Arthur de Gobineau

Arthur de Gobineau

Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (born July 14, 1816 in Ville-d'Avray near Paris, † October 13, 1882 in Turin ) was a French diplomat and writer . He owes his general fame to the experiment on the inequality of the human races ( Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines , 1853–1855). That is why he is considered to be one of the founders of racist thinking. He was also the author of late Romantic poems, several polemical essays and the author of historical and philological works on ancient Persia .

life and work

ancestry

Arthur de Gobineau's family were members of the Noblesse de robe and originally came from Bordeaux . Both his great-grandfather and his grandfather held offices in the sovereign court of Guyenne (former administrative district in Aquitaine ) and in the Parliament of Bordeaux. His father, Louis de Gobineau, who was aiming for a military career, jeopardized it during his time as a cadet when he sympathized with legitimist ideas during the First Empire . After his involvement in Jules de Polignac's escape in 1813, he was arrested and taken to the Sainte-Pélagie prison, which he was only able to leave after the Restoration (1814). During the reign of the Hundred Days he accompanied the king to Brussels and was appointed infantry captain of the Royal Guard on his return.

Childhood and Adolescence (1816–1835)

Inzlinger moated castle . Gobineau lived here with his mother from September to December 1830.

Arthur, who was a delicate and nervous child, suffered from the discord that existed between his parents and from the unstable family life. The father's post meant his frequent absence, as he was involved in the French invasion of Spain in 1823 and was then in command of La Seu d'Urgell in Spain from 1823 to 1828. His mother, Anne-Madelaine de Gercy, daughter of the last Director of the Ferme générale of Bordeaux and a Creole from Saint-Domingue , led a very independent life and lived in the same household with the tutor of Arthur and his sister Caroline, Charles Sotin de La Coindière. After she had committed several frauds, she fled to Inzlingen in Baden in the summer of 1830 . An extradition application submitted by the French judiciary led the family to Biel in Switzerland in December 1830 , where Arthur attended grammar school. There he perfected his German and was apparently introduced to Persian. The arrival of Polish emigrants in Switzerland who had been defeated during the November uprising of 1830/1831 opened up new opportunities for Arthur's mother and she decided to leave for Poland at the end of 1832 . Arthur was therefore sent to his father who, because of his antipathy towards the July monarchy , had been retired in 1831 and settled in Lorient . From 1833 to 1835 Arthur de Gobineau attended the "Collège royal" here because he also wanted to pursue a military career. However, he was expelled from school because of his lack of discipline and his father's legitimist sympathies. At this time he developed his sensitivity for oriental studies , which had become fashionable in the course of the romantic era . The family legend that he was able to translate Firdausi at this young age can be mistrusted. During this time he also planned his wedding to his girlfriend Amélie Laigneau.

Years of training (1835-1840)

After failing the entrance exam to the Saint-Cyr Military School in September 1835 , Arthur changed his plans and now dreamed of a literary career in Paris . Thanks to an uncle on his father's side, Thibaut Joseph, a former friend of Talleyrand , follower of Voltaire , bachelor and bon vivant, he was able to settle there from 1835. Joseph left him an attic room, granted him a modest monthly maintenance payment limited to one year and found him an unpaid civil servant candidate in the "Compagnie française d'Éclairage par le Gaz" during the winter of 1835/1836. Even if Gobineau apparently had no doubts about his talent, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to publish an excerpt from his first poem, “Dilfiza”, in the magazine La Mode .

His situation became precarious when his uncle refused him any further financial support in September 1836. Thanks to his connections to the ultra- royalist publishing industry, he was able to publish several articles, some of which have not yet been identified. Both this work and his worries did not leave him without a trace and discouraged him. He used the following years to study the language and literature of Persia with Étienne Marc Quatremère . This entrusted him with the translation of the history of the Eastern Mongols by Isaac Jacob Schmidt ; this responsibility allowed him to focus more on his own writing ambitions. Thanks to an invitation from Pierre-Antoine Berryer , who opened his new (and short-lived) magazine France et Europe , he published the important article Du mouvement intellectuel de l'Orient (“On the intellectual movement in the Orient”) and then a series in 1838 from popular scientific monographs on Rumi , Hafis , Dschami and Saadi .

Five years after his arrival in Paris, he was not at all satisfied with his life situation: “Paris, this is hell,” he wrote. He had finally broken with his mother, now living in Paris, who slandered him in the salons she attended. Amélie Laigneau's mother refused to marry her daughter to this passionate young man without a job. The protection that Gobineau enjoyed in the intellectual district of Faubourg Saint-Germain in Paris did nothing more than secure a quiet post in the postal administration for him in January 1839. Last but not least, the fragmentation and failure of the legitimist party on the occasion of the elections in 1839 hit him very painfully and confirmed his inclination to misanthropy .

First successes of a polygraph (1840–1849)

As a result, by the beginning of 1840, Gobineau was in many ways a disappointed and injured young man, and it was not long in coming for life to keep its promises. On the one hand, the circle of his relationships increased. With Madame de Serre, widow of Hercule de Serre , former minister under Louis XVIII. , he made the acquaintance of like-minded young people, including the young Hercule de Serre, nephew of the aforementioned, Maxime Du Camp and the painter German von Bohn , who introduced him to Ary Scheffer . Together they founded a club, the Scelti ("The Chosen") or Cousins ​​d'Isis ("Cousins ​​of Isis"); they planned a joint novel, an essay and an Orient magazine, all of which were unsuccessful. On the other hand, he managed to publish an important and much-noticed political article in the Revue des Deux Mondes about the first president of independent Greece , Ioannis Kapodistrias , in which he negated the derivation of modern Greek from ancient Greek , as well as for the Turks and takes a stand against Russia's expansionism in the Orient. Subsequently (and even until after 1848) he wrote regularly articles on domestic and foreign policy for newspapers as diverse as La Quotidienne, L'Union catholique or Revue de Paris, and in 1842 was even appointed editor-in-chief of the Unité . Between 1848 and 1849 he founded the Revue provinciale , which was motivated by monarchism and decentralization and which he directed together with Louis de Kergorlay .

His successes allowed him to develop literary projects more freely. From 1842, he published both critical and literary-historical articles on ETA Hoffmann , Edgar Quinet , Alfred de Musset , Théophile Gautier , Heine , Balzac , Stendhal, in particular in Le Commerce . With a critical series of articles about contemporary reviewers, he annoyed them in the long term, especially Gautier and Jules Janin . In two more theoretical essays, both published in 1845 ("Is a new literature possible?" And "The technical goals of literature"), he rejected the charge of decadence raised against Romanticism by reinforcing modernist and formalist arguments. However, he also tried his hand at so-called decent literature. Two plays ( Les Adieux de Don Juan , published in 1844 by a self-publishing company, and Alexandre de Macédonien , from 1847, were ignored during his lifetime), several short stories ( Le Mariage d'un Prince , 1840; Les Conseils de Rabelais and Scaramouche , both 1843, Mademoiselle Irnois 1847) and four feuilleton novels ( La Prisonnier chanceux 1846, Nicolas Belavoir and Ternove 1847, L'Abbaye de Typhaines 1849) testify to his efforts. Of all these, Mademoiselle Irnois is the only work that, thanks to positive reviews, stood out as "balzacesk" and "naturalistic" and was praised for its good mastery of the techniques of the serial novel .

This period of his life would appear to be wasted if he had not been supported by Tocqueville and thus accelerated his career. After they met in 1843, probably in Charles de Rémusat's salon , Tocqueville, who was impressed by the young man's lively spirit, gave him the task of writing an overview of the moral philosophy of Great Britain and Germany. A long correspondence followed, during which Gobineau was able to contrast his ideas with those of his political opponent. Even so, they maintained a friendship characterized by mutual trust and respect. In June 1849 Tocqueville, who has meanwhile been appointed Foreign Minister in the second cabinet under Odilon Barrot , remembered his protégé and made him his head of cabinet. In October the government was dissolved by President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte and Gobineau was given a new post as Secretary of the French Embassy in Bern - the beginning of his career as a diplomat. He left France in November accompanied by his wife Clémence Monnerot (1816-1911), a Creole from Martinique whom he had married in 1845, and their daughter Diane, born in 1848.

As a diplomat (1849–1877)

Trie Castle , owned by Gobineau from 1857 to 1878

His new post as first secretary of the French embassy in Bern soon bored him (with the exception of a few months in 1851, during which he held the post of Deputy French Minister in the Kingdom of Hanover ), so that he found time to write the first parts of his essay on the Authoring inequality of the races of men , published in 1853. After he was appointed Secretary of the French Mission to the Federal Assembly in 1854 , his works earned him the appreciation of Anton Prokesch von Osten , Austrian delegate and one of the rare loyal friends who have always remained loyal to him.

In December 1854, Gobineau was appointed first secretary of the French embassy to Persia, led by Prosper Bourrée , and saw the passions of his youth overtaken by fate. He wrote the exuberant report Trois Ans en Asie (“Three years in Asia”) about his journey, which took him from Marseille over the sea to Bushehr and with a caravan to Tehran . After he was abandoned by both Bourrée and his wife, who was returning to France to give birth to their second daughter, Christine, he was the only person in charge of the legation. His command of the language and his remarkable adaptation to very exotic living conditions earned him the appreciation of the population and local celebrities. Surrounded by scholars, he took up a study of Persian history and tried to decipher the cuneiform script , for which he developed a system that aroused laughter among connoisseurs (and still does today). Nonetheless, he left the Persian court with no regrets when he was recalled in 1858.

He then remained for a time without a specific occupation, because in January 1860 , in the hope of the post of French Consul General in Tangier , which he aspired to in order to complete his knowledge of the Islamic world , he rejected his nomination as first secretary of the French embassy Beijing back, risking his release. In March of the same year he was appointed as commissioner for Newfoundland sent to the in coordination with two British commissioners fishing areas for cod between the United Kingdom split and France. About that six-month trip that took Gobineau to Saint-Pierre , Sydney (on Cape Breton Island , where he visited the fortress Louisbourg ), Truro and Halifax in Nova Scotia and then across Newfoundland before staying in St. John's , he wrote the remarkable report Voyage a Terre-Neuve and the novella La chasse du caribou . It seems that his mission was crowned with success and was for the benefit of the French fishermen, because a small bay in Newfoundland still bears the name "Anse de Gobineau".

In 1861 he was sent back to Persia, this time as French minister by law. This second stay was of decisive use for his hitherto only sketched work, not only for his cuneiform writing system (which was useless), but also for the Persian theories. His essay on The Religions and Philosophies in Central Asia , published in 1865, always remained a fundamental source for Babism , the development of which he witnessed at close quarters and whose thoughts he actively sympathized with.

After his return to Europe, Gobineau had achieved a certain wealth. During his absence, and thanks to the inherited property of his uncle Thibaut-Joseph, who had died in 1855, his wife acquired the castle of Trie , a former property of the Dukes of Longueville , where even Rousseau stayed in 1767 and 1768. Gobineau kept this property until 1878 and participated in the local politics of Trie from 1860 as a councilor and from 1863 until his resignation in 1870 as mayor. During the period of the Third Republic , in which universal suffrage prevailed, he was elected to the district council in the canton of Chaumont-en-Vexin in 1870.

The nomination of Gobineau as Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Minister of France in the Kingdom of Greece in 1864 was a special honor. This was a demanding post in a country that was still very unstable after the coup d'état two years earlier in which King Otto had been deposed. Here he found the subject of his first political occupation. He had the happiest time of his life in Athens : spoiled by the new King George I , he maintained the capital's most prestigious salon there and made the acquaintance of a young admirer, Robert Bulwer-Lytton , secretary of the English embassy and son of the writer Edward Bulwer- Lytton .

His History of the Persians , the two parts of which were published in 1869, advanced; he went back to poetry and wrote L'Aphroësia ; inspired by the classic sculptures that surrounded him, he exerted himself in sculpture and heard it, despite his mediocre talent, even to his death no longer occurs. He completed a philosophical essay, Mémoire sur diverses manifestations de la vie individuelle , on which he had been working since the end of the essay on the inequality of human races and which he was only able to publish with difficulty in the journal for philosophy and political criticism by Immanuel Hermann Fichte after his correspondent Adelbert von Keller campaigned for him. His stay was loosened up by the banter with the young Zoé and María Dragúomis (daughters of the statesman Nikolaos Dragoumis , sisters of the future Prime Minister Stephanos Dragoumis and aunts of the writer Ion Dragoumis ), with whom he maintained a voluminous correspondence. But his implacability and stubbornness began to put him at a disadvantage: he too openly favored the Turks during the Cretan revolt from 1866 to 1869. Despite the warnings and threats of the French minister, he gradually lost the king's confidence. In May 1868 he had Gustave Flourens arrested and deported, a French revolutionary who had participated in the uprising in Crete . This behavior was the reason for his recall from Athens, which he left in September 1868.

Gobineau had expressed the wish to be sent to Constantinople or at least to the German court; his transfer to Rio de Janeiro , which he entered on March 20, 1869, was therefore a sign of the disgrace into which he had fallen. To his great surprise, he was warmly welcomed there by Emperor Dom Pedro II , who was an enthusiastic reader and admirer and who let him participate in his private life. This young and distant nation, however, had little to offer for his entertainment. The political situation, which was still shaped by the effects of the Triple Alliance War , did not interest him. He despised society (except for Auréa Posno, the young wife of the Dutch consul, to whom he wrote dozens of previously unpublished letters expressing a hypocritical chaste sensuality), was deeply bored despite the friendship of the emperor and went through a depression that In the comic episodes in the letters to the Dragoùmis sisters, it was difficult to hide. A coincidence drew attention to this conflict: in the Rio Opera he attacked a well-known person with a punch after he had bumped into him. The emperor listened benevolently to Gobineau's explanation, expressed concern for his health and gave him early leave. During this difficult period, Gobineau, despite everything, finished his novella on Greece, Akrivie Phrangopoulo , and wrote the novella Adélaïde in a single day, December 16, 1869, which remained unpublished until 1913 but has sometimes been called a masterpiece.

His return to France took place shortly before the Prussian invasion of 1870. As mayor and community / district councilor, he was able to experience them in the front rows and later described them in a very picturesque way. During the siege he went to Paris and stayed there in the Commune , which he observed with great curiosity and with a certain sympathy. He stayed there even after the "Bloody May Week" to secure the favor of the new regime and avoid another assignment in Brazil . Since he probably feared local uprisings in Trie, he managed to get his wife and younger daughter to flee to Copenhagen to live with his older daughter, where the two settled on April 9, 1871 after an eventful trip. After much back and forth, which almost forced him to retirement earned, he was finally in May 1872 Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Sweden appointed. That was his last position, he never became an ambassador . During these years his main works were created: the novel Les Pléiades and the Nouvelles asiatiques . His bitterness over the tensions in his family and certainly his amorous friendship with the Countess de La Tour, wife of the Italian minister in Stockholm, who stayed with him until his death, influenced him in these works.

The wandering misanthrope (1877-1882)

After a vacation, on which Gobineau accompanied Dom Pedro II on his European trip, he retired in March 1877 and left Stockholm and diplomacy. This was the beginning of a restless life that he led until his death, in which he wandered between the castle Chaméane (owned by the Countess de La Tour in Auvergne ), Italy , where he wandered from town to town for what was most comfortable for him Finding a climate and sponsor for his sculptures, as well as traveling around Germany, where he visited friends (including the Richard Wagner family , whom he met in Rome in 1876). He also took various remedies for his nervous diseases , which became an increasingly painful burden for him.

The difficulties increasingly impaired his creative abilities: his sculptures were always mediocre. His historical work in the book L'Histoire d'Ottar-Jarl , in which he tries to trace the entire genealogy of the Gobineau family back to the god Odin , sank into improbability. His newly started articles were just sloppy drafts. His poetry, which had never been outstanding, challenged him in a decisive way: he sacrificed his last efforts to the voluminous poem Amadis , some of which was published posthumously . His increasingly unpleasant character removed him more and more from those close to him, only the most self-confident could still get along with him. When he died, he was finally at odds with his daughters and his wife and had recently broken with Richard Wagner, whose anti-Semitism , misogyny and messianism were unbearable to him. Death suddenly overtook him during one last capricious journey: after surprisingly deciding to escape autumn in the Auvergne, he left Chaméane alone and almost blind, first went to Saint-Germain-des-Fossés , crossed France by train and reached Turin , where he died of a stroke on October 13, 1882 . He had been on his way to the station to take the train to Pisa . He was buried impoverished in the central cemetery in Turin (ampliazone I, arcata 87), where the fascist regime put up a sign in his honor in 1932: Il tempo e gli eventi ne esaltano la figura di presago pensatore (“Time and events increase the Figure of the foreboding thinker ”).

Gobineau's thinking

Gobineau starts from a pessimistic view of the world: man is the evil animal par excellence. An essential basis of his considerations was the biblical chronology of about 6000 years of human history, which he combined with anthropological and physiological views of his time. He assumed a perfect “primordial race” created by God, namely the “Nordic”, “Aryan” or “Germanic race”, to which he assigned two further races that emerged later (the “yellow” and the “black”) . Hierarchically, he considered the white race to precede the yellow and the yellow race of the black. He believed that interracial mixtures were widespread; they always came to the detriment of the higher race. Overall, humanity would therefore be reduced in quality by racial mixing. The original white race was most unadulterated in Scandinavia and in particular in the French aristocracy , while the modern Germans, in Gobineau's opinion, were merely an inferior mixture of Celts and Slavs .

Nonetheless, Gobineau's basic ideas found wide acceptance in Germany. Gobineau admired Richard Wagner and met him several times. Wagner also read Gobineau's 4-volume essay on the inequality of human races ( Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines , 1853–1855), in which Gobineau tried to justify the superiority of the “ Aryan race ”. Wagner answered him with “heroism and Christianity”, in which he criticized Gobineau's racist ideas and in some cases rejected them. The work was translated into German by Karl Ludwig Schemann , a member of the Bayreuth circle around Richard and Cosima Wagner , at Wagner's suggestion and had a strong influence on Wagner's son-in-law Houston Stewart Chamberlain , who, however, added increased anti-Semitism to Gobineau's basic ideas (and not considered the French nobility, but rather the German people, to be particularly “Aryan”).

In his essay, Gobineau expressed doubts about the common ancestry of all humans and tried rather to develop arguments that the three races were created as different species. As a devout Catholic who viewed the Bible as a historically accurate source for the history of mankind, he accepted Adam as the forefather of the "white race", since the Bible undoubtedly speaks of Adam as the ancestor of the white race, but doubted the then popular interpretation of the Biblical Ham as the forefather of the black race, as there is nothing to suggest that colored races were viewed as part of the human species in the original biblical genealogy.

It is controversial whether he also influenced Friedrich Nietzsche's thinking with this work . Later, the National Socialists legitimized their racial ideology with this work, among other things, although of course no longer the French nobility, as was the case with Gobineau, but instead the Germans were regarded as particularly valuable. One finds Gobineau's thoughts easily in Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf ; How much Hitler was influenced by it and what he made of it is summarized by the author Joachim C. Fest in his biography Hitler in the chapter The Vision in the section The doctrine of the creative racial nuclei . Fest writes there that Gobineau "first formulated the fear of the racial chaos of modern times and linked the decline of all cultures with the promiscuity of blood". However, the basic constant of the National Socialist worldview, anti-Semitism, is completely absent in Gobineau.

In his fictional work, such as B. Les Pléiades or La Renaissance , de Gobineau was just as successful. Here, too, he addressed his aristocratic views and his aversion to democratic culture.

Aftermath and related successors

His works on racial theory , especially the allegation of the allegedly negative effects of racial mixing, had a significant influence on the nationalist movement and National Socialism in Germany .

Henry Hotze , a US citizen and ardent proponent of slavery , who later worked in London during the American Civil War as one of the most important agents and propagandists of the southern states in Europe, translated Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des for Josiah C. Nott in 1856 races humaines into English under the title Moral and Intellectual Diversity of Races . Its translation was used by advocates of slavery not only because of the alleged intellectual and moral inequality of the various human races to legitimize slavery, but especially because of the doubts it expressed about the common descent of blacks and whites. Similar to Gobineau, Madison Grant preached in the USA with his work The Passing of the Great Race the superiority of the Nordic races, which he saw endangered by mixing.

In France, Gobineau's (scientifically untenable) views were taken up by Georges Vacher de Lapouge , who gave Gobineau's theory a cult-like habit. The Gobineau translator Karl Ludwig Schemann , the publicist of a racist anthropological review Ludwig Woltmann , the part-time anthropologist Otto Ammon and Houston Stewart Chamberlain were among the representatives of similar theories in Germany, albeit, as mentioned, with an increasing focus on anti-Semitism and an equation of the non-Jewish Germans with a “Germanic master race”.

Works

The following is a list of the German translations, including the original title and first publication.

Essays (selection)

• Experiment on the inequality of human races , French Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines , 4 volumes (1853–1855)
• The world of the Persians , French Histoire des Perses (1869)

Fiction (selection)

prose

• Ternove (1848)
• Typhaines Abbey , French L'Abbaye de Typhaines 1849.
• Adelheid , French Adélaïde (1869)
• Travel experiences / travel fruits from Kephalonia, Naxos, Newfoundland , French souvenirs de voyage (1872)
• The Pleiades / The Seven Stars , French Les Pléiades (1874)
• Asiatic novellas , French Nouvelles asiatiques (1876)
• The Renaissance , French La Renaissance, scènes historiques (1877)

Travel descriptions (selection)

• Three Years in Asia , French Trois ans en Asie (1859)

Poetry (selection)

• Aphroe͏̈ssa , French L'Aphroëssa (1869)
• Amadis (1876)

Dramas (selection)

• Alexander of Macedonia , French Alexandre le Macédonia (1847)

Letters (selection)

• Gobineau's correspondence with Adelbert von Keller . Published by Ludwig Schemann, Strasbourg. Published by Karl J. Trübner 1911
• Correspondence with Count Anton Prokesch von Osten : Correspondance (1933)
• Correspondence with Dom Pedro II : Correspondência (1938)
• Correspondence with Alexis de Tocqueville : Œuvres complètes , IX, Correspondance avec Gobineau (1959)
• Correspondence with Richard Wagner : Correspondance (2000)

literature

• Sylvie André: Gobineau: parcours mythiques d'une œuvre. Lettres modern, Paris 1990, ISBN 2-256-90881-X .
• Michael Biddis: Father of Racist Ideology. The Social and Political Thought of Count Gobineau. London 1970.
• Jean Boissel: Gobineau: biography, mythes et réalité. Berg International, Paris 1993, ISBN 2-900269-84-9 .
• Ernst Cassirer : From hero worship to race worship. In: On the Myth of the State. Artemis, Zurich 1949, pp. 289–321; again Meiner, Hamburg 2002, ISBN 3-7873-1616-7 .
• Karl Ludwig Schemann : Gobineau's race work: documents and reflections on the history and criticism of the "Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines". Fromm, Stuttgart 1910.
• Earl J. Young: Gobineau and Racism. Hain, Meisenheim 1968.
• Günther Deschner : Gobineau and Germany: The Influence of JA de Gobineau's "Essai sur inégalité des races humaines" on German intellectual history 1853-1917, Erlangen-Nürnberg 1968, DNB 481527516 ( Dissertation Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg , Philosophical Faculty, February 2, 1968, 194 pages).
• Patrik von zur Mühlen: Racial ideologies. History and background. (= International Library. 102). 2nd Edition. Dietz, Bonn 1979, ISBN 3-8012-1102-9 , Chapter 3: Gobineau's racial theories. Pp. 52-73; as well as throughout the book.
• Eric Eugène: Wagner et Gobineau. Existe-t-il un racisme wagnérien? Paris 1998.
• Julian Köck: Joseph Arthur de Gobineau - Reception in Germany and reinterpretation as a prophet of the national movement. In: Yearbook of the Hambach Society 19 (2011/2012). Pp. 117-135.

Web links

Commons : Arthur de Gobineau  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Literature by and about Arthur de Gobineau in the catalog of the German National Library
• Works by and about Arthur de Gobineau  in the German Digital Library
• Works by Arthur de Gobineau in the Gutenberg-DE project
• Works in the digital book series Les classiques des sciences sociales (French)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Experiment on the inequality of human races , Book 6, Chapter III.
2. ↑ Léon Poliakov : The Aryan Myth. On the sources of racism and nationalism, Junius, 1993, ISBN 3-88506-220-8 , p. 265.
3. ↑ Hans Fenske: Political Thinking in the Twentieth Century. In: Joachim Lieber (ed.): Political theories from antiquity to the present. Bonn 1991, p. 803.
4. ^ Ernst Klee : German Medicine in the Third Reich. Careers before and after 1945. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-10-039310-4 , p. 17 f.
5. ^ Ernst Cassirer: The myth of the state. in Gesammelte Werke, Hamburger Ausgabe (ECW), Ed. Birgit Recki, Volume 25, 2007, p. 230. For German individual editions, see Ref.
6. ^ Lonnie A. Burnett: Henry Hotze, Confederate Propagandist . University Alabama Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8173-1620-4 .