%22&f=false The Om Mala]'', unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. {{ISBN|9789387471856}}.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLlIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA61&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWvpr3_8zcAhVDd6wKHehnCgIQ6AEITzAH#v=onepage&q=%22om%22%20%22three%22&f=false The Yoga-vásishtha-mahárámáyana of Válmiki, Volume 1]'', p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. {{pre-ISBN}}.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the [[Vedas]].
However, this ''o'' reflects the older [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[diphthong]] ''au'', which at that stage in the language's history had not yet [[monophthong]]ised to ''o''. This being so, the syllable ''Om'' is often [[Archaism|archaically]] considered as consisting of three [[phoneme]]s: "a-u-m".<ref>Osho (2012). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LpJ1CAAAQBAJ&dq=aum+three&pg=PT546 The Book of Secrets]'', unpaginated. Osho International Foundation. {{ISBN|9780880507707}}.</ref><ref>Mehta, Kiran K. (2008). ''Milk, Honey and Grapes'', p.14. Puja Publications, Atlanta. {{ISBN|9781438209159}}.</ref><ref>Misra, Nityanand (2018). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e89eDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PT287 The Om Mala]'', unpaginated. Bloomsbury Publishing. {{ISBN|9789387471856}}.</ref><ref>Vālmīki; trans. Mitra, Vihārilāla (1891). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLlIAQAAMAAJ&dq=%22om%22+%22three%22&pg=PA61 The Yoga-vásishtha-mahárámáyana of Válmiki, Volume 1]'', p.61. Bonnerjee and Company. {{pre-ISBN}}.</ref> Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong ''au'' viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the [[Vedas]].


In the context of the [[Vedas]], particularly the Vedic [[Brahmana]]s, the vowel is often ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ("three times as long"), [[vowel length|indicating a length]] of three [[morae]] ({{transl|sa|trimātra}}), that is, the time it takes to say three [[Syllabic weight|light syllable]]s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes {{transl|sa|pluta}} with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo {{transl|sa|pluti}} they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |year=2006 |title=Pāṇini's Phonological Rules and Vedic: Aṣṭādhyāyī 8.2* |url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |page=16}}</ref> realised as an [[Overlong vowel|overlong]] [[open back unrounded vowel]] (''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' {{IPA-sa|ɑːːum|}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as [[Arya Samaj]].
In the context of the [[Vedas]], particularly the Vedic [[Brahmana]]s, the vowel is often ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ("three times as long"), [[vowel length|indicating a length]] of three [[morae]] ({{transliteration|sa|trimātra}}), that is, the time it takes to say three [[Syllabic weight|light syllable]]s. Additionally, a diphthong becomes {{transliteration|sa|pluta}} with the prolongation of its first vowel.<ref name="Whitney1950" /> When ''e'' and ''o'' undergo {{transliteration|sa|pluti}} they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial ''a'' prolonged,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kobayashi |first=Masato |year=2006 |title=Pāṇini's Phonological Rules and Vedic: Aṣṭādhyāyī 8.2* |url=http://gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/masatok/Kobayashi_Ast8_2.pdf |journal=Journal of Indological Studies |volume=18 |page=16}}</ref> realised as an [[Overlong vowel|overlong]] [[open back unrounded vowel]] (''ā̄um'' or ''a3um'' {{IPA-sa|ɑːːum|}}). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as [[Arya Samaj]].


However, ''Om'' is also attested in the [[Upanishads]] without ''pluta'',{{efn-ua|see {{IAST|Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad}} 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes ''Om'' as having three {{transl|sa|mātra}}s corresponding to the three letters a-u-m}} and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ({{IPA-sa|õː|}} or {{IPA-sa|oːm|}}).
However, ''Om'' is also attested in the [[Upanishads]] without ''[[Vedic Sanskrit#Pluti|pluta]]'',{{efn-ua|see {{IAST|Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad}} 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes ''Om'' as having three {{transliteration|sa|mātra}}s corresponding to the three letters a-u-m}} and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], share its pronunciation of ''Om'' ({{IPA-sa|õː|}} or {{IPA-sa|oːm|}}).


== Written representations ==
== Written representations ==
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[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|Statue depicting [[Shiva]] as the [[Nataraja]] dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for ''Om''; [[Joseph Campbell]] argued that the [[Nataraja]] statue represents ''Om'' as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"<ref>Joseph Campbell (1949), ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]'', 108f.</ref>]]
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|Statue depicting [[Shiva]] as the [[Nataraja]] dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for ''Om''; [[Joseph Campbell]] argued that the [[Nataraja]] statue represents ''Om'' as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"<ref>Joseph Campbell (1949), ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]'', 108f.</ref>]]


''Om'' is represented in [[Devanagari]] as '''{{lang|sa|ओम्}}''', composed of four elements: the [[Devanagari#Vowels|vowel letter]] {{script|Deva|आ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|ā}}), the [[Devanagari#Vowel diacritics|vowel diacritic]] {{script|Deva| े}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}), the [[Devanagari#Consonants|consonant letter]] {{script|Deva|म}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|m}}), and the ''[[virama]]'' stroke {{script|Deva|्}} which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. The syllable is sometimes written '''{{lang|sa|ओ३म्}}''', notably by [[Arya Samaj]], where {{script|Deva|३}} (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ("three times as long"; see [[#Pronunciation|above]]) which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओऽम्}}''' in languages such as [[Hindi]], with the ''[[avagraha]]'' ({{script|Deva|ऽ}}) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the ''avagraha'' in [[Sanskrit]], where it would instead indicate the [[prodelision]] of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओं}}''', with an [[anusvara]] reflecting the pronunciation of {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as [[Urdu]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] ''Om'' may be written '''{{script|Arab|اوم}}''' in [[Arabic script]], although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.
[[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] or [[Devanagari]] representations are found [[Epigraphy|epigraphically]] on sculpture dating from [[Medieval India]] and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. ''Om'' is represented in [[Devanagari]] as '''{{lang|sa|ओम्}}''', composed of four elements: the [[Devanagari#Vowels|vowel letter]] {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}), the [[Devanagari#Vowel diacritics|vowel diacritic]] {{script|Deva|ो}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|o}}), the [[Devanagari#Consonants|consonant letter]] {{script|Deva|म}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|m}}), and the ''[[virama]]'' stroke {{script|Deva|्}} which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination {{script|Deva|ओ}} represented a diphthong, often transcribed as {{IAST|au}}, but it now represents a long vowel, {{IAST|ō}}. (See [[#Pronunciation|above]].) The syllable is sometimes written '''{{lang|sa|ओ३म्}}''', where {{script|Deva|३}} (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates ''[[Pluti|pluta]]'' ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओऽम्}}''' in languages such as [[Hindi]], with the {{IAST|[[avagraha]]}} ({{script|Deva|ऽ}}) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the {{IAST|avagraha}} in [[Sanskrit]], where it would instead indicate the [[prodelision]] of the initial vowel.) ''Om'' may also be written '''{{lang|hi|ओं}}''', with an {{IAST|[[Anusvara|anusvāra]]}} reflecting the pronunciation of {{IPA-sa|õː|}} in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as [[Urdu]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] ''Om'' may be written '''{{script|Arab|اوم}}''' in [[Arabic script]], although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.


The ''Om'' symbol, '''{{lang|sa|{{large|ॐ}}}}''', is a [[cursive]] [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in [[Devanagari]], combining {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}) with {{script|Deva|उ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}) and the [[chandrabindu]] ([[ँ]],{{nbsp}}{{IAST|ṃ}}). In [[Unicode]], the symbol is encoded at {{unichar|0950|Devanagari OM|ulink=Devanagari (Unicode block)}} and at {{unichar|1f549|OM Symbol|ulink=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs}} as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".
The commonly seen representation of the syllable ''Om,'' '''{{lang|sa|{{large|ॐ}}}}''', is a [[cursive]] [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] in [[Devanagari]], combining {{script|Deva|अ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|a}}) with {{script|Deva|उ}}{{nbsp}}({{IAST|u}}) and the [[chandrabindu]] ([[ँ]],{{nbsp}}{{IAST|ṃ}}). In [[Unicode]], the symbol is encoded at {{unichar|0950|Devanagari OM|ulink=Devanagari (Unicode block)}} and at {{unichar|1f549|OM Symbol|ulink=Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs}} as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".


In some South Asian [[writing system]]s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In [[Bengali–Assamese script|Eastern Nagari]] ''Om'' is written simply as '''{{script|Beng|ওঁ}}''' without an additional curl. In languages such as [[Bengali language|Bengali]] differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for {{IAST|u}} redundant. Similarly, in [[Odia script|Odia]] ''Om'' is written as '''{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}}''' without an additional diacritic. In languages using these writing systems, the letter for {{IPA-bn|oː|}} does resemble any other so ''Om'' would already be read as {{IPA-bn|õː|}} as written without any an additional curl.
In some South Asian [[writing system]]s, the ''Om'' symbol has been simplified further. In [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali and Assamese]] ''Om'' is written simply as '''{{script|Beng|ওঁ}}''' without an additional curl. In languages such as [[Bengali language|Bengali]] differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for {{IAST|u}} redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains {{IPA-bn|õː|}}. Similarly, in [[Odia script|Odia]] ''Om'' is written as '''{{script|Orya|ଓଁ}}''' without an additional diacritic.


In [[Tamil script|Tamil]], ''Om'' is written as {{script|Taml|ௐ}}, a ligature of {{lang|ta|ஓ}} (''ō'') and {{lang|ta|ம்}} (''m''), while in [[Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Telugu script|Telugu]], and [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]], ''Om'' is written simply as the letter for ''ō'' followed by {{IAST|anusvāra}} ({{lang|kn|ಓಂ}}, {{lang|te|ఓం}}, and {{lang|ml|ഓം}}, respectively).
[[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] or [[Devanagari]] representations are found [[Epigraphy|epigraphically]] on sculpture dating from [[Medieval India]] and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. In [[Sri Lanka]], [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura era]] coins (dated from the 1st to 4th centuries) are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.<ref>Henry Parker, ''Ancient Ceylon'' (1909), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=Nk8xpkY0bqEC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA490 p. 490].</ref>


There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in [[Brahmi script]], dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1848) held that the ''[[swastika]]'' is "a [[monogram]]matic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters ({{unichar|11011|Brahmi letter O}}) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot".<ref>HK Deb, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 17, Number 3, page 137</ref> A commentary in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>{{Google books|1bMzAQAAMAAJ|The Swastika|page=PA365}}, Nature, Vol. 110, No. 2758, page 365</ref>
There have been proposals that the ''Om'' syllable may already have had written representations in [[Brahmi script]], dating to before the [[Common Era]]. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the ''[[swastika]]'' is a [[monogram]]matic representation of the syllable ''Om'', wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters ({{unichar|11011|Brahmi letter O}}) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deb |first=Harit Krishna |title=The Svastika and the Oṁkāra |year=1921 |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=231–247 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/97555#page/313/}}</ref> A commentary in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 1922 |title=Research Items: The Swastika, Gammadion, Fylfot |journal=Nature |volume=110 |issue=2758 |page=365 |doi=10.1038/110365a0 |s2cid=4114094 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }} {{Google books|1bMzAQAAMAAJ|The Swastika|page=PA365}}</ref> [[A. B. Walawalkar]] (1951) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" ({{script|Brah|𑀅𑀉𑀫}}), and that this may have influenced the unusual [[epigraphic]]al features of the symbol {{script|Deva|ॐ}} for ''Om''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Ankita |year=2011 |title=Rediscovering the Brahmi Script |url=http://www.mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003025656/https://mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2015 |publisher=Industrial Design Center, IDC, IIT |location=Bombay}} See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kak |first=SC |year=1990 |title=Indus and Brahmi: Further Connections |journal=Cryptologia |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=169–183|doi=10.1080/0161-119091864878 }}</ref> [[Henry Parker (author)|Parker]] (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among [[Tamil-Brahmi]] [[Tamil inscriptions in Sri Lanka|inscriptions in Sri Lanka]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Parker (author) |title=Ancient Ceylon |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/428/ 428]}}</ref> including [[Anuradhapura Kingdom|Anuradhapura era]] coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with ''Om'' along with other symbols.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parker |first=Henry |title=Ancient Ceylon |year=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientceylon00hpar/page/490/ 490]}}</ref>
Roy (2011) proposed that ''Om'' was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" ({{script|Brah|𑀅𑀉𑀫}}), and that this may have influenced the unusual [[epigraphic]]al features of the symbol {{script|Deva|ॐ}} for ''Om''.<ref>Ankita Roy (2011), ''[http://www.mrane.com/images/bramhi.pdf Rediscovering the Brahmi Script]''. Industrial Design Center, IIT Bombay. See the section, "Ancient Symbols".</ref><ref>SC Kak (1990), ''Indus and Brahmi: Further Connections''. Cryptologia, 14(2), pages 169-183</ref>


=== East and Southeast Asia ===
=== East and Southeast Asia ===
The ''Om'' symbol, with [[epigraphic]]al variations, is also found in many [[Southeast Asia]]n countries.
The ''Om'' symbol, with [[epigraphic]]al variations, is also found in many [[Southeast Asia]]n countries.


In [[Southeast Asia]], the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the [[unalome]]; originally a representation of the Buddha's [[urna]] curl and later a symbol of the path to [[nirvana]], it is a popular [[yantra]] in Southest Asia, particularly in [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]]. It frequently appears in [[Yantra tattooing|''sak yant'']] religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the [[Royal Standard of Thailand#Fourth reign|Thong Chom Klao]] of [[Mongkut|King Rama IV]] ({{reign|1851|1868}})<ref>Deborah Wong (2001), ''Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance'', [[University of Chicago Press]], {{ISBN|978-0226905853}}, page 292</ref> and the present-day [[royal arms of Cambodia]].<ref>James Minahan (2009), ''The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems'', {{ISBN|978-0313344961}}, pages 28-29</ref>
In [[Southeast Asia]], the ''Om'' symbol is widely conflated with that of the [[unalome]]; originally a representation of the Buddha's [[urna]] curl and later a symbol of the path to [[nirvana]], it is a popular [[yantra]] in Southeast Asia, particularly in [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]]. It frequently appears in [[Yantra tattooing|''sak yant'']] religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the [[Royal Standard of Thailand#Fourth reign|Thong Chom Klao]] of [[Mongkut|King Rama IV]] ({{reign|1851|1868}})<ref>Deborah Wong (2001), ''Sounding the Center: History and Aesthetics in Thai Buddhist Performance'', [[University of Chicago Press]], {{ISBN|978-0226905853}}, page 292</ref> and the present-day [[royal arms of Cambodia]].<ref>James Minahan (2009), ''The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems'', {{ISBN|978-0313344961}}, pages 28-29</ref>


The [[Khmer people|Khmer]] adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the [[Funan|Kingdom of Funan]], where it is also seen on artefacts from [[Angkor Borei and Phnom Da|Angkor Borei]], once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from [[Chenla]] to [[Khmer Empire]] periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម: ប្រភពនៃរូបសញ្ញាឱម |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum02.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម : អំណាចឱមនៅក្នុងសាសនា |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum01.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Khmer language blog articles; historical claims need scholarly sources, preferably in English|date=August 2021}}
The [[Khmer people|Khmer]] adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the [[Funan|Kingdom of Funan]], where it is also seen on artefacts from [[Angkor Borei and Phnom Da|Angkor Borei]], once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from [[Chenla]] to [[Khmer Empire]] periods and still in used until the present day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម: ប្រភពនៃរូបសញ្ញាឱម |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum02.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ឱម : អំណាចឱមនៅក្នុងសាសនា |url=http://www.hamsanaga.me/2018/01/aum01.html |access-date=2020-08-17}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Khmer language blog articles; historical claims need scholarly sources, preferably in English|date=August 2021}}


In [[Chinese characters]], ''Om'' is typically [[transliteration|transliterated]] as either [[:wikt:唵|唵]] ({{zh|p=ǎn}}) or [[:wikt:嗡|嗡]] ({{zh|p=ōng}}).
In [[Chinese characters]], ''Om'' is typically [[transliteration|transliterated]] as either [[:wikt:唵|唵]] ({{zh|p=ǎn}}) or [[:wikt:嗡|嗡]] ({{zh|p=wēng}}).


=== Representation in various scripts ===
=== Representation in various scripts ===


==== Northern Brahmic ====
==== Northern Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali-Assamese]]
| {{script|Deva|ওঁ}}
| [[File:Bengali Om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Devanagari]]
| {{script|Deva|ॐ}}
| [[File:Aum Om black.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Devanagari]]
| {{script|Deva|ओम्}}
| [[File:Devanagari_AUM_ओम्.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Devanagari]] ([[Jain symbol]])
| ꣽ
| [[File:Om jaïn black.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Gurmukhi]] ([[Ik Onkar]])
| {{script|Guru|ੴ}}
| [[File:Ek_onkar.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Gurmukhi]] ([[Ik Onkar]])
| {{script|Guru|ੴ}}
| [[File:EK ONKAR GURMUKHÎ 0A74.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Lepcha script|Lepcha]]
| {{script|Lepc|ᰣᰨᰵ}}
| [[File:Lepcha Om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Limbu script|Limbu]]
| {{script|Limb|ᤀᤥᤱ}}
| [[File:Limbu Om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Meitei script|Meitei Mayek]] (Anji)
| {{script|Mtei|ꫲ}}
| [[File:Om - Anji in Meetei Mayek.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Modi script|Modi]]
| {{script|Modi|𑘌𑘽}}
| [[File:Om in Modi script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Odia script|Odia]]
| {{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}}
| [[File:Odia Om symbol.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Odia script|Odia]]
| {{script|Orya|ଓ‍ଁ}}
| [[File:Odia Om sign.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[ʼPhags-pa script|ʼPhags-pa]]
| {{Phagspa|v|ꡝꡡꡏ}}{{efn|As used in the [[Stele of Sulaiman]], dated to 1348.}}
|
|-
| [[Pracalit script|Pracalit]]
| {{script|Newa|𑑉}}
| [[File:Om in Pracalit(Newa) script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Ranjana script|Ranjana]]
|
| [[File:Ranjana om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Sharada script|Sharada]]
| {{script|Shrd|𑇄}}
| [[File:Om in Sharada script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddham]]
| {{script|Sidd|𑖌𑖼}}
| [[File:Om in Siddham script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Soyombo script|Soyombo]]
| {{script|Soyo|𑩐𑩖𑪖}}
| [[File:Soyombo Om symbol.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Takri script|Takri]]
| {{script|Takr|𑚈𑚫}}
| [[File:Om in Takri script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] ([[Uchen script|Uchen]])
| {{efn|{{bo-textonly|ༀ}}
| [[File:TibAum.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta, Mithilakshar]]
| {{script|Tirh|𑓇}}
| [[File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Zanabazar square script|Zanabazar]]
| {{script|Tirh|𑨀𑨆𑨵}}
|
|}

<!--
{{Gallery
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in [[Brahmic scripts#Northern Brahmic|Northern Brahmic scripts]]
|title=''Om'' in [[Brahmic scripts#Northern Brahmic|Northern Brahmic scripts]]
Line 74: Line 169:
|align=center
|align=center
|File:Aum Om black.svg| [[Devanagari]] ligature,{{efn|{{script|Deva|ॐ}} (U+0950)}} [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]{{efn|{{script|Gujr|ૐ}} (U+0AD0)}}
|File:Aum Om black.svg| [[Devanagari]] ligature,{{efn|{{script|Deva|ॐ}} (U+0950)}} [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]{{efn|{{script|Gujr|ૐ}} (U+0AD0)}}
|File:Devanagari AUM (ओम्).png| [[Devanagari]]{{efn|{{script|Deva|ओम्}} (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)}} ([[#South Asia|see above]] for variants)
|File:Devanagari_AUM_ओम्.svg| [[Devanagari]]{{efn|{{script|Deva|ओम्}} (U+0913 & U+092E & U+094D)}} ([[#South Asia|see above]] for variants)
|File:Om symbol1.svg| [[Bengali–Assamese script|Eastern Nagari (Assamese, Bengali)]]{{efn|{{script|Beng|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)}}
|File:Om symbol1.svg| [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali, Assamese]]{{efn|{{script|Beng|ওঁ}} (U+0993 & U+0981)}}
|File:Ek_onkar.svg| [[Gurmukhi]]{{efn|{{script|Guru|ੴ}} (U+0A74)}}, [[Ik Onkar]]
|File:Ek_onkar.svg| [[Gurmukhi]]{{efn|{{script|Guru|ੴ}} (U+0A74)}}, [[Ik Onkar]]
|File:EK ONKAR GURMUKHÎ 0A74.svg| [[Gurmukhi]] cursive variant, [[Ik Onkar]]
|File:EK ONKAR GURMUKHÎ 0A74.svg| [[Gurmukhi]] cursive variant, [[Ik Onkar]]
Line 94: Line 189:
|File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg| [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta, Mithilakshar]]{{efn|{{script|Tirh|𑓇}} (U+114C7)}}
|File:Om in Tirhuta script.svg| [[Tirhuta script|Tirhuta, Mithilakshar]]{{efn|{{script|Tirh|𑓇}} (U+114C7)}}
}}
}}
-->


==== Southern Brahmic ====
==== Southern Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| [[Balinese script|Balinese]]
| {{script|Bali|ᬒᬁ}}
| [[File:Modre symbol Omkara.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Burmese script|Burmese]]
| {{script|Mymr|ဥုံ}}
| [[File:Om in Burmese script.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Chakma script|Chakma]]
| {{script|Cakm|𑄃𑄮𑄀}}
| [[File:Om in Chakma script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Cham script|Cham]]
| {{script|Cham|ꨅꩌ}}
| [[File:Om in Cham script.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Cham script|Cham]] (Homkar)
| {{script|Cham|ꨀꨯꨱꩌ}}
| [[File:Cham Homkar (Om) symbol.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Grantha script|Grantha]]
| {{efn|{{script|Gran|𑍐}}
| [[File:Om in Grantha script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Javanese script|Javanese]]
| {{script|Java|ꦎꦴꦀ}}
| [[File:Simbol aum.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Kannada script|Kannada]]
| {{script|Knda|ಓಂ}}
| [[File:Kannada OM.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Khmer script|Khmer]]
| {{script|Khmr|ឱំ}}
| [[File:Om in Khmer script.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Khmer script|Khmer]] ([[Unalome]])
| {{script|Khmr|៚}}
| [[File:Khmer Sacred Symbol, Om or Unalom.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Lao script|Lao]]
| {{script|Laoo|ໂອໍ}}
| [[File:Om in Lao script.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]]
| {{script|Mlym|ഓം}}
| [[File:Malayalam Om.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]
| {{script|Sinh|ඕං}}
| [[File:Sinhala Om symbol.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Tai Tham script|Tai Lanna]]
| {{Script|Lana|ᩒᩴ}}
|
|-
| [[Tamil script|Tamil]]
| {{script|Taml|ௐ}}
| [[File:Tamil Om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Telugu script|Telugu]]
| {{efn|{{script|Telu|ఓం}}
| [[File:Om in telugu.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Thai script|Thai]]
| {{script|Thai|โอํ}}
| [[File:Thai Om symbol.png|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Thai script|Thai]] (Khomut)
| {{script|Thai|๛}}
| [[File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg|center|40px]]
|}
<!--
{{Gallery
{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in [[Brahmic scripts#Southern Brahmic|Southern Brahmic scripts]]
|title=''Om'' in [[Brahmic scripts#Southern Brahmic|Southern Brahmic scripts]]
Line 119: Line 293:
|File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg| [[Thai script|Thai]] ''Om, [[Unalome]],'' or ''Khomut'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Thai|๛}} (U+0E5B)}}
|File:Thai Khomut symbol.svg| [[Thai script|Thai]] ''Om, [[Unalome]],'' or ''Khomut'' symbol{{efn|{{script|Thai|๛}} (U+0E5B)}}
}}
}}
-->


==== East Asian ====
==== Non-Brahmic ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 10pt;"
{{Gallery
! Script
! Unicode
! Image
|-
| [[Arabic script|Arabic]]
| {{nq|اوم}}{{efn|Used for example in [[Urdu]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], although speakers of these languages may also use Brahmic representation such as Devanagari.}}
|
|-
| [[Chinese characters|Chinese]]
| {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}}
| [[File:Om cinese.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Hangul]]
| {{script|Hang|옴}}
| [[File:Korean Om.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Kanji]]
| {{linktext|阿吽}}
|
|-
| [[Katakana]]
| {{script|Kana|オーム}}
| [[File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]] ([[Galik alphabet|Ali Gali]])
| {{MongolUnicode|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}}
| [[File:Om in Mongolian script.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Tangut script|Tangut]]
| {{Tangut|𗙫}}{{efn|As used in the [[Stele of Sulaiman]], dated to 1348.}}
| [[File:TANGUT IDEOGRAPH-1766B.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Thaana]]
| {{script|Thaa|އޮމ}}
| [[File:OM_in_divehi.svg|center|40px]]
|-
| [[Warang Citi]]
| {{script|Wara|𑣿}}
| [[File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg|center|40px]]
|}
<!--
+{{Gallery
|title=''Om'' in East Asian scripts
|title=''Om'' in East Asian scripts
|width=100
|width=100
|height=100
|height=100
|align=center
|align=center
|File:Om cinese.svg| [[Chinese characters|Chinese]]{{efn|{{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} (U+5535)}}
|File:| [[Chinese characters|Chinese]]{{efn| (U+5535)}}
|File:Korean Om.svg| [[Hangul]]{{efn|{{script|Hang|옴}} (U+110B & U+1169 & U+1106)}}
|File:| [[Hangul]]{{efn| (U+C634)}}
|File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg| [[Katakana]]{{efn|{{script|Kana|オーム}} (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)}}
|File:Om in Katakana(Japanese).svg| [[Katakana]]{{efn|{{script|Kana|オーム}} (U+30AA & U+30FC & U+30E0)}}
|File:Om in Mongolian script.svg| [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]]{{efn|{{script|Mong|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}} (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)}}
|File:Om in Mongolian script.svg| [[Mongolian script|Mongolian]]{{efn|{{script|Mong|ᢀᠣᠸᠠ}} (U+1826 & U+1838 & U+1820 & U+1880)}}
Line 141: Line 358:
|File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg| [[Warang Citi]]{{efn|{{script|Wara|𑣿}} (U+118FF)}}
|File:Shukla Warang Citi Om.svg| [[Warang Citi]]{{efn|{{script|Wara|𑣿}} (U+118FF)}}
}}
}}
-->


== Hinduism ==
== Hinduism ==
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|left|''Om'' appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the [[Rigveda]]{{efn-ua|in the early 19th-century manuscript above ''Om'' is written {{lang|sa|अउ३म्}} with "{{script|Deva|अउ}}" as ligature as in ॐ without [[chandrabindu]]}}]]
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|left|''Om'' appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the [[Rigveda]]{{efn-ua|in the early 19th-century manuscript above ''Om'' is written {{lang|sa|अउ३म्}} with "{{script|Deva|अउ}}" as ligature as in ॐ without [[chandrabindu]]}}]]
{{Hinduism}}
{{Hinduism}}
In [[Hinduism]], ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name=wilke435/><ref name="Krishna Sivaraman 2008" /> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu text]]s,<ref name=annette /> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages ([[Sanskara (rite of passage)|sanskara]]) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[yoga]].<ref name="David White 2011" /><ref name="Alexander Studholme 2012" />


In [[Hinduism]], ''Om'' is one of the most important spiritual sounds.<ref name="wilke4352"/> The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the [[Vedas]], the [[Upanishads]], and other [[Hindu text]]s,<ref name="annette2"/> and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during [[Puja (Hinduism)|puja]] and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages ([[Sanskara (rite of passage)|sanskara]]) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as [[yoga]].<ref name="David White 20112"/><ref name="Alexander Studholme 20122"/>
It is the most sacred syllable symbol and [[mantra]] of [[Brahman]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Om |url=https://slife.org/om/}}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 2005" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="james482" /><ref name="Holdrege1996" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellwood |first=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Alles |first2=Gregory D. |date=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438110387 |pages=327–328 |language=en}}</ref>


It is the most sacred syllable symbol and [[mantra]] of [[Brahman]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2020 |title=Om |url=https://slife.org/om/}}</ref> which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self within).<ref name="David Leeming 20052"/><ref name="ReferenceA2"/><ref name="james4822"/><ref name="Holdrege19962"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ellwood |first1=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Alles |first2=Gregory D. |date=2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438110387 |pages=327–328 |language=en}}</ref>
It is called the ''[[Shabda]] Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (''Pranava'') of the universe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1995 |isbn=9788120812611 |pages=42–48 |language=en}}</ref>

It is called the ''[[Shabda]] Brahman'' (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound ({{transl|sa|pranava}}) of the universe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1995 |isbn=9788120812611 |pages=42–48 |language=en}}</ref>


=== Vedas ===
=== Vedas ===
''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the [[Veda]]s. For example, the [[Gayatri mantra]], which consists of a verse from the [[Rigveda]] Samhita ([[Mandala 3|RV 3]].62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.<ref name="mmwpage17">[[Monier Monier-Williams]] (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.<ref name=lipner />
''Om'' came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the [[Veda]]s. For example, the [[Gayatri mantra]], which consists of a verse from the [[Rigveda]] Samhita ([[Mandala 3|RV 3]].62.10), is prefixed not just by ''Om'' but by ''Om'' followed by the formula ''bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ''.<ref name="mmwpage17">[[Monier Monier-Williams]] (1893), ''Indian Wisdom'', Luzac & Co., London, page 17</ref> Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with ''Om''.<ref name="lipner2"/>


==== Brahmanas ====
==== Brahmanas ====


===== Aitareya Brahmana =====
===== Aitareya Brahmana =====
The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] (7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name=wilke435 />
The [[Aitareya Brahmana]] (7.18.13) explains ''Om'' as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".<ref name="wilke4352"/>


{{Blockquote|''Om'' is the agreement (''pratigara'') with a hymn. Likewise is ''tathā'' {{=}} 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [{{=}} the applause]. But ''Om'' is something divine, and ''tathā'' is something human.
{{Blockquote|''Om'' is the agreement (''pratigara'') with a hymn. Likewise is ''tathā'' {{=}} 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [{{=}} the applause]. But ''Om'' is something divine, and ''tathā'' is something human.
|Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13<ref name=wilke435 />}}
|Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13<ref name="wilke4352"/>}}


==== Upanishads ====
==== Upanishads ====
[[File:Om syllable script.jpg|thumb|''Om'' is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the [[Upanishads]] including "the sacred sound, the ''Yes!'', the Vedas, the ''udgitha'' (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the ultimate reality, the finest essence, the cause of the universe, the essence of life, the [[Brahman]], the [[Atman (Hinduism)|{{IAST|ātman}}]], the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and [[Self-knowledge (Vedanta)|self-knowledge]] (''atma [[jnana]]'')".<ref name=deussenmeaningofom />]]
[[File:Om syllable script.jpg|thumb|right|''Ōṃ'' is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the [[Upanishads]], including "the sacred sound, the ''Yes!'', the [[Vedas]], the ''udgitha'' (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, [[Monism|the Ultimate Reality]], the finest essence, [[Cosmogony|the cause of the universe]], the essence of life, the ''[[Brahman]]'', the ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'', the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and [[Advaita Vedanta|self-knowledge]] (''ātma [[jñāna]]'')".<ref name=deussenmeaningofom />]]


===== Chandogya Upanishad =====
===== Chandogya Upanishad =====
Line 175: Line 394:


===== Katha Upanishad =====
===== Katha Upanishad =====
The [[Katha Upanishad]] is the legendary story of a little boy, [[Nachiketa]], the son of sage {{transl|sa|Vājaśravasa|italic=no}}, who meets [[Yama]], the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[moksha]] (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge ({{transl|sa|[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance ({{transl|sa|[[Avidyā (Hinduism)|avidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486209937}}, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 284-286</ref>
The [[Katha Upanishad]] is the legendary story of a little boy, [[Nachiketa]], the son of sage {{transliteration|sa|Vājaśravasa|italic=no}}, who meets [[Yama]], the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self) and [[moksha]] (liberation).<ref name="pauldeussenintro">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 269-273</ref> In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge ({{transliteration|sa|[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance ({{transliteration|sa|[[Avidyā (Hinduism)|avidyā]]}}) as the pursuit of the pleasant.<ref name="maxmuller121">Max Muller (1962), Katha Upanishad, in The Upanishads – Part II, Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486209937}}, page 8</ref> It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word ''Om''.<ref name="pauldeussen1214">Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 284-286</ref>


{{poem quote|
{{poem quote|
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The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:
* as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
* as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
* as light-endowed body – [[Agni]], [[Vayu]], and [[Aditya]];
* as light-endowed body – [[Agni]], [[Vayu]], and [[Surya|Aditya]];
* as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,{{efn-ua|later called Shiva}} and Vishnu;
* as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,{{efn-ua|later called Shiva}} and Vishnu;
* as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya'';{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major Vedic [[Homa (ritual)|fire rituals]]}}
* as mouth-endowed body – ''garhapatya'', ''dakshinagni'', and ''ahavaniya'';{{efn-ua|this is a reference to the three major Vedic [[Homa (ritual)|fire rituals]]}}
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* as thought-endowed body – [[Buddhi|intellect]], [[Antahkarana|mind]], and [[Citta|psyche]].<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">[https://www.shemtaia.com/SKT/PDF/Upanishads/cowellmaitriskt.pdf Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260</ref>
* as thought-endowed body – [[Buddhi|intellect]], [[Antahkarana|mind]], and [[Citta|psyche]].<ref name=maxmuller64 /><ref name="cowell64">[https://www.shemtaia.com/SKT/PDF/Upanishads/cowellmaitriskt.pdf Maitri Upanishad – Sanskrit Text with English Translation]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} EB Cowell (Translator), Cambridge University, ''Bibliotheca Indica'', page 258-260</ref>


Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>[[Max Muller]], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless isn't changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684 |editor-last=Deussen |editor-first=Paul |volume=1 |page=347 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation |editor-last=Cowell |editor-first=E.B. |series=Bibliotheca Indica |location=Cambridge University Press |page=258 |translator-last=Cowell |translator-first=E.B.}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Sanskrit original, quote: {{lang|sa|द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource |wslink=मैत्रायण्युपनिषत् |wslanguage=sa |title=Maitri Upanishad |language=Sanskrit}}</ref>}}
Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.<ref>[[Max Muller]], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/306/mode/2up Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad], Oxford University Press, pages 306-307 verse 6.3</ref> The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable ''Om'' as the Self.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1980 |isbn=978-8120814684 |editor-last=Deussen |editor-first=Paul |volume=1 |page=347 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Maitri Upanishad: Sanskrit Text with English Translation |editor-last=Cowell |editor-first=E.B. |series=Bibliotheca Indica |location=Cambridge University Press |page=258 |translator-last=Cowell |translator-first=E.B.}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Sanskrit original, quote: {{lang|sa|द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्}}<ref>{{Cite wikisource |wslink=मैत्रायण्युपनिषत् |wslanguage=sa |title=Maitri Upanishad |language=Sanskrit}}</ref>}}


The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64 />
The world is ''Om'', its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable ''Om'', asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on ''Om'', is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).<ref name=maxmuller64 />
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===== Mundaka Upanishad =====
===== Mundaka Upanishad =====
[[File:A Yantra with Tamil Om symbol in center, at a Mariamman Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Shri Yantra]] with ''Om'' ({{lang|ta|ௐ}}) at its center, [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore]]; [[yantra]]s are frequently used as aids in [[Hindu meditation]]]]
[[File:A Yantra with Tamil Om symbol in center, at a Mariamman Temple.jpg|thumb|[[Shri Yantra]] with ''Om'' ({{lang|ta|ௐ}}) at its center, [[Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore]]; [[yantra]]s are frequently used as aids in [[Hindu meditation]]]]
The [[Mundaka Upanishad]] in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]] (Translator), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass (2010 Reprint), {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 580-581</ref><ref>Eduard Roer, [https://www.shemtaia.com/SKT/PDF/Upanishads/roermundakaeng.pdf Mundaka Upanishad]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Bibliotheca Indica'', Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 144</ref>
The [[Mundaka Upanishad]] in the second ''Mundakam'' (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol ''Om''. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).<ref>[[Paul Deussen]] (Translator), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass (2010 Reprint), {{ISBN|978-8120814691}}, pages 580-581</ref><ref>Eduard Roer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ff0IAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Mundaka Upanishad] ''Bibliotheca Indica'', Vol. XV, No. 41 and 50, Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 144</ref>

{{poem quote|
{{poem quote|
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.{{efn-ua|Hume translates this as "imperishable Brahma", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: [[Max Muller]], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/36/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press, page 36}}
That is the indestructible Brahman.{{efn-ua|Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: [[Max Muller]], ''The Upanishads'', Part 2, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/36/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n387/mode/2up], page 367}}
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.
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as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.
|Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4<ref name="roberthume22">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n393/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 372-373</ref><ref>Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920–1931), ''The Mukhya Upanishads'', Kshetra Books, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}} (Reprinted in 2014), [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mundaka%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf Archive of Mundaka Upanishad, pages 310-311] from Theosophical Quarterly journal</ref>}}
|Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4<ref name="roberthume22">Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n393/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 372-373</ref><ref>Charles Johnston, The Mukhya Upanishads: Books of Hidden Wisdom, (1920–1931), ''The Mukhya Upanishads'', Kshetra Books, {{ISBN|978-1495946530}} (Reprinted in 2014), [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/pdf-library/Mundaka%20Upanishad_Johnston.pdf Archive of Mundaka Upanishad, pages 310-311] from Theosophical Quarterly journal</ref>}}

[[Adi Shankara]], in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/upanishadssrisan00sita#page/138/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1: ''The Isa Kena and Mundaka'', SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152</ref>
[[Adi Shankara]], in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states ''Om'' as a symbolism for [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/upanishadssrisan00sita#page/138/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], in Upanishads and Sri Sankara's commentary – Volume 1: ''The Isa Kena and Mundaka'', SS Sastri (Translator), University of Toronto Archives, page 144 with section in 138-152</ref>


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===== Shvetashvatara Upanishad =====
===== Shvetashvatara Upanishad =====
The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]], in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/236/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>Robert Hume (1921), [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.14 – 1.16], The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 396-397 with footnotes</ref>
The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]], in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable ''Om'', where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable ''Om'' is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.<ref name="pauldeussen116">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 308</ref><ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads02ml#page/236/mode/2up Shvetashvatara Upanishad], ''The Upanishads'', Part II, Oxford University Press, page 237</ref> The text asserts that ''Om'' is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Hume |date=1921 |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n417/ |chapter=Shvetashvatara Upanishad 1.14 – 1.16 |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=396-397 with footnotes}}</ref>


[[File:Ganesha-aum.jpg|thumb|The Hindu deity [[Ganesha]] is sometimes referred to as "{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}" (''Omkara'' is his form) and used as the symbol for [[Upanishad]]ic concept of Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoqB4n95pSoC |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2439-1 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Elephas Maximus: a portrait of the Indian Elephant |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143031741 |location=New Delhi |page=95}}</ref>]]
[[File:Ganesha-aum.jpg|thumb|The Hindu deity [[Ganesha]] is sometimes referred to as "{{IAST|oṃkārasvarūpa}}" (''Omkara'' is his form) and used as the symbol for [[Upanishad]]ic concept of Brahman.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grimes |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoqB4n95pSoC |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2439-1 |pages=77–78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Alter |first=Stephen |title=Elephas Maximus: a portrait of the Indian Elephant |date=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0143031741 |location=New Delhi |page=95}}</ref>]]
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===== Ganapati Upanishad =====
===== Ganapati Upanishad =====
{{See also|Ganesha#Om|Ganapatya}}
{{See also|Ganesha#Om|Ganapatya}}
The [[Ganapati Atharvashirsa|Ganapati Upanishad]] asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.{{Sfnp|Grimes|1995|pp=23-24}}


The [[Ganapati Atharvaśīrṣa|Ganapati Upanishad]] asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and ''Om''.{{Sfnp|Grimes|1995|pp=23-24}}
{{blockquote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva|Mahesa]]. You are [[Indra]]. You are fire <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Agni]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> and air <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>. You are the sun <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Surya|{{IAST|Sūrya}}]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> and the moon <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Chandra]]ma<nowiki>].</nowiki> You are [[Brahman]]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and [[Swarga]]loka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

|Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6{{Sfnp|Chinmayananda|1987|p=127|ps=, In Chinmayananda's numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}}}
{{blockquote|(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Shiva|Mahesa]]. You are [[Indra]]. You are fire {{bracket|[[Agni]]}} and air {{bracket|[[Vayu|{{IAST|Vāyu}}]]}}. You are the sun {{bracket|[[Surya|{{IAST|Sūrya}}]]}} and the moon {{bracket|[[Chandra]]ma}}. You are [[Brahman]]. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and [[Swarga]]loka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
|Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6{{Sfnp|Saraswati|1987|p=127|ps=, In [[Chinmayananda Saraswati|Chinmayananda]]'s numbering system, this is ''upamantra'' 8.}}}}

==== Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana ====
The [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana]], a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gerety |first=Finnian M. M. |date=2021-02-01 |title=Between Sound and Silence in Early Yoga: Meditation on " Om " at Death |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/711944 |journal=History of Religions |language=en |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=217–218 |doi=10.1086/711944 |s2cid=233429885 |issn=0018-2710}}</ref>


=== Ramayana ===
=== Ramayana ===
In [[Valmiki]]'s [[Ramayana]], [[Rama]] is identified with ''Om'', with [[Brahma]] saying to Rama:
In [[Valmiki]]'s [[Ramayana]], [[Rama]] is identified with ''Om'', with [[Brahma]] saying to Rama:


{{blockquote|"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable {{transl|sa|Vashat}} (on hearing which the {{transl|sa|Adhvaryu}} priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable ''OM''. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in {{transl|sa|brahmana}}s. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."|[[Ramayana#Yuddha Kanda|Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda]], Sarga 117<ref>{{Cite web |title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 117 |url=http://valmikiramayan.pcriot.com/utf8/yuddha/sarga117/yuddha_117_prose.htm}}</ref>}}
{{blockquote|"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable {{transliteration|sa|Vashat}} (on hearing which the {{transliteration|sa|Adhvaryu}} priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable ''OM''. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in {{transliteration|sa|brahmana}}s. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."|[[Ramayana#Yuddha Kanda|Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda]], Sarga 117<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://valmikiramayan.pcriot.com/utf8/yuddha/sarga117/yuddha_117_prose.htm|title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 117|website=valmikiramayan.pcriot.com}}</ref>}}


=== Bhagavad Gita ===
=== Bhagavad Gita ===
[[File:Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva within an OM.jpg|thumb|An illustration of ''Om'' from a [[Mahabharata]] manuscript, 1795, decorated with [[murti]]s of [[Surya]], [[Brahma]], and [[Vishnu]] to the left, [[Shakti]] (could be [[Matrika#Maheshwari|Maheshwari]]) on the [[chandrabindu]] point, and [[Shiva]] (holding a [[trishula]]) to the right]]
[[File:Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva within an OM.jpg|thumb|An illustration of ''Om'' from a [[Mahabharata]] manuscript, 1795, decorated with [[murti]]s of [[Surya]], [[Brahma]], and [[Vishnu]] to the left, [[Shakti]] (could be [[Matrika#Maheshwari|Maheshwari]]) on the [[chandrabindu]] point, and [[Shiva]] (holding a [[trishula]]) to the right]]

The [[Bhagavad Gita]], in the Epic [[Mahabharata]], mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal [[Brahman]]".<ref name=jfowler164 />
The [[Bhagavad Gita]], in the Epic [[Mahabharata]], mentions the meaning and significance of ''Om'' in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "''Om'' which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal [[Brahman]]".<ref name=jfowler164 />


{{Blockquote|"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the '''sacred syllable ''Om'''''. I am the [[Rigveda|Ṛig Veda]], [[Samaveda|Sāma Veda]], and the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]."
{{Blockquote|"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the '''sacred syllable ''Om'''''. I am the [[Rigveda|Ṛig Veda]], [[Samaveda|Sāma Veda]], and the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]]."
||[[Krishna]] to [[Arjuna]], Bhagavad Gita 9.17<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukundananda |author-link=Mukundananda |year=2014 |title=Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God: Commentary by Swami Mukundananda |url=https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/16-17 |publisher=[[Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog]]}}</ref><ref name="jfowler164">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 164</ref>}}
||[[Krishna]] to [[Arjuna]], Bhagavad Gita 9.17<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukundananda |author-link=Mukundananda |year=2014 |title=Bhagavad Gita, The Song of God: Commentary by Swami Mukundananda |url=https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/9/verse/16-17 |publisher=[[Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog]]}}</ref><ref name="jfowler164">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=164}}</ref>}}


The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:<ref name=jfowler271 />
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the ''Gita'', such as verse 17.24 where the importance of ''Om'' during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:<ref name=jfowler271 />


{{Blockquote|"Therefore, uttering '''Om''', the acts of [[yagna]] (fire ritual), [[dāna]] (charity) and [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]] (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the [[Brahman]]."
{{Blockquote|"Therefore, uttering '''Om''', the acts of [[yagna]] (fire ritual), [[dāna]] (charity) and [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]] (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the [[Brahman]]."
|Bhagavad Gita 17.24<ref name="jfowler271">Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 271</ref><ref>Translator: KT Telang, Editor: [[Max Muller]], {{Google books|5cPKAgAAQBAJ|The Bhagavadgita with the Sanatsujatiya and the Anugita}}, Routledge Print, {{ISBN|978-0700715473}}, page 120</ref>}}
|Bhagavad Gita 17.24<ref name="jfowler271">{{Cite book |first=Jeaneane D. |last=Fowler |date=2012 |title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1845193461 |page=271}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |translator-first=K.T. |translator-last=Telang |editor-last=Muller |editor-first=Max |editor-link=Max Muller |url={{Google books|5cPKAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Bhagavadgita with the Sanatsujatiya and the Anugita |date=26 October 2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0700715473 |page=120}}</ref>}}


=== Puranas ===
=== Puranas ===
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==== Vaishnava traditions ====
==== Vaishnava traditions ====
The [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-garuda-purana-dutt/d/doc122701.html |title=The Vishnu-Dharma Vidya [Chapter CCXXI] |date=16 April 2015}}</ref> According to the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'', ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu [[Trimurti]], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for [[Brahma]], ''U'' for [[Vishnu]] and ''M'' for [[Shiva]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, [[Religious initiation rites|initiation]], and the performance of sacrifice ([[yajña]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/9/14/ |title=Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |language=en |chapter=14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī}}</ref>
The [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] ''[[Garuda Purana]]'' equates the recitation of ''Om'' with obeisance to Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-garuda-purana-dutt/d/doc122701.html |title=The Vishnu-Dharma Vidya [Chapter CCXXI] |date=16 April 2015}}</ref> According to the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'',{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} ''Om'' is the representation of the Hindu [[Trimurti]], and represents the union of the three gods, viz. ''A'' for [[Brahma]], ''U'' for [[Vishnu]] and ''M'' for [[Shiva]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Esnoul |first=A.M. |chapter=Oṃ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Macmillan Reference |date=2005 |isbn=9780028659978 |edition=2nd |location=USA |pages=6820–6821}}</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (9.14.46-48) identifies the ''Pranava'' as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of ''a-u-m'' as an invocation of seminal birth, [[Religious initiation rites|initiation]], and the performance of sacrifice ([[yajña]]).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/9/14/ |title=Bhāgavata Purāṇa, Canto 9 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. |language=en |chapter=14, King Purūravā Enchanted by Urvaśī}}</ref>


==== Shaiva traditions ====
==== Shaiva traditions ====
[[File:Om Symbol at Kanaka Durga Temple.jpg|thumb|''Om'' symbol with a [[trishula]] at [[Kanaka Durga Temple]], [[Vijayawada]]]]
[[File:Om Symbol at Kanaka Durga Temple.jpg|thumb|''Om'' symbol with a [[trishula]] at [[Kanaka Durga Temple]], [[Vijayawada]]]]

In [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] traditions, the ''[[Shiva Purana]]'' highlights the relation between deity [[Shiva]] and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.<ref>Guy Beck (1995), ''Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812611}}, page 154</ref>
In [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] traditions, the ''[[Shiva Purana]]'' highlights the relation between deity [[Shiva]] and the ''Pranava'' or ''Om''. Shiva is declared to be ''Om'', and that ''Om'' is Shiva.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Guy |last=Beck |year=1995 |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-8120812611 |page=154}}</ref>
After this, an epithet of [[Shiva]] is [[Omkareshwar]], the Lord, [[Ishvara]], of oṃkāra.


==== Shakta traditions ====
==== Shakta traditions ====
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{{lang|sa|तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥}}
{{lang|sa|तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥}}
His word is '''Om'''.
His word is '''Om'''.
|Yogasutra 1.27<ref name="charlesj">[https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/mode/2up ''The Yogasutras of Patanjali''] Charles Johnston (Translator), page 15</ref>}}
|Yogasutra 1.27<ref name="charlesj">{{Cite book |last=Patanjali |author-link=Patanjali |url=https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/ |title=The Yogasutras of Patanjali |year=1912 |translator-first=Charles |translator-last=Johnston |page=15|publisher=New York, C. Johnston }}</ref>}}


[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Johnston]] states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.<ref name=charlesj />
[[Charles Johnston (Theosophist)|Johnston]] states this verse highlights the importance of ''Om'' in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.<ref name=charlesj />
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[[File:Jaipur Jain Aum.jpg|thumb|Painting illustrating the Jain ''Om'' symbol, from Jaipur, {{circa|1840}}]]
[[File:Jaipur Jain Aum.jpg|thumb|Painting illustrating the Jain ''Om'' symbol, from Jaipur, {{circa|1840}}]]
{{see also|Jainism and non-creationism|Jain symbols#Om}}
{{see also|Jainism and non-creationism|Jain symbols#Om}}

In [[Jainism]], ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the [[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]] by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' (''{{IAST|o[[pluti|3]]}}{{IAST|m}}'').
In [[Jainism]], ''Om'' is considered a condensed form of reference to the [[Pañca-Parameṣṭhi]] by their initials ''A+A+A+U+M'' (''{{IAST|o[[pluti|3]]}}{{IAST|m}}'').


The [[Dravyasamgraha]] quotes a [[Prakrit]] line:{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}
The [[Dravyasamgraha]] quotes a [[Prakrit]] line:{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}
{{poem quote|
{{poem quote|
{{lang|pra|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां}}
{{lang|pra-Deva|ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां}}
{{IAST|Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".}}
{{IAST|Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".}}
''AAAUM'' [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [''pañca-parameṣṭhi'']: "[[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]], [[Ashiri]], [[Acharya]], [[Upajjhaya]], [[Jain monasticism|Muni]]".<ref>[http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html Om – significance in Jainism], Languages and Scripts of India, Colorado State University</ref>}}
''AAAUM'' [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [{{IAST|pañca-parameṣṭhi}}]: "[[Arihant (Jainism)|Arihant]], [[Siddha|Ashariri]], [[Acharya]], [[Upajjhaya]], [[Jain monasticism|Muni]]".<ref>{{Citation |last=Malaiya |first=Yashwant K. |article-url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/om.html |article=Om – significance in Jainism |url=https://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html |title=Languages and Scripts of India |publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref>}}


By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the [[Namokar Mantra|Namokar mantra]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namokar Mantra |url=http://www.digambarjainonline.com/namo_index.htm |access-date=2014-06-04 |publisher=Digambarjainonline.com}}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the ''Pañca-Parameṣṭhi''. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the [[Namokar Mantra|Namokar mantra]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Namokar Mantra |url=http://www.digambarjainonline.com/namo_index.htm |access-date=2014-06-04 |publisher=Digambarjainonline.com}}</ref> the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the {{IAST|Pañca-Parameṣṭhi}}. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".{{Sfnp|Von Glasenapp|1999|pp=410-411}}


== Buddhism ==
== Buddhism ==
''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Indian Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXgy1WvZCI0C&q=vajrayana+tantra&pg=PR9 |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120827523 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajrayana Buddhism Origins, Vajrayana Buddhism History, Vajrayana Buddhism Beliefs |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Vajrayana-Buddhism |access-date=2017-08-04 |website=www.patheos.com}}</ref>
''Om'' is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXgy1WvZCI0C&q=vajrayana+tantra&pg=PR9 |title=Tantric Revisionings: New Understandings of Tibetan Buddhism and Indian Religion |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=9788120827523 |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vajrayana Buddhism Origins, Vajrayana Buddhism History, Vajrayana Buddhism Beliefs |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Vajrayana-Buddhism |access-date=2017-08-04 |website=www.patheos.com}}</ref>


In [[East Asian Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often [[Transliteration|transliterated]] as the [[Chinese character]] {{script|Hant|[[:zh:唵|唵]]}} ([[pinyin]] ''{{lang|zh-Latn|ǎn}}'') or {{script|Hant|[[:wikt:嗡|嗡]]}} ([[pinyin]] ''{{lang|zh-Latn|ōng}}'').
In [[East Asian Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often [[Transliteration|transliterated]] as the [[Chinese character]] {{script|Hant|{{linktext|唵}}}} ([[pinyin]] {{transl|zh|ǎn}}) or {{script|Hant|[[:wikt:嗡|嗡]]}} ([[pinyin]] {{transl|zh|wēng}}).


=== Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana ===
=== Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana ===
[[File:OM MANI PADME HUM.svg|thumb|The mantra ''om mani padme hum'' written in [[Tibetan script]] on the petals of a [[Sacred lotus in religious art#Buddhism|sacred lotus]] around the syllable [[Hrī (Buddhism)|hrih]] at the center; ''Om'' is written on the top petal in white]]
[[File:OM MANI PADME HUM.svg|thumb|The mantra ''om mani padme hum'' written in [[Tibetan script]] on the petals of a [[Sacred lotus in religious art#Buddhism|sacred lotus]] around the syllable [[Hrī (Buddhism)|hrih]] at the center; ''Om'' is written on the top petal in white]]

In Tibetan [[Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and [[dharani]]s. Probably the most well known mantra is "[[Om mani padme hum]]", the six syllable mantra of the [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion, [[Avalokiteśvara]]. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed {{IAST|Ṣaḍākṣarī}} form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''[[Bīja]] mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in [[Esoteric Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="OM" - THE SYMBOL OF THE ABSOLUTE |url=http://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |access-date=2015-10-13}}</ref>
In Tibetan [[Buddhism]], ''Om'' is often placed at the beginning of mantras and [[dharani]]s. Probably the most well known mantra is "[[Om mani padme hum]]", the six syllable mantra of the [[Bodhisattva]] of compassion, [[Avalokiteśvara]]. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed {{IAST|Ṣaḍākṣarī}} form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (''[[Bīja]] mantra''), ''Om'' is considered sacred and holy in [[Esoteric Buddhism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="Om" - the Symbol of the Absolute |url=http://www.indiancentury.com/om.htm |access-date=2015-10-13}}</ref>


Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra {{IAST|oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ}} to be {{IAST|auṃ}}, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Carl |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8135-3778-8 |page=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |url=https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett |title=The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-486-25575-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett/page/29 29], 191–192 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra {{IAST|oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ}} to be {{IAST|auṃ}}, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.<ref name="carlolsenb">{{Cite book |last=Olsen |first=Carl |title=The Different Paths of Buddhism: A Narrative-Historical Introduction |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8135-3778-8 |page=215}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Getty |first=Alice |url=https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett |title=The Gods of Northern Buddhism: Their History and Iconography |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-486-25575-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/godsofnorthernbu00gett/page/29 29], 191–192 |url-access=registration}}</ref>


{{IAST|Oṃ}} has been described by the [[14th Dalai Lama]] as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure [[Three Vajras|body, speech, and mind]] of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyatso |first=Tenzin |title=On the meaning of: OM MANI PADME HUM - The jewel is in the lotus or praise to the jewel in the lotus |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tib/omph.htm |access-date=2017-04-17 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |pages=159–160}}</ref> According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |page=158}}</ref>
{{IAST|Oṃ}} has been described by the [[14th Dalai Lama]] as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure [[Three Vajras|body, speech, and mind]] of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyatso |first=Tenzin |title=On the meaning of: OM MANI PADME HUM - The jewel is in the lotus or praise to the jewel in the lotus |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tib/omph.htm |access-date=2017-04-17 |website=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |pages=159–160}}</ref> According to Simpkins, ''Om'' is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=C. Alexander Simpkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dau4DvZS-pkC&pg=PA159 |title=Meditation for Therapists and Their Clients |last2=Annellen M. Simpkins |publisher=W.W. Norton |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-393-70565-2 |page=158}}</ref>


=== Japanese Buddhism ===
=== Japanese Buddhism ===
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==== ''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs ====
==== ''Niō'' guardian kings and ''komainu'' lion-dogs ====
{{main|Niō|Komainu}}
{{main|Niō|Komainu}}
The term is also used in [[Japanese Buddhist architecture|Buddhist architecture]] and [[Shinto architecture|Shinto]] to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the [[Niō]] ({{lang|ja|仁王}}) and the ''[[komainu]]'' ({{lang|ja|狛犬}}).<ref name="jaanus a-un" /> One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is {{nihongo|''agyō''|阿形||lit. "a" shape}}, that for those with a closed mouth {{nihongo|''ungyō''|吽形||lit. {{"'}}un' shape"}}.<ref name="jaanus a-un" />


The term is also used in [[Japanese Buddhist architecture|Buddhist architecture]] and [[Shinto architecture|Shinto]] to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the ''[[Niō]]'' ({{lang|ja|仁王}}) and the ''[[komainu]]'' ({{lang|ja|狛犬}}).<ref name="jaanus a-un" /> One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "''A-un''". The general name for statues with an open mouth is {{nihongo|''agyō''|阿形||lit. "a" shape}}, that for those with a closed mouth {{nihongo|''ungyō''|吽形||lit. {{"'}}un' shape"}}.<ref name="jaanus a-un" />
[[Niō]] statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist [[Torana|temple gate]]s and [[stupa]]s, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''[[Vajrapani]]'').<ref name="adrian">{{Cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |year=2007 |isbn=978-8120807815 |page=303 |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass}}</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">{{Cite book |last=Baroni |first=Helen J. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |publisher=Rosen Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6 |page=240}}</ref>

[[Niō]] statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist [[Torana|temple gate]]s and [[stupa]]s, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (''[[Vajrapani]]'').<ref name="adrian">{{Cite book |last=Snodgrass |first=Adrian |title=The Symbolism of the Stupa, Motilal Banarsidass |year=2007 |isbn=978-8120807815 |page=303 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |author-link=Adrian Snodgrass}}</ref><ref name="helenbaroni">{{Cite book |last=Baroni |first=Helen J. |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism |publisher=Rosen Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8239-2240-6 |page=240}}</ref>


[[Komainu]], also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (''Agyō''), the other closed (''Ungyō'').<ref>[http://www.dentsdelion.com/NEWSLETTER/03_Komainu.pdf Komainu and Niô] Dentsdelion Antiques Tokyo Newsletter, Volume 11, Part 3 (2011)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Katherine |title=Animal Motifs in Asian Art |publisher=Dover Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-486-43338-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur |first=Chris |title=Irish Elegies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61534-2 |page=21}}</ref>
[[Komainu]], also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth ({{transl|ja|Agyō}}), the other closed ({{transl|ja|Ungyō}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.dentsdelion.com/NEWSLETTER/03_Komainu.pdf |title=Komainu and Niô |journal=Dentsdelion Antiques Tokyo Newsletter |volume=11 |issue=3 |date=2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Katherine |title=Animal Motifs in Asian Art |publisher=Dover Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-486-43338-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arthur |first=Chris |title=Irish Elegies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-61534-2 |page=21}}</ref>


{{gallery
{{gallery
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{{Main|Ik Onkar}}
{{Main|Ik Onkar}}
[[File:Ek onkar.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Ik Onkar'' of [[Sikhism]]]]
[[File:Ek onkar.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Ik Onkar'' of [[Sikhism]]]]

''Ik Onkar'' ({{lang-pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}; iconically represented as {{script|Guru|ੴ}}) are the first words of the [[Mul Mantar]], which is the opening verse of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500 |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=500 |access-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om''-maker";<ref name="gulati285">Mahinder Gulati (2008), Comparative Religious And Philosophies : Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity, Atlantic, {{ISBN|978-8126909025}}, pages 284-285</ref> {{efn-ua|Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."<ref name="gulati285" />}} these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |editor-last=Kitagawa |editor-first=Joseph Mitsuo |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |location=London |page=114 |chapter=The Sikhs |author-link=Khushwant Singh |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114}}</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Wazir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWM9AAAAIAAJ&q=substitute+ekankar |title=Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1969 |page=20 |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."<ref name=wazirsingh />}}
''Ik Onkar'' ({{lang-pa|ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ}}; iconically represented as {{script|Guru|ੴ}}) are the first words of the [[Mul Mantar]], which is the opening verse of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the Sikh scripture.<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar">{{Cite book |last=Doniger |first=Wendy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA500 |title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions |publisher=Merriam-Webster |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=500 |access-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Combining the numeral one ("''Ik''") and "''Onkar''", ''Ik Onkar'' literally means "one ''Om ''";<ref name="gulati285">{{Cite book |first=Mahinder |last=Gulati |date=2008 |title=Comparative Religious And Philosophies: Anthropomorphlsm And Divinity |publisher=Atlantic |isbn=978-8126909025 |pages=284–285}}</ref> {{efn-ua|Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."<ref name="gulati285" />}} these words are a statement that there is "one God",<ref name="Sikhism">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Khushwant |title=The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2002 |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 |editor-last=Kitagawa |editor-first=Joseph Mitsuo |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |location=London |page=114 |chapter=The Sikhs |author-link=Khushwant Singh |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5LSvkQvvmAMC&pg=PA114}}</ref> understood to refer to the "absolute [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] unity of God"<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" /> and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".<ref name="wazirsingh">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Wazir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWM9AAAAIAAJ&q=substitute+ekankar |title=Aspects of Guru Nanak's philosophy |publisher=Lahore Book Shop |year=1969 |page=20 |access-date=17 September 2015}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."<ref name=wazirsingh />}}


According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (''[[Shabda|shabad]]''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".<ref name=pashaura227/>
According to Pashaura Singh, ''Onkar'' is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (''[[Shabda|shabad]]''), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".<ref name=pashaura227/>


''Ik Onkar'' is a significant [[Names of God#Sikhism|name of God]] in the Guru Granth Sahib and [[Gurbani]], states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the [[Upanishads]] and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''[[Trailokya]]'') of [[Creationism|creation]].<ref name="sskohli39">{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=S.S. |title=The Sikh and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic |year=1993 |isbn=81-71563368 |page=35}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."<ref name=sskohli39 />}} According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Wazir |year=1969 |title=Guru Nanak's philosophy |journal=Journal of Religious Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=56}}</ref> However, in [[Sikhism]], ''Onkar'' is interpreted differently than in other Indian religions; ''Onkar'' refers directly to the creator of ultimate reality and consciousness, and not to the creation. [[Guru Nanak]] wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" />
''Ik Onkar'' is a significant [[Names of God#Sikhism|name of God]] in the Guru Granth Sahib and [[Gurbani]], states Kohli, and occurs as "''Aum''" in the [[Upanishads]] and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (''[[Trailokya]]'') of [[Creationism|creation]].<ref name="sskohli39">{{Cite book |last=Kohli |first=S.S. |title=The Sikh and Sikhism |publisher=Atlantic |year=1993 |isbn=81-71563368 |page=35}}</ref>{{efn-ua|Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."<ref name=sskohli39 />}} According to Wazir Singh, ''Onkar'' is a "variation of ''Om'' (''Aum'') of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying ''seed-force'' that evolves as the universe".<ref> {{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Wazir |year=1969 |title=Guru Nanak's philosophy |journal=Journal of Religious Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=56}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak]] wrote a poem entitled ''Onkar'' in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".<ref name="M-W Ik Onkar" />
{{Poem quote|
{{Poem quote|
''Onkar'' ('the Primal Sound') created [[Brahma]], ''Onkar'' fashioned the consciousness,
''Onkar'' ('the Primal Sound') created [[Brahma]], ''Onkar'' fashioned the consciousness,
Line 362: Line 594:
By the grace of ''Onkar'', people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of ''Onkar'', people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of ''Onkar'', they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.
By the grace of ''Onkar'', they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.
|Ramakali Dakkhani|[[Adi Granth]] 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh<ref name="pashaura227">Pashaura Singh (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199699308}}, page 227</ref>}}
|Ramakali Dakkhani|[[Adi Granth]] 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh<ref name="pashaura227">{{Cite encyclopedia |first=Pashaura |last=Singh |date=2014 |title=Gurmat: The Teachings of the Gurus |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |editor-first=Pashaura |editor-last=Singh |editor2-first=Louis E. |editor2-last=Fenech |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199699308 |page=227}}</ref>}}

"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (''anahat naad'' or ''anahad naad''). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).{{cn|date=June 2023}}


== Thelema ==
== Thelema ==
For both symbolic and [[English Qabalah|numerological]] reasons, [[Aleister Crowley]] adapted ''aum'' into a [[Thelema|Thelemic]] [[magical formula]], ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word '[[gnosis]]') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the [[Trigraph (orthography)|compound letter]] 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of [[Thelema#93|93]], a number with [[Polysemy|polysemic]] significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's [[Ceremonial magic|magical]] and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''[[Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass|Gnostic Mass]]''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''[[Liber Samekh]]'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''[[Magick (Book 4)]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Liber Samekh |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib813.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Magick in Theory and Practice - Chapter 7 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/aba/chap7.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick : Liber ABA, book four, parts I-IV |date=1997 |isbn=9780877289197 |edition=Second revised |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Liber XV : Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae Canon Missae |date=2016 |isbn=9788393928453 |location=Gothenburg}}</ref>
For both symbolic and [[English Qabalah|numerological]] reasons, [[Aleister Crowley]] adapted ''aum'' into a [[Thelema|Thelemic]] [[magical formula]], ''AUMGN'', adding a silent 'g' (as in the word '[[gnosis]]') and a nasal 'n' to the ''m'' to form the [[Trigraph (orthography)|compound letter]] 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, ''MGN'', have a numerological value of [[Thelema#93|93]], a number with [[Polysemy|polysemic]] significance in Thelema. ''Om'' appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's [[Ceremonial magic|magical]] and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the ''[[Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass|Gnostic Mass]]''. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of ''[[Liber Samekh]]'' and in detail in chapter 7 of ''[[Magick (Book 4)]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Liber Samekh |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/lib813.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick in Theory and Practice - Chapter 7 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/oto/aba/chap7.htm |access-date=27 May 2021 |publisher=Internet Sacred Text Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Magick : Liber ABA, book four, parts I–IV |date=1997 |isbn=9780877289197 |edition=Second revised |location=San Francisco, CA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |title=Liber XV : Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae Canon Missae |date=2016 |isbn=9788393928453 |location=Gothenburg}}</ref>


== Modern reception ==
== Modern reception ==
The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western [[counterculture]] since the 1960s, mostly in its standard [[Devanagari]] form ({{script|Deva|ॐ}}), but the [[Tibetan alphabet]] ''Om'' ({{bo-textonly|ༀ|lang=bo}}) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Messerle |first=Ulrich |title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM |url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191837/http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |archive-date=31 December 2017 |access-date=14 January 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
The Brahmic script ''Om''-ligature has become widely recognized in Western [[counterculture]] since the 1960s, mostly in its standard [[Devanagari]] form ({{script|Deva|ॐ}}), but the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] ''Om'' ({{bo-textonly|ༀ|lang=bo}}) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Messerle |first=Ulrich |title=Graphics of the Sacred Symbol OM |url=http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231191837/http://om.pinkproton.org/pictures/ |archive-date=31 December 2017 |access-date=14 January 2019 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


== In meditation ==
== In meditation ==
{{further|Pranava yoga}}
{{further|Pranava yoga}}

Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said{{by whom|date=February 2022}} to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H.R. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N.K. |last4=Naveen |first4=K.V. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |date=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=[[International Journal of Yoga]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |s2cid=2631383}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=January 2022}}
Meditating and chanting of ''Om'' can be done by first concentrating on a picture of ''Om'' and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said{{by whom|date=February 2022}} to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H.R. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N.K. |last4=Naveen |first4=K.V. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |date=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=[[International Journal of Yoga]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |s2cid=2631383 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=January 2022}}

==See also==
* [[A in Buddhism]]
* [[Bījamantra]]
* [[Religious symbol]]


== Notes ==
== Notes ==
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== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|2}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Francke |first=A. H. |year=1915 |title=The Meaning of the "Om-mani-padme-hum" Formula |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |pages=397–404 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00048425 |jstor=25189337}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Francke |first=A. H. |year=1915 |title=The Meaning of the "Om-mani-padme-hum" Formula |journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=397–404 |doi=10.1017/S0035869X00048425 |jstor=25189337|s2cid=170755544 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Gurjar |first=A. A. |last2=Ladhake |first2=S. A. |last3=Thakare |first3=A. P. |year=2009 |title=Analysis of Acoustic of "OM " Chant to Study {{sic|I|t's|nolink=y}} Effect on Nervous System |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=363-367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.8652}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Gurjar |first1=A. A. |last2=Ladhake |first2=S. A. |last3=Thakare |first3=A. P. |year=2009 |title=Analysis of Acoustic of "OM " Chant to Study {{sic|I|t's|nolink=y}} Effect on Nervous System |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=363–367 |citeseerx=10.1.1.186.8652}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N. |last4=Naveen |first4=K. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |year=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagendra |first2=H. |last3=Manjunath |first3=N. |last4=Naveen |first4=K. |last5=Telles |first5=S. |year=2010 |title=Meditation on OM: Relevance from ancient texts and contemporary science |journal=International Journal of Yoga |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=2–5 |doi=10.4103/0973-6131.66771 |pmc=2952121 |pmid=20948894 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kumar |first=Uttam |last2=Guleria |first2=Anupam |last3=Khetrapal |first3=Chunni Lal |year=2015 |title=Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=432–441 |doi=10.1080/02699931.2014.917609 |pmid=24845107 |s2cid=20292351}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Uttam |last2=Guleria |first2=Anupam |last3=Khetrapal |first3=Chunni Lal |year=2015 |title=Neuro-cognitive aspects of "OM" sound/syllable perception: A functional neuroimaging study |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=432–441 |doi=10.1080/02699931.2014.917609 |pmid=24845107 |s2cid=20292351}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-8175973589 |location=Bombay |author-link=Chinmayananda}}
* {{Cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Chinmayananda |title=Glory of Ganesha |publisher=Central Chinmaya Mission Trust |year=1987 |isbn=978-8175973589 |location=Bombay |author-link=Chinmayananda Saraswati}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=4 August 2003 |title=Just say Om |url=http://www.thebuddhasaidiamawake.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Just-Say-Om-Printout-TIME.pdf |magazine=Time Magazine}}
* {{Cite magazine |last=Stein |first=Joel |date=4 August 2003 |title=Just say Om |url=http://www.thebuddhasaidiamawake.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Just-Say-Om-Printout-TIME.pdf |magazine=Time Magazine}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Telles |first=S. |last2=Nagarathna |first2=R. |last3=Nagendra |first3=H. R. |year=1995 |title=Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation |url=http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1995_39_4/418-420.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=418–420 |issn=0019-5499 |pmid=8582759}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Telles |first1=S. |last2=Nagarathna |first2=R. |last3=Nagendra |first3=H. R. |year=1995 |title=Autonomic changes during "OM" meditation |url=http://www.ijpp.com/IJPP%20archives/1995_39_4/418-420.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=418–420 |issn=0019-5499 |pmid=8582759}}
* {{Cite wikisource |last=Vivekanda |title=The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom |wslink=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 3/Bhakti-Yoga/The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom}}
* {{Cite wikisource |last=Vivekanda |title=The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom |wslink=The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 3/Bhakti-Yoga/The Mantra: Om: Word and Wisdom}}
* {{Cite book |last=Von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |date=1999 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |location=[[Delhi]] |language=de |trans-title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp}}
* {{Cite book |last=Von Glasenapp |first=Helmuth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC |title=Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion |date=1999 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |others=Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.) |isbn=81-208-1376-6 |location=[[Delhi]] |language=de |trans-title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


{{navboxes|state=expanded|list=
== External links ==
* {{Wiktionary-inline|ॐ}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Om (symbol)}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Jainism topics}}
{{Jainism topics}}
{{Sikhism}}
{{Sikhism}}
}}
{{sister bar|auto=yes|wikt=ॐ}}


[[Category:Brahmic graphemes]]
[[Category:Brahmic graphemes]]
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[[Category:Jain mantras]]
[[Category:Jain mantras]]
[[Category:Thelema]]
[[Category:Thelema]]
[[Category:Om mantras]]

Revision as of 10:58, 14 May 2024

"Aum" redirects here. For other uses, see Aum (disambiguation) and Om (disambiguation).

Om ligature in Devanagari script
Om (ௐ) in Tamil script with a trishula at Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple, Singapore; Om appears frequently as an icon in temples (mandirs) and spiritual retreats
A rangoli featuring Om surrounded by stylised peacocks; Om often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of Indic religions
A rakhi in the shape of Om
This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Om (or Aum) (listenⓘ; Sanskrit: ॐ, ओम्, romanized: Oṃ, ISO 15919: Ōṁ) is a symbol representing a sacred sound, syllable, mantra, and an invocation in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[1][2] Its written representation is the most important symbol of Hinduism.[3] It is the essence of the supreme Absolute,[2] consciousness,[4][5][6] Ātman, Brahman, or the cosmic world.[7][8][9] In Indic traditions, Om serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of Vedic authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices.[10] The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts.[9]

Om emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of Samavedic chants or songs.[10][1] It is a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passage (samskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as Pranava yoga.[11][12] It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.[13][14] As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.[15][16]

The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.[17][18]

Common names and synonyms

The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:

  • Praṇava (प्रणव); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.[19][20]
  • Oṅkāra (ओङ्कार) or oṃkāra (ओंकार); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.[21][22][23][24]
  • Udgītha (उद्गीथ); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.[25]
  • Akṣara (अक्षर); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
    • Ekākṣara; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ligature. (see below)

Origin and spiritual significance

The etymological origins of ōm (aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for aum, including: from "ām" (आम्; "yes"), from "ávam" (आवम्; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (अव्; "to urge") or "āp-" (आप्; "to attain").[26][A] In 1889, Maurice Blumfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (अथ).[26] However, contemporary Indologist Asko Parpola proposes a borrowing from Dravidian "*ām" meaning "'it is so', 'let it be so', 'yes'", a contraction of "*ākum", cognate with modern Tamil "ām" (ஆம்) meaning "yes".[26][27] In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, aum' is the word for yes.[citation needed]

Regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a "tool for meditation" and explain the various meanings that the syllable may hold in the mind of one meditating, ranging from "artificial and senseless" to the "highest concepts such as the cause of the Universe, essence of life, Brahman, Atman, and Self-knowledge".[28][29]

The syllable Om is first mentioned in the Upanishads. It has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts in the Upanishads.[9] In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda".[9] The symbolic foundations of Om are repeatedly discussed in the oldest layers of the early Upanishads.[30][31] The Aitareya Brahmana of Rig Veda, in section 5.32, suggests that the three phonetic components of Om (a + u + m) correspond to the three stages of cosmic creation, and when it is read or said, it celebrates the creative powers of the universe.[9][32] However, in the eight anuvaka of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which consensus research indicates was formulated around the same time or preceding Aitareya Brahmana, the sound Aum is attributed to reflecting the inner part of the word Brahman. Put another way, it is the Brahman, in the form of a word.[33] The Brahmana layer of Vedic texts equate Om with bhur-bhuvah-svah, the latter symbolising "the whole Veda". They offer various shades of meaning to Om, such as it being "the universe beyond the sun", or that which is "mysterious and inexhaustible", or "the infinite language, the infinite knowledge", or "essence of breath, life, everything that exists", or that "with which one is liberated".[9] The Samaveda, the poetical Veda, orthographically maps Om to the audible, the musical truths in its numerous variations (Oum, Aum, Ovā Ovā Ovā Um, etc.) and then attempts to extract musical meters from it.[9]

Pronunciation

When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of sandhi in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial o of "Om" is the guṇa vowel grade of u, not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel ([oː]), ie. ōm not aum.[B][34] Furthermore, the final m is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation (raṅga). As a result, Om is regularly pronounced [õː] in the context of Sanskrit.

However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m".[35][36][37][38] Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.

In the context of the Vedas, particularly the Vedic Brahmanas, the vowel is often pluta ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae (trimātra), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes pluta with the prolongation of its first vowel.[34] When e and o undergo pluti they typically revert to the original diphthongs with the initial a prolonged,[39] realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (ā̄um or a3um [ɑːːum]). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as Arya Samaj.

However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta,[C] and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ([õː] or [oːm]).

Written representations

South Asia

Statue depicting Shiva as the Nataraja dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for Om; Joseph Campbell argued that the Nataraja statue represents Om as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"[40]

Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. Om is represented in Devanagari as ओम्, composed of four elements: the vowel letter अ (a), the vowel diacritic ो (o), the consonant letter म (m), and the virama stroke ् which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination ओ represented a diphthong, often transcribed as au, but it now represents a long vowel, ō. (See above.) The syllable is sometimes written ओ३म्, where ३ (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates pluta ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason Om may also be written ओऽम् in languages such as Hindi, with the avagraha (ऽ) being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the avagraha in Sanskrit, where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) Om may also be written ओं, with an anusvāra reflecting the pronunciation of [õː] in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as Urdu and Sindhi Om may be written اوم‎ in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.

The commonly seen representation of the syllable Om, ॐ, is a cursive ligature in Devanagari, combining अ (a) with उ (u) and the chandrabindu (ँ, ṃ). In Unicode, the symbol is encoded at U+0950 ॐ DEVANAGARI OM and at U+1F549 🕉 OM SYMBOL as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".

In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese Om is written simply as ওঁ without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for u redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains [õː]. Similarly, in Odia Om is written as ଓଁ without an additional diacritic.

In Tamil, Om is written as ௐ, a ligature of ஓ (ō) and ம் (m), while in Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, Om is written simply as the letter for ō followed by anusvāra (ಓಂ, ఓం, and ഓം, respectively).

There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in Brahmi script, dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the swastika is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters (U+11011 𑀑 BRAHMI LETTER O) were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot.[41] A commentary in Nature (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven.[42] A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that Om was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (𑀅𑀉𑀫), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol ॐ for Om.[43][44] Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka,[45] including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with Om along with other symbols.[46]

East and Southeast Asia

The Om symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries.

In Southeast Asia, the Om symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in sak yant religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV (r. 1851–1868)[47] and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.[48]

The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.[49][50][better source needed]

In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 (pinyin: ǎn) or 嗡 (pinyin: wēng).

Representation in various scripts

Northern Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Bengali-Assamese ওঁ
Devanagari ॐ
Devanagari ओम्
Devanagari (Jain symbol) ꣽ
Gurmukhi (Ik Onkar) ੴ
Gurmukhi (Ik Onkar) ੴ
Lepcha ᰣᰨᰵ‎
Limbu ᤀᤥᤱ
Meitei Mayek (Anji) ꫲ
Modi 𑘌𑘽‎
Odia ଓ‍ଁ
Odia ଓ‍ଁ
ʼPhags-pa ꡝꡡꡏ[a]
Pracalit 𑑉‎
Ranjana
Sharada 𑇄
Siddham 𑖌𑖼
Soyombo 𑩐𑩖𑪖‎
Takri 𑚈𑚫
Tibetan (Uchen) ༀ
Tirhuta, Mithilakshar 𑓇‎
Zanabazar 𑨀𑨆𑨵‎


Southern Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Balinese ᬒᬁ
Burmese ဥုံ
Chakma 𑄃𑄮𑄀
Cham ꨅꩌ
Cham (Homkar) ꨀꨯꨱꩌ
Grantha 𑍐
Javanese ꦎꦴꦀ
Kannada ಓಂ
Khmer ឱំ
Khmer (Unalome) ៚
Lao ໂອໍ
Malayalam ഓം
Sinhala ඕං
Tai Lanna ᩒᩴ
Tamil ௐ
Telugu ఓం
Thai โอํ
Thai (Khomut) ๛

Non-Brahmic

Script Unicode Image
Arabic اوم[b]
Chinese 唵
Hangul 옴
Kanji 阿吽
Katakana オーム
Mongolian (Ali Gali) ᢀᠣᠸᠠ
Tangut 𗙫[c]
Thaana އޮމ
Warang Citi 𑣿‎

Hinduism

Om appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the Rigveda[D]
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In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds.[3] The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts,[9] and is often chanted either independently or before a mantra, as a sacred spiritual incantation made before and during the recitation of spiritual texts, during puja and private prayers, in ceremonies of rites of passages (sanskara) such as weddings, and during meditative and spiritual activities such as yoga.[11][12]

It is the most sacred syllable symbol and mantra of Brahman,[51] which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).[7][8][4][5][52]

It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound (pranava) of the universe.[53]

Vedas

Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by Om but by Om followed by the formula bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ.[54] Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with Om.[16]

Brahmanas

Aitareya Brahmana

The Aitareya Brahmana (7.18.13) explains Om as "an acknowledgment, melodic confirmation, something that gives momentum and energy to a hymn".[3]

Om is the agreement (pratigara) with a hymn. Likewise is tathā = 'so be it' [the agreement] with a [worldly] song (gāthā) [= the applause]. But Om is something divine, and tathā is something human.

— Aitareya Brahmana, 7.18.13[3]

Upanishads

Ōṃ is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in the Upanishads, including "the sacred sound, the Yes!, the Vedas, the udgitha (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth, the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence, the cause of the universe, the essence of life, the Brahman, the ātman, the vehicle of deepest knowledge, and self-knowledge (ātma jñāna)".[29]
Chandogya Upanishad

The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism. It opens with the recommendation that "let a man meditate on Om".[55] It calls the syllable Om as udgitha (उद्गीथ; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).[56]

Ṛc (ऋच्) is speech, states the text, and sāman (सामन्) is breath; they are pairs, and because they have love for each other, speech and breath find themselves together and mate to produce a song.[55][56] The highest song is Om, asserts section 1.1 of Chandogya Upanishad. It is the symbol of awe, of reverence, of threefold knowledge because Adhvaryu invokes it, the Hotr recites it, and Udgatr sings it.[56][57]

The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between Devas (gods) and Asuras (demons).[58] Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively.[59] The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the Udgitha (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this song we shall overcome the demons".[60] The syllable Om is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person.[59][60]

Chandogya Upanishad's exposition of syllable Om in its opening chapter combines etymological speculations, symbolism, metric structure and philosophical themes.[57][61] In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self,[62] and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".[63]

Katha Upanishad

The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage Vājaśravasa, who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation).[64] In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge (vidyā) as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance (avidyā) as the pursuit of the pleasant.[65] It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.[66]

The word which all the Vedas proclaim,
That which is expressed in every Tapas (penance, austerity, meditation),
That for which they live the life of a Brahmacharin,
Understand that word in its essence: Om! that is the word.
Yes, this syllable is Brahman,
This syllable is the highest.
He who knows that syllable,
Whatever he desires, is his.

— Katha Upanishad 1.2.15-1.2.16[66]
Maitri Upanishad
A Pahari painting of Om (ओं), c. 1780-1800, decorated with deities: Shiva and Shakti (could be Vaishnavi or Siddhidatri); Vishnu and Lakshmi seated upon Shesha; Harihara (Vishnu-Shiva fusion deity); Brahma; and Dattatreya as a representation of the Trimurti (top-to-bottom, left-to-right)

The Maitrayaniya Upanishad in sixth Prapathakas (lesson) discusses the meaning and significance of Om. The text asserts that Om represents Brahman-Atman. The three roots of the syllable, states the Maitri Upanishad, are A + U + M.[67]

The sound is the body of Self, and it repeatedly manifests in three:

  • as gender-endowed body – feminine, masculine, neuter;
  • as light-endowed body – Agni, Vayu, and Aditya;
  • as deity-endowed body – Brahma, Rudra,[E] and Vishnu;
  • as mouth-endowed body – garhapatya, dakshinagni, and ahavaniya;[F]
  • as knowledge-endowed body – Rig, Saman, and Yajur;[G]
  • as world-endowed body – bhūr, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ;[H]
  • as time-endowed body – past, present, and future;
  • as heat-endowed body – breath, fire, and Sun;
  • as growth-endowed body – food, water, and Moon;
  • as thought-endowed body – intellect, mind, and psyche.[67][68]

Brahman exists in two forms – the material form, and the immaterial formless.[69] The material form is changing, unreal. The immaterial formless is not changing, real. The immortal formless is truth, the truth is the Brahman, the Brahman is the light, the light is the Sun which is the syllable Om as the Self.[70][71][I]

The world is Om, its light is Sun, and the Sun is also the light of the syllable Om, asserts the Upanishad. Meditating on Om, is acknowledging and meditating on the Brahman-Atman (Self).[67]

Mundaka Upanishad
Shri Yantra with Om (ௐ) at its center, Sri Mariamman Temple, Singapore; yantras are frequently used as aids in Hindu meditation

The Mundaka Upanishad in the second Mundakam (part), suggests the means to knowing the Atman and the Brahman are meditation, self-reflection, and introspection and that they can be aided by the symbol Om. It uses a bow and arrow analogy, where the bow symbolizes the focused mind, the arrow symbolizes the self (Atman), and the target represents the ultimate reality (Brahman).[73][74]

That which is flaming, which is subtler than the subtle,
on which the worlds are set, and their inhabitants –
That is the indestructible Brahman.[J]
It is life, it is speech, it is mind. That is the real. It is immortal.
It is a mark to be penetrated. Penetrate It, my friend.

Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanishad,
one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation,
Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of That,
Penetrate[K] that Imperishable as the mark, my friend.

Om is the bow, the arrow is the Self, Brahman the mark,
By the undistracted man is It to be penetrated,
One should come to be in It,
as the arrow becomes one with the mark.

— Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.2 – 2.2.4[75][76]

Adi Shankara, in his review of the Mundaka Upanishad, states Om as a symbolism for Atman (Self).[77]

Mandukya Upanishad

The Mandukya Upanishad opens by declaring, "Om!, this syllable is this whole world".[78] Thereafter, it presents various explanations and theories on what it means and signifies.[79] This discussion is built on a structure of "four fourths" or "fourfold", derived from A + U + M + "silence" (or without an element).[78][79]

  • Om as all states of Time.
    In verse 1, the Upanishad states that time is threefold: the past, the present and the future, that these three are Om. The four fourth of time is that which transcends time, that too is Om expressed.[79]
  • Om as all states of Ātman .
    In verse 2, states the Upanishad, everything is Brahman, but Brahman is Atman (the Self), and that the Atman is fourfold.[78] Johnston summarizes these four states of Self, respectively, as seeking the physical, seeking inner thought, seeking the causes and spiritual consciousness, and the fourth state is realizing oneness with the Self, the Eternal.[80]
  • Om as all states of Consciousness.
    In verses 3 to 6, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates four states of consciousness: wakeful, dream, deep sleep, and the state of ekatma (being one with Self, the oneness of Self).[79] These four are A + U + M + "without an element" respectively.[79]
  • Om as all of Knowledge.
    In verses 9 to 12, the Mandukya Upanishad enumerates fourfold etymological roots of the syllable Om. It states that the first element of Om is A, which is from Apti (obtaining, reaching) or from Adimatva (being first).[78] The second element is U, which is from Utkarsa (exaltation) or from Ubhayatva (intermediateness).[79] The third element is M, from Miti (erecting, constructing) or from Mi Minati, or apīti (annihilation).[78] The fourth is without an element, without development, beyond the expanse of universe. In this way, states the Upanishad, the syllable Om is indeed the Atman (the self).[78][79]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad

The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, in verses 1.14 to 1.16, suggests meditating with the help of syllable Om, where one's perishable body is like one fuel-stick and the syllable Om is the second fuel-stick, which with discipline and diligent rubbing of the sticks unleashes the concealed fire of thought and awareness within. Such knowledge, asserts the Upanishad, is the goal of Upanishads.[81][82] The text asserts that Om is a tool of meditation empowering one to know the God within oneself, to realize one's Atman (Self).[83]

The Hindu deity Ganesha is sometimes referred to as "oṃkārasvarūpa" (Omkara is his form) and used as the symbol for Upanishadic concept of Brahman.[84][85]
Ganapati Upanishad
See also: Ganesha § Om, and Ganapatya

The Ganapati Upanishad asserts that Ganesha is same as Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, all deities, the universe, and Om.[86]

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

— Gaṇapatya Atharvaśīrṣa 6[87]

Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana

The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana, a Samavedic text, outlines a story where those who chant Om can achieve the same rewards as deities. However, the gods are concerned about humans ascending to their realm. To address this concern, a compromise is reached between the gods and Death. Humans can attain immortality, but it involves relinquishing their physical bodies to Death. This immortality entails an extended celestial existence after a long earthly life, where the practitioner aspires to acquire a divine self (atman) in a non-physical form, allowing them to reside eternally in the heavenly realm.[88]

Ramayana

In Valmiki's Ramayana, Rama is identified with Om, with Brahma saying to Rama:

"You are the sacrificial performance. You are the sacred syllable Vashat (on hearing which the Adhvaryu priest casts the oblation to a deity into the sacrificial fire). You are the mystic syllable OM. You are higher than the highest. People neither know your end nor your origin nor who you are in reality. You appear in all created beings in the cattle and in brahmanas. You exist in all quarters, in the sky, in mountains and in rivers."

— Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda, Sarga 117[89]

Bhagavad Gita

An illustration of Om from a Mahabharata manuscript, 1795, decorated with murtis of Surya, Brahma, and Vishnu to the left, Shakti (could be Maheshwari) on the chandrabindu point, and Shiva (holding a trishula) to the right

The Bhagavad Gita, in the Epic Mahabharata, mentions the meaning and significance of Om in several verses. According to Jeaneane Fowler, verse 9.17 of the Bhagavad Gita synthesizes the competing dualistic and monist streams of thought in Hinduism, by using "Om which is the symbol for the indescribable, impersonal Brahman".[90]

"Of this universe, I am the Father; I am also the Mother, the Sustainer, and the Grandsire. I am the purifier, the goal of knowledge, the sacred syllable Om. I am the Ṛig Veda, Sāma Veda, and the Yajur Veda."

— Krishna to Arjuna, Bhagavad Gita 9.17[91][90]

The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:[92]

"Therefore, uttering Om, the acts of yagna (fire ritual), dāna (charity) and tapas (austerity) as enjoined in the scriptures, are always begun by those who study the Brahman."

— Bhagavad Gita 17.24[92][93]

Puranas

The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.

Vaishnava traditions

The Vaishnava Garuda Purana equates the recitation of Om with obeisance to Vishnu.[94] According to the Vayu Purana,[citation needed] Om is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. A for Brahma, U for Vishnu and M for Shiva.[95] The Bhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies the Pranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of a-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).[96]

Shaiva traditions

Om symbol with a trishula at Kanaka Durga Temple, Vijayawada

In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva.[97] After this, an epithet of Shiva is Omkareshwar, the Lord, Ishvara, of oṃkāra.

Shakta traditions

In the thealogy of Shakta traditions, Om connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: A for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, U for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and M for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana describes the Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the Adya Shakti (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.[98][99][100]

Other texts

Radha and Krishna intertwined with an Om (ওঁ) and surrounded by scenes from their life

Yoga Sutra

The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's Yogasutra links Om to Yoga practice, as follows:

तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥
His word is Om.

— Yogasutra 1.27[101]

Johnston states this verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolises the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is, asserts Johnston, a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.[101]

Chaitanya Charitamrita

In Krishnava traditions, Krishna is revered as Svayam Bhagavan, the Supreme Lord himself, and Om is interpreted in light of this. According to the Chaitanya Charitamrita, Om is the sound representation of the Supreme Lord. A is said to represent Bhagavan Krishna (Vishnu), U represents Srimati Radharani (Mahalakshmi), and M represents jiva, the Self of the devotee.[102][103]

Jainism

Painting illustrating the Jain Om symbol, from Jaipur, c. 1840
See also: Jainism and non-creationism and Jain symbols § Om

In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials A+A+A+U+M (o3m).

The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:[104]

ओम एकाक्षर पञ्चपरमेष्ठिनामादिपम् तत्कथमिति चेत अरिहंता असरीरा आयरिया तह उवज्झाया मुणियां
Oma ekākṣara pañca-parameṣṭhi-nāmā-dipam tatkathamiti cheta "arihatā asarīrā āyariyā taha uvajjhāyā muṇiyā".
AAAUM [or just "Om"] is the one syllable short form of the initials of the five supreme beings [pañca-parameṣṭhi]: "Arihant, Ashariri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni".[105]

By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra,[106] the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi. These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arhats, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".[104]

Buddhism

Om is often used in some later schools of Buddhism, for example Tibetan Buddhism, which was influenced by Hinduism and Tantra.[107][108]

In East Asian Buddhism, Om is often transliterated as the Chinese character 唵 (pinyin ǎn) or 嗡 (pinyin wēng).

Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana

The mantra om mani padme hum written in Tibetan script on the petals of a sacred lotus around the syllable hrih at the center; Om is written on the top petal in white

In Tibetan Buddhism, Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed Ṣaḍākṣarī form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra), Om is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.[109]

Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ to be auṃ, with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.[110][111]

Oṃ has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha".[112][113] According to Simpkins, Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.[114]

Japanese Buddhism

Nio statues in Kyoto prefecture of Japan, are interpreted as saying the start (open mouth) and the end (closed mouth) of syllable "AUM"[115][116]

A-un

See also: Om mani padme hum

The term A-un (阿吽) is the transliteration in Japanese of the two syllables "a" and "hūṃ", written in Devanagari as अहूँ. In Japanese, it is often conflated with the syllable Om. The original Sanskrit term is composed of two letters, the first (अ) and the last (ह) letters of the Devanagari abugida, with diacritics (including anusvara) on the latter indicating the "-ūṃ" of "hūṃ". Together, they symbolically represent the beginning and the end of all things.[117] In Japanese Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.[118] This is comparable to Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, similarly adopted by Christianity to symbolise Christ as the beginning and end of all.

The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as "a-un breathing" (阿吽の呼吸, a-un no kokyū) or "a-un relationship" (阿吽の仲, a-un no naka), indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.

Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogs

Main articles: Niō and Komainu

The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the Niō (仁王) and the komainu (狛犬).[117] One (usually on the right) has an open mouth regarded by Buddhists as symbolically speaking the "A" syllable; the other (usually on the left) has a closed mouth, symbolically speaking the "Un" syllable. The two together are regarded as saying "A-un". The general name for statues with an open mouth is agyō (阿形, lit. "a" shape), that for those with a closed mouth ungyō (吽形, lit. "'un' shape").[117]

Niō statues in Japan, and their equivalent in East Asia, appear in pairs in front of Buddhist temple gates and stupas, in the form of two fierce looking guardian kings (Vajrapani).[115][116]

Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (Agyō), the other closed (Ungyō).[119][120][121]

Some a-un pairs
  • An ungyō komainu
    An ungyō komainu
  • An agyō komainu
    An agyō komainu
  • Ungyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
    Ungyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
  • Agyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji
    Agyō Niō at the Central Gate of Hōryū-ji

Sikhism

Main article: Ik Onkar
Ik Onkar of Sikhism

Ik Onkar (Punjabi: ਇੱਕ ਓਅੰਕਾਰ; iconically represented as ੴ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture.[122] Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om ";[123] [L] these words are a statement that there is "one God",[124] understood to refer to the "absolute monotheistic unity of God"[122] and implying "singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence".[125][M]

According to Pashaura Singh, Onkar is used frequently as invocation in Sikh scripture; it is the foundational word (shabad), the seed of Sikh scripture, and the basis of the "whole creation of time and space".[126]

Ik Onkar is a significant name of God in the Guru Granth Sahib and Gurbani, states Kohli, and occurs as "Aum" in the Upanishads and where it is understood as the abstract representation of three worlds (Trailokya) of creation.[127][N] According to Wazir Singh, Onkar is a "variation of Om (Aum) of the ancient Indian scriptures (with a change in its orthography), implying the unifying seed-force that evolves as the universe".[128] Guru Nanak wrote a poem entitled Onkar in which, states Doniger, he "attributed the origin and sense of speech to the Divinity, who is thus the Om-maker".[122]

Onkar ('the Primal Sound') created Brahma, Onkar fashioned the consciousness,
From Onkar came mountains and ages, Onkar produced the Vedas,
By the grace of Onkar, people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of Onkar, they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.

— Ramakali Dakkhani, Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh[126]

"Onkar" is the primordial sound/word. It is the soundless word (anahat naad or anahad naad). It is both the source as well as manifestation of the source. "Onkar" pervades the entire creation. The soundless sound is present everywhere and inside everything including us. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is manifested form of this "Onkar". Hence, the Guru Granth Sahib is called "Shabad Guru". Shabad (word) is Guru and Guru itself is the Primordial Sound "Onkar" (God).[citation needed]

Thelema

For both symbolic and numerological reasons, Aleister Crowley adapted aum into a Thelemic magical formula, AUMGN, adding a silent 'g' (as in the word 'gnosis') and a nasal 'n' to the m to form the compound letter 'MGN'; the 'g' makes explicit the silence previously only implied by the terminal 'm' while the 'n' indicates nasal vocalisation connoting the breath of life and together they connote knowledge and generation. Together these letters, MGN, have a numerological value of 93, a number with polysemic significance in Thelema. Om appears in this extended form throughout Crowley's magical and philosophical writings, notably appearing in the Gnostic Mass. Crowley discusses its symbolism briefly in section F of Liber Samekh and in detail in chapter 7 of Magick (Book 4).[129][130][131][132]

Modern reception

The Brahmic script Om-ligature has become widely recognized in Western counterculture since the 1960s, mostly in its standard Devanagari form (ॐ), but the Tibetan Om (ༀ) has also gained limited currency in popular culture.[133]

In meditation

Further information: Pranava yoga

Meditating and chanting of Om can be done by first concentrating on a picture of Om and then effortlessly mentally chanting the mantra. Meditating and mental chanting have been said[by whom?] to improve the physiological state of the person by increasing alertness and sensory sensitivity.[134][unreliable source?]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ As used in the Stele of Sulaiman, dated to 1348.
  2. ^ Used for example in Urdu and Sindhi, although speakers of these languages may also use Brahmic representation such as Devanagari.
  3. ^ As used in the Stele of Sulaiman, dated to 1348.
  1. ^ Praṇava Upaniṣad in Gopatha Brāhmaṇa 1.1.26 and Uṇādisūtra 1.141/1.142
  2. ^ see Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.95
  3. ^ see Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad 8-12, composed in Classical Sanskrit, which describes Om as having three mātras corresponding to the three letters a-u-m
  4. ^ in the early 19th-century manuscript above Om is written अउ३म् with "अउ" as ligature as in ॐ without chandrabindu
  5. ^ later called Shiva
  6. ^ this is a reference to the three major Vedic fire rituals
  7. ^ this is a reference to the three major Vedas
  8. ^ this is a reference to the three worlds of the Vedas
  9. ^ Sanskrit original, quote: द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चामूर्तं च । अथ यन्मूर्तं तदसत्यम् यदमूर्तं तत्सत्यम् तद्ब्रह्म तज्ज्योतिः यज्ज्योतिः स आदित्यः स वा एष ओमित्येतदात्माभवत्[72]
  10. ^ Hume translates this as "imperishable Aksara", Max Muller translates it as "indestructible Brahman"; see: Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2, Mundaka Upanishad, Oxford University Press, page 36 and Robert Hume, "Thirteen Principal Upanishads" [1], page 367
  11. ^ The Sanskrit word used is Vyadh, which means both "penetrate" and "know"; Robert Hume uses penetrate, but mentions the second meaning; see: Robert Hume, Mundaka Upanishad, Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, page 372 with footnote 1
  12. ^ Quote: "While Ek literally means One, Onkar is the equivalent of the Hindu "Om" (Aum), the one syllable sound representing the holy trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the God in His entirety."[123]
  13. ^ Quote: "the 'a,' 'u,' and 'm' of aum have also been explained as signifying the three principles of creation, sustenance and annihilation. ... aumkār in relation to existence implies plurality, ... but its substitute Ik Onkar definitely implies singularity in spite of the seeming multiplicity of existence. ..."[125]
  14. ^ Quote: "Ik Aumkara is a significant name in Guru Granth Sahib and appears in the very beginning of Mul Mantra. It occurs as Aum in the Upanishads and in Gurbani, the Onam Akshara (the letter Aum) has been considered as the abstract of three worlds (p. 930). According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad "Aum" connotes both the transcendent and immanent Brahman."[127]

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Bibliography

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