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For other uses, see Genghis Khan (disambiguation)

**Genghis Khan**

Birth name:	Temüjin Borjigin
Family name:	Borjigin
Title:	Khan of Mongol Empire
Birth:	c. 1162
Place of birth:	Hentiy, Mongolia
Death:	August 18, 1227
Dates of reign:	1206 –August 18, 1227
Succeeded by:	Ögedei Khan
Marriage:	Börte Ujin, Kulan, Yisugen, Yisui, many others
Children:	Borjigin Jochi, son Borjigin Chagatai, son Borjigin Ögedei, son Borjigin Tolui, son Others

Genghis Khan (c. 1162^[1]–August 18, 1227) (Cyrillic: Чингис Хаан, Чингис хан), (also spelled as Cengiz Han in Turkic ,Chinggis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, etc.), (pronunciation^ⓘ ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ), born with the name Temüjin (Тэмүүжин), was a world-renowned 13th century Mongol military leader and a conqueror known largely for his success, founding the Mongol Nation and his aggressive military campaigns. He was the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous empire, from 1206 until his death in Autumn 1227.

Before he took his title, Temüjin united the Turkic-Mongol tribes and Central Asian confederations for more than 20 years, unified the disparate tribes of Mongolia, and laying the groundwork for the Mongol nation. Under the title "Genghis Khan", he waged two major successful campaigns against Western Xia in northern China and Khwarezmid Empire in Persia, and founded the Mongol dynasty (as well as those of the successor Khanates) that persisted for several centuries after his death through his extended family.

In modern Mongolia, Genghis Khan is regarded as the father of the nation for his role in uniting the Mongol confederations and therefore providing a common identity to what had previously been a territory of nomadic tribes sharing only a language and culture. Equally well regarded are his contributions in directing the effort to create a writing system for the Mongolian language, which had not previously had one, based on existing Uighur script.

Birth and early life

Little is known about Temüjin's early life, and the few sources providing insight into this period do not agree on many basic facts. He was most likely born around 1162^[2] in Hentiy, Mongolia. His birthplace was most likely the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun. He was the eldest son of Yesükhei, a minor tribal chief of the Kiyad and a vassal (a nöker) of Ong Khan of the Kerait tribe^[3]. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and his mother, Hoelun, was of the Olkhunut tribe of the Mongol confederation.

Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the marriageable age of 12. Shortly thereafter, his father was poisoned by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished nomads, surviving primarily on wild fruits, marmots and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. Despite being severely reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing. In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by his former tribe, the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him around this time. Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin.

Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe around the age of 16. She was later kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe, and Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Wang Khan of the Kerait tribe. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born roughly nine months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about the child's paternity - although Genghis fiercely contended that Jochi was his son. Temüjin became blood brother (anda) with Jamuka and thus the two made a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity.

Family

Genghis was related through his father to Qabul Khan, Ambaghai and Qutula Khan who had headed the Mongol confederation under Jin Dynasty patronage until the Jin switched support to the Tatars in 1161 and destroyed Qutula Khan. Genghis' father, Yesugei, khan of the Borjigin, and nephew to Ambaghai and Qutula Khan, emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars, in turn, grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin moved their support from the Tatars to the Kerait.

Temüjin had three brothers, Khasar (or Qasar), Khajiun, and Temüge, and one sister, Temülen (or Temulin), as well as two half-brothers, Bekhter and Belgutei. Genghis Khan's empress and first wife was Borte; she bore him four "legitimate" sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (?—1241), Ögedei (?—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, and records on what daughters he may have had are scarce. The paternity of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, remains unclear to this day, and was a serious point of contention in his lifetime, despite being a forbidden subject by order of the Khan himself. Soon after Borte's marriage to Temüjin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits and reportedly given to one of their men as a wife. Though she was rescued, she gave birth to Jochi nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage.

This uncertainty over Jochi's true father was voiced most strongly by Chagatai, who, according to The Secret History of the Mongols, declared before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Khagan (i.e., as Genghis Khan's successor). In response to this tension^[4], it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor and who ruled as Khagan after Genghis Khan's death, even though Jochi had died in 1226, before his father^[5]. Genghis Khan himself never doubted Jochi's lineage claiming he was his first son.

Uniting the Central Asian confederations

File:Premongol copy.png

Eurasia in c. 1200. including Naimans, Merkits, Uighurs, Mongols, and Keraits

Major confederations at the time of Temujin's unification were:

Naimans (a.k.a. Naiman Mongols)
Merkits
Uighurs
Tatars
Mongols
Keraits

The main opponent of the Mongols by around c. 1100 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north and the Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temüjin and his advisors had united together the Mongol confederation only. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following of his code of laws, the Yasa code, he promised civilians and fighters wealth from future possible battle. However the exact words of the Yasa are unknown because it was never found.

Temüjin began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother). Temüjin's ally was Toghrul, Khan of the Kerait and better known by the Chinese title Wang Khan which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. Temüjin was adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against the Tatars (1202) and other various tribes. This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temüjin. Temüjin learnt of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated him and his loyalists. Toghrul possibly feared the increasing power of Temüjin among the Mongol populace and adopted an obstinate attitude towards collaboration. One of the ruptures later between Toghrul and Temüjin was the refusal of Toghrul to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, which signified disrespect in the Mongol culture. This act probably led to the split and the prelude of the war between both factions. Toghrul allied himself with Jamuka, Temüjin's blood brother or anda, and when the confrontation took place, the internal divisions between Toghrul and Jamuka, as well as the desertion of many clans that fought on their side to the cause of Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. This paved the way for the fall and extinction of the Kerait tribe.

The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans, with whom Jamuka and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a Khuriltai elected Jamuka as Gur Khan, universal ruler, a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamuka's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamuka formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamuka, including Qubilaiand Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamuka was finally captured in 1206 after several shepherds kidnapped and turned him over to Temüjin.

Genghis Khan

Temüjin generously offered his friendship again to Jamuka and asked him to turn to his side. Jamuka refused and asked for a noble death, which was granted. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai (or Subedei), a member of Temüjin's personal guard who would later become one of the greatest commanders in the service of the Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains. All these confederations were united and became the Mongols and with the Yassa code, became the Mongol Empire.

From Temüjin to Genghis Khan

Temüjin managed to unite the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Uighurs, Keraits, Tatars and disparate other smaller tribes under his rule 1206, using his charisma, hard effort and strong will. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (collectivelly refered as such), who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship between each other and by Chinese dynasties and empires. At a Kurultai, a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the title Genghis Khan. The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father. Therefore this unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes.

(See below for possible title meaning)

Military campaigns

First war with Western Xia

The Mongol federation created by Temüjin in 1206 was bordered to the south by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, who then ruled North China, and to the west by the Xia. Temüjin organized his people and his state to prepare for future battle with the Western Xia that was closer to the Mongol border.

As well, the Jurchen had grown uncomfortable with the newly-unified Mongols for the first time. It may be that some trade routes ran through Mongol territory, and they might have feared the Mongols eventually would restrict the supply of goods coming from the Silk Road. On the other hand, Genghis Khan also was eager to take revenge against the Jurchen for their long subjugation of the Mongols. For example, the Jurchen were known to stir up conflicts between Mongol tribes and had even executed some Mongol Khans.

Eventually, Genghis Khan led his army against Western Xia and conquered it, despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities. By 1209, the Tangut emperor acknowledged Genghis as overlord.

In 1211, Genghis set about bringing the Nuzhen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion. The Mongol army crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Jin Emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng.

Conquest of the Kara-Khitan Khanate

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies who had decided to side with Genghis. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Tangut and the Rurzhen. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow").

An internal revolt against Kuchlug was incited by Mongol agents, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country; Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled, but was hunted down by Jebe and executed, and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis.

By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and it adjoined Khwarezmia, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

Invasion of Khwarezmid Empire

After the defeat of the Kara-Khitais, the extensive Mongol Empire had a border with the Muslim state of Khwarezmia, governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial partner, and sent a 500-man caravan to officially establish trade ties with Khwarezmia. However Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravan and murder of its members. Ghenghis Khan then sent a second group of ambassadors to meet the Shah himself. The shah had all the men shaved and all but one beheaded before sending them back to Genghis Khan. This was seen as an attack on Khan himself.

This led Genghis Khan to attack the Khwarezmian Empire. They crossed the Tienshan mountians, coming into the shah's empire. Tired and exhausted from the journey, the Mongols still won their first victory against the Khwarezmia army.

After compiling information from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the Northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the Southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.

The Shah's army were split by diverse internal disquisitions, and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities -- this fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats. The Shah's fearful attitude towards the Mongol army also did not help his army, and Genghis Khan and his generals succeeded in destroying Khwarizm.

The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Once he had conquered the city, Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for the insult. According to stories, Khan diverted a river of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II of Khwarezm's birthplace, erasing it off the map. The Mongols' conquest of the capital was nothing short of brutal. The bodies of citizens and soldiers filled the trenches surrounding the city, allowing the Mongols to enter. They raped, pillaged and plundered homes and temples.

In the end, the Shah fled rather than surrender. Geghis Khan charged Subatai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.

By 1220 the Khwarezmid Empire was eradicated. After Samarkand fell, Bujara became the capital of Jorezm, while two Mongol generals advanced on other cities to the north and the south. Jorezm, the heir of Shah Jalal Al-Din and a brilliant strategist who was supported enough by the town, battled the Mongols several times with his father's armies. However, internal disputes once again split his forces apart, and Jorezm was forced to flee Bujara after a devastating defeat.

Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China. The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his generals Jebe and Subutai, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions ultimately added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire.

The defeat of the Kievan Rus

While Genghis gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia, a detached force of 20,000 troops, commanded by Jebe and Subutai, pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed Georgian crusaders, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Kaffa in Crimea, and stayed the winter near the Black Sea.

Heading home, Mongols assaulted the Kipchaks and were intercepted by the allied troops of Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev, along with about 80,000 Kievan Rus'. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, the Mongols defeated the larger Kievan force, capturing and killing six princes, including Mstislav of Kiev.

Genghis Khan recalled the forces back to the Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. This famous cavalry expedition of Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating every single army in their path, remains unparalleled to this day.

Second war with Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

The Mongol Empire campaigned six times against the Tanguts (1202, 1207, 1209-1210, 1211-1213, 1214-1219 and 1225-1226). The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire. While Genghis was busy with the campaign in Persia against the Khwarezmid Empire, Tangut and Jin formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, Genghis prepared for the last war against the Tanguts and their alliance.

In 1226, Genghis began to attack the Tanguts. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou, and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Tangut armies were soundly defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

In 1227, Genghis attacked the Tangut capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.

The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, beginning in 1038. Tired of the constant betrayal of Tanguts, Genghis executed the emperor and his family. By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death.

Mongol Empire

Politics and economics

The Mongol Empire was governed by civilian and military code, called the Yassa code.

Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of biological and cultural ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead absorbing solely based on meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was therefore one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, Arabs, and others.

There were to some degree ideals such as meritocracy among the Mongols and allied nomadic people in military and civilian life. There were tax exemptions for intellectuals like teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because it was generally indifferent to belief. The exception was when religious groups challenged the state. Those Ismaili Muslims that resisted the Mongols were exterminated.

The Mongol Empire linked together the previously fractured Silk Road states under one system and became somewhat open to trade and cultural exchange. However, the Mongol conquests did lead to a collapse of many of the ancient trading cities of Central Asia that resisted invasion. Taxes were also heavy and conquered people were used as forced labor in those regions.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women [6]; however, there is no contemporary evidence of this or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Modern scholars refer to a theoretical policy of encouraging trade and communication as the concept of Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace). Along the same lines, he practiced or possibly made use of diplomatic immunity in greater degree with other nations.

Military

Genghis Khan made advances in military disciplines, such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military autonomy, and tactics.

Genghis Khan built a highly efficient army with remarkable discipline, dedication, loyalty and military intelligence compared to their enemies. More specifically, the Mongol armies were known for their strict discipline, speed, good weapons, the mobility when mounted on their fast and tough horses and good intelligence compared to armies of sedentary population. In contrast, almost all Mongols grew up on horses. He refused to divide his troops into different ethnic units, instead creating a sense of unity, and he punished even small infractions against discipline severely. He also divided his armies into a number of smaller groups based on the decimal system, taking advantage of the superb mobility of his mounted archers to attack their enemies on several fronts simultaneously. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals and gave them free rein in battles and wars. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command over Mongol forces over Jin while Genghis Khan was fighting in central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to use any means to defeat the Russians. Fear along with speed were used in greater degree to intimidate and diminish the morales of their opponents to convince other cities and rulers to surrender without a fight. Mongol military also was successful in siege warfare and cutting resources for cities and towns (e.g. diverting rivers).

Another important aspect in the military organization of Genghis Khan is the communications and supply route or Yam, to which he himself dedicated a special attention.

Division of the Empire into Khanates

Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and grandsons into several Khanates. These Khanates were sub territories and the Khans of these Khanates were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei Khan.

Following are the Khanates in the way in which Genghis Khan assigned after his death:

Empire of the Great Khan (China) - Great Khan Ögedei Khan
Il-Khanate - Hulegu Khan
Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakhorum) - Tolui Khan
Chagadai Khanate - Chagatai Khan
Blue Horde and White Horde (combined into the Golden Horde) - Batu Khan and Orda Khan

After Genghis Khan

The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227 — indeed, it was under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan that the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would last until 1279 and that would conclude with the Mongols' successful conquest of China. Then, in the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu Khan started the Mongol invasion of Europe and Russia, reducing most of its principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Central Europe. In 1241 Mongols under Subutai and Batu Khan defeated the last Polish-German and Hungarian armies at the Battle of Legnica and the Battle of Mohi. During the 1250s, Genghis's grandson Hulegu Khan, operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and destroyed the cult of the Assassins, moving into Palestine towards Egypt and finally desicevely beaten in Battle of Ayn Jalut. Mongol armies attempted two unsuccessful invasions of Japan and three unsuccessful invasions of modern day Vietnam.

Khans of the Mongol Empire

Death and burial

During his last campaign with the Tangut Empire during which Genghis Khan was fighting with the Khwarezmid Empire, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical fatigue; some contemporary observers cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts. There are persistent folktales that a Tangut princess, to avenge her people and prevent her rape, castrated him with a hidden knife and that he never recovered.

It is alleged that Genghis asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path, to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. On October 6, 2004, "Genghis Khan's palace" was allegedly discovered, and that may make it possible to find his burial site. Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (The same manner of burial of Sumerian folk hero Gilgamesh.) Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, over which trees were then planted. The burial site remains undiscovered.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men. 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons, and Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. This was done because by tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Four of his sons, beside Tolui, received armies of 4000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3000 men each.

Genghis Khan's personality

It is not entirely clear what Genghis Khan's personality was truly like, but his personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young, and in unifying the Mongol nation. Genghis appeared to fully embrace the Mongol people's nomadic way of life, and did not try to change their customs or beliefs. As he aged, he seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol Empire, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the Yasa teachings, and to refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure.

He seemed to value honesty and loyalty highly from his subjects. Genghis Khan put a lot of trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subudei and gave them free rein in battles and allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaign on their own very far away from the Mongol Empire capital Kharakhorum. Yet traditional accounts of his life are marked by a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuka and Wang Khan, problems with the most important Shaman and at the end of his life he was said to have been considering an attack against his son Jochi. There is little reason to believe all of these were genuine. This may suggest a degree of paranoia and carefulness in Genghis Khan's personality based on his earlier experiences. He seem to have very little tolerance for resistance against his rule and this rule persisted later on for later rulers like Ogedei Khan, Kublai Khan, etc. behaving the same way, which some people attribute to the fierce and harsh climates in Central Asian steppes.

His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals. He seemed to be a quick study, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered. The Secret History makes it clear he was not physically courageous and even says he was afraid of dogs. Many stories and legends claim that Genghis Khan always was in the front in battles but these may not be historically accurate.

The chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani left a description of Genghis Khan, written when the Khan was in his later years:

[Genghis Khan was] a man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat's eyes, possessed of dedicated energy, discernment, genius, and understanding, awe-striking, a butcher, just, resolute, an overthrower of enemies, intrepid, sanguinary, and cruel.

Perhaps a rare insight into Genghis Khan's perspective of himself was recorded in a letter to the Taoist monk Ch'ang Ch'un. The letter was presumably not written by Genghis Khan himself, as tradition states that he was illiterate, but rather, written by a Chinese person at a later point and recorded as his in the Chinese histories. A passage from the letter:

Heaven has abandoned China owing to its haughtiness and extravagant luxury. But I, living in the northern wilderness, have not inordinate passions. I hate luxury and exercise moderation. I have only one coat and one food. I eat the same food and am dressed in the same tatters as my humble herdsmen. I consider the people my children, and take an interest in talented men as if they were my brothers. We always agree in our principles, and we are always united by mutual affection. At military exercises I am always in front, and in time of battle am never behind. In the space of seven years I have succeeded in accomplishing a great work, and uniting the whole world in one empire. (Bretschneider)

Perceptions of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan as a hero

Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent, but historians and scientists are looking into positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests. Genghis Khan, successor Khans and Mongols are credited to bringing the Silk Route under one cohesive political environment. Theoretically this allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia by expanding the horizon of all three areas. More recent sometimes historians point out that Genghis Khan instituted some levels of meritocracy and was, by Christian or Islamic standards, quite tolerant of many religions under his rule. There were some that later claimed descent from Genghis Khan like Timur and therefore Babur that were successful conquerors in their own right.

The Chinese have mixed feelings towards Genghis: although his successors completely conquered China (and arguably in the course became Chinese), there have been much artwork and literature praising him as a "great military" leader. Genghis Khan himself was neither Chinese nor Han Chinese, but he and his successors did fully unite China, eventually assimilating with the Chinese, leaving a significant and lasting imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent Chinese generations.

Following are the formal recognitions of Genghis Khan in publications:

Genghis Khan is ranked #29 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential people in history.
An article that appeared in the Washington Post on December 31, 1995 selected Genghis Khan as "Man of the Millenium".
Genghis Khan was nominated for the "Top 10 Cultural Legends of the Millennium" in 1998 by Dr G. Ab Arwel, voted by the five Judges, Prof. D Owain, Mr G Parry OBE, Dr. C Campbell of Oxford University, and Mr S Evans and Sir B. Parry of the International Museum of Culture, Luxembourg.
National Geographic's 50 Most Important Political Leaders of All Time.

In Mongolia

Genghis Khan is presently considered a historic and very significant (military) leader in Mongolian history in general, specifically credited for paving the way for the nation of Mongolia, which contradicts greater degree with the understanding of Genghis Khan and the Mongol conquests around the world. There is concern about the negative bias and exaggeration in historical records about him, which emphasize his assaults, barbarism, and butchery while underplaying his positives such as founding the Mongol nation. There is a feeling that his military and administrative genius is undervalued, as is his undisputed status as the conqueror of one of the largest empires in history. While his killing and conquests are not particularly praised, his founding of the Mongol nation is one of his most historical achievements that continues until today. He is also greatly respected for his respect for Mongol tradition.

In the early 1990s, when Mongolia separated from communism and the Russian bloc, Genghis became a symbol of the free nation's identity, and there are many products, addresses and places named after him. Some Mongols call Mongolia, "Genghis Khan's Mongolia" or "Genghis' nation." For example the main international airport, Chinggis Khaan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is named after him. He is also thought of as a man that gave certainty when there was uncertainty at the time.

Consequences of Mongol conquest

There are many differing views on the amount of destruction Genghis Khan and his armies caused. The peoples who suffered the most during Genghis Khan's conquests, like the Persians and the Chinese, usually stress the negative aspects of the conquest and some modern scholars argue that their historians exaggerate the numbers of deaths.

Casualties

Genghis Khan generally preferred to offer opponents the chance to submit to his rule without a fight and become vassal by sending messengers, but was merciless if he encountered any resistance. In such cases he would not give an alternative and would result in massive collective punishment for the resisting cities and its destruction (e.g. Battle of Baghdad), leaving only the skilled engineers, artists, spies and any troops who submitted and incorporating them in the Mongol system to expand their manpower, while absorbing their technology and skill as needed. There also were instances of mass slaughters even where there was no resistance, especially in Northern China where the vast majority of the population had long histories of accepting nomadic rulers. Genghis Khan's conquests were widely characterized by wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale and radical changes in the demographics of Asia by many ancient sources. For example, over much of Central Asia Indo-European Persian-speakers were replaced by Turkic speakers. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid al-Din, the Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population during 13th and 14th century. For instance, before the Mongol invasion, a unified China had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. ^{[citation needed]} How many of these deaths were attributable directly to Genghis Khan and his forces is unclear as are the highly generalized numbers themselves. Some sources are giving possible evidence that Genghis Khan possibly have exaggerated the number of people who got killed to scare his possible opponents [7].

On property and cultural treasures

His campaigns in Northern China, Central Asia and the Middle East caused massive property destruction for those that resisted his invasion, however there are no exact factual numbers available at this time. For example, the cities of Ray and Tus, the two largest and most populous cities in Iran at the time, both centers of literature, culture, trade and commerce, were completely destroyed by order of Genghis Khan. Nishapur, Merv, Baghdad and Samarkand suffered similar destruction. There is a noticable lack of Chinese literature that has survived from the Jin Dynasty due to the Mongol conquests.

Modern descendants

The authors of a paper published in 2003 identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men (or about 0.5% of the men in the world if extrapolated) in a large region of Asia stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. The paper asserts that the pattern of variation within the lineage suggested that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. This indicates a spread too rapid to have occurred by chance, and must therefore be the result of selection. The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendents of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread not through any biological advantage, but through social selection resulting from their behavior.^[8] The modern-day descendants of the Mughal royal family of India are also descendants of Genghis Khan (The Emperor Babur was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother).

Name and title

There are many theories for the origins of Temüjin's title; this uncertainty is fueled by the fact that later members of the Mongol Empire associated the name with the Mongol word for strength, "ching", though this does not fit the etymology. One theory about the etymology suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "ocean," "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggiz by the Mongols. However it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggiz they could have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in mediaeval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". Chingis Khan is the spelling used by the modern Republic of Mongolia. [9] See Lister and Ratchnevsky, referenced below, for further reading.

The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the Mongolian word temur, meaning iron. This name would imply skill as a blacksmith, and like any nomad of the time he was familiar, at least partially, with the working of iron and steel for horse-shoeing and weaponry. More likely, as there exists no evidence that has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family known for blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temulin and Temuge, which are derived from the same root word. According to legend, Temüjin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe which his father, Yesükhei, had recently defeated.

Short timeline

c. 1155-1167 - Temüjin born in Hentiy, Mongolia.
c. 1171 - Temüjin's father Yesükhei poisoned by the Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute
c. 1184 - Temüjin's wife Borte kidnapped by Merkits; calls on blood brother Jamuka and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
c. 1185 - First son Jochi born, leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born soon after Borte's rescue from the Merkits.
1190' - Temüjin unites the Mongol tribes, becomes leader, and devises code of law Yassa.
1201 - Wins victory over Jamuka's Jadarans.
1202 - Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
1203 - Wins victory over Wang Khan's Keraits.
1204 - Wins victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
1206 - Temüjin given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
1207-1210 - Genghis leads operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submits to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uighurs also submit peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
1211 - After Khuriltai, Genghis leads his armies against the Jin Dynasty that ruled northern China.
1219-1222 - Conquers Khwarezmid Empire.
1226 - Starts the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, being the second battle with the Western Xia.
1227 - Genghis Khan dies leading fight against Western Xia. How he died is uncertain, although legend states he was thrown off his horse in the battle, and contracted a deadly fever soon after.

Notes

^ Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (元史, "History of the Yuan dynasty", not to be confused with the era name of the Han dynasty), records his year of birth as 1162. However, the Record of Successive Generations of Buddha (Lidai Fozu Tongzai) records that Genghis Khan died at the age of 60. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father only at the age of 30, and would imply that at the ripe age of 72 he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts. Also, according to the Altan Tobci, Genghis Khan's sister, Temulin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temulin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not and had never known their ages.
^ Morgan, David, The Mongols (Peoples of Europe), 1990, p.58.
^ Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy, 1991, p. 126.
^ Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by order of Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench, which Jochi attempted to protect from destruction as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief, and concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned, however as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable. (Ratchnevsky, p. 136-7)
^ Zerjal et. al, The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols, American Journal of Human Genetics, 2003.

External links

Genghis Khan and the Mongols
Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
Coverage of Temüjin's Earlier Years
Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
Mongol Arms
Information about Mongolia - A Full section about Mongolian History and Genghis Khan and more than 100 pictures of a Genghis's Movie
LeaderValues
‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni (A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, rashid-ad-din-juwayni ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni)
iExplore.com: The search for the missing tomb of Genghis Khan
Genealogy of Genghis Khan's Ancestors from the "Generation Letter".

References

Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (New York : Crown, 2004) ISBN 0609610627.
Kennedy, Hugh. Mongols, Huns & Vikings (London : Cassell, 2002) ISBN 0304352926.
"Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Retrieved June 30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
Man, John. Genghis Khan : Life, Death and Resurrection (London; New York : Bantam Press, 2004) ISBN 0593050444.
Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan (Lanham, Md. : Cooper Square Press, 2000 [c1969]) ISBN 0815410522.
"Mongol Arms". Mongol Arms. Retrieved June 24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
Zerjal, Tatiana, with Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva GerelsaiGenghis Khan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols", in The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721 (2003).
Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamuqa, Toghrul, and Temüjin
Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken] (Oxford, UK ; Cambridge, Mass., USA : B. Blackwell, 1992, c1991) tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining, ISBN 0631167854.
Bretschneider, Emilii. Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. ISBN 8121510031.
Le Monde Diplomatique: "The destruction began with the genocide of the Tangut people of the Western Xia empire in northwest China. The Mongols razed many prosperous towns and reduced provinces to arid steppes, killing as they passed through: eventually they slaughtered some 600,000 Tanguts."[3]
History of the Mongol Conquests, JJ Saunders, U. Pennsylvania Press, 1972: "The cold and deliberate genocide practiced by the Mongols, which has no parallel save that of the ancient Assyrians and the modern Nazis, perhaps arose from mixed motives of military advantage and superstitious fears..." From the really cool Google Print feature.
Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review edited by Israel W Charney, 1994, lists the invasion of Afghanistan by Genghis as a genocide
Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century by Benjamin A Valentino, gives the Mongols as one of the earliest examples
Zerjal, Xue, Bertolle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics (72): –.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Primary sources

Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226-1283. Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā. English] (Seattle : UWashington Press, 1997) tr. John Andrew Boyle, ISBN 0295976543.
The Secret History of the Mongols (Leiden; Boston : Brill, 2004) tr. Igor De Rachewiltz, Brill's Inner Asian Library. v.7, ISBN 9004131590.

A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World [Jami al-Tawarikh] (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1995) The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII, ed. Sheila S. Blair, ISBN 019727627X.
Tabib, Rashid al-Din. The Successors of Genghis Khan (New York : Columbia University Press, 1971) tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle, [extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh], UNESCO collection of representative works: Persian heritage series, ISBN 0231033516.

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 Little is known about Temüjin's early life, and the few sources providing insight into this period do not agree on many basic facts. He was most likely born around [[1162]]{{ref|birth}} in [[Hentiy aymag|Hentiy]], [[Mongolia]]. His birthplace was most likely the mountainous area of [[Burhan Haldun]]. He was the eldest son of [[Yesugay Ba'atur|Yesükhei]], a minor tribal chief of the [[Kiyad]] and a [[vassal]] (a [[nöker]]) of [[Ong Khan]] of the [[Kerait]] tribe{{ref|vassal}}. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and his mother, [[Hoelun]], was of the [[Olkhunut]] tribe of the [[Mongol]] confederation.
-Based on legends, myths, songs, stories, graphic novels, and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the [[marriageable]] age of 12. Shortly thereafter, his father was poisoned by the neighboring [[Tatars]] while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished [[nomad]]s, surviving primarily on wild fruits, [[marmot]]s and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing [[hunting]] spoils.  Despite being severely reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing.  In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by his former [[tribe]], the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for [[alliance]]s with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him around this time. Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin.
+Based on legends and later writers, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father delivered him to his future wife's family when he was only nine. He was supposed to live there until he reached the [[marriageable]] age of 12. Shortly thereafter, his father was poisoned by the neighboring [[Tatars]] while returning home. This gave Temüjin a claim to be the clan's chief, though his clan refused to be led by a boy and soon abandoned him and his family. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of impoverished [[nomad]]s, surviving primarily on wild fruits, [[marmot]]s and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Bekhter over a dispute about sharing [[hunting]] spoils.  Despite being severely reproached by his mother he never expressed any remorse over the killing.  In another incident in 1182, he was captured in a raid by his former [[tribe]], the Ta'yichiut, and held captive. The Ta'yichiut planned on executing Temüjin, but he escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons in survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for [[alliance]]s with others, a lesson which would shape his understanding in his later years. Jelme and Borchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined him around this time. Along with his brothers, they provided the manpower needed for early expansion and diplomacy for Temüjin.
 Temüjin married [[Börte]] of the [[Konkirat]] tribe around the age of 16. She was later kidnapped in a raid by the [[Merkit]] tribe, and Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, [[Jamuka]], and his protector, [[Wang Khan]] of the [[Kerait]] tribe. Börte's first [[child]], [[Jochi]], was born roughly nine months after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions about the child's paternity - although Genghis fiercely contended that Jochi was his son. Temüjin became [[blood brother]] (''anda'') with Jamuka and thus the two made a vow to be faithful to each other for eternity.