Butrint

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Butrint
UNESCO world heritage UNESCO World Heritage Emblem
Butrint Albania 9 Agora.jpg
Excavation site below the Acropolis with Asclepius Temple (left) and theater (right), the Greek center of the city ( Agora )
National territory: AlbaniaAlbania Albania
Type: Culture
Criteria : (iii)
Buffer zone: 8,591 ha
Reference No .: 570ter
UNESCO region : Europe and North America
History of enrollment
Enrollment: 1992  (session 16)
Extension: 1999
Plan of the ruined city of Butrint

Butrint ( Albanian  also  Butrinti ; ancient Greek Βουθρωτόν Bouthrōtón ; Latin Buthrotum ; Italian Butrinto ) is a ruined city ​​in southern Albania , around 20 kilometers south of the city of Saranda . It extends on a peninsula, which is surrounded in the north and east by the Butrintsee and in the south by the Vivar Canal , which flows into the Ionian Sea after around two and a half kilometers . The Greek island of Corfu is within sight .

Numerous cultures left their traces in Butrint, but conversely they were also shaped by Butrint. Butrint appears in the works of famous ancient authors, for example in Hecataus of Miletus or in the Aeneid of Virgil . As the urban center of a wide region, it came to wealth and power, as the numerous secular and magnificent buildings, streets and fortifications testify. Combining its serene lagoon setting and historical monuments, the city also attracted grand tourists of the 18th and 19th centuries, who referred to it as a landscape of monuments . Among other things, Edward Lear visited the historic site to be inspired by it.

Butrint is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Albania and one of the most famous sights in the country. In 1992 it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and, together with the neighboring hilltop settlement Kalivo and the architecturally unique cities of Berat and Gjirokastra, is one of the World Heritage Sites of the Mediterranean state.

history

Founding myths

There are two founding myths . One traces the origin of the city back to a founder of the same name. The other assigns the essential role to Helenos , a son of the Trojan king Priam : According to this, he wanted to sacrifice a bull as part of a ritual on his flight from the burning Troy after landing at today's Butrint , but if it had fled, the lagoon had crossed and collapsed dead on the opposite bank. The name of the city is derived from βούς , the Greek word for bull.

In addition to the Greek myths, there is also a legend about Butrint from Roman mythology . The Aeneid by to Butrint by the hero Aeneas have been visited than him after his escape from the burning Troy to the region Epirus verschlug before later after Lazio came and the progenitor of the Romans was. In Butrint he meets Andromache and Helenos , who have also escaped from Troy and rule Chaonia .

Greek time

View from the Venetian fort to the south over the agora with the theater and over the Vivar Canal, which is much narrower today than when the city was founded

Butrint was originally an Epirotic city; the population consisted of Illyrians and Greeks . It was one of the main places of the Chaonians , one of the three great Epirot tribes . The oldest finds date from the 10th to the 8th century BC. However, there are finds in neighboring Kalivo from the 12th century BC. The settlement on the Butrintsee, located on a hill east of Butrint, was enclosed by a wall and is seen as the possible Troy of Virgil . Excavations have found Proto-Corinthian pottery from the 7th century BC. Brought to light. Also black-figure ceramics from the 6th century BC. From Corinth and Attica was found. Since the 6th century BC There was a fortification on the acropolis .

In the 4th century BC BC the Molossians were able to strengthen their political position in Epirus , and under their leadership they founded a Koinon with some tribes that encompassed large parts of the region. Butrint was the leading place in this league and was largely Hellenized linguistically and culturally at that time . At this time Butrint was one of the largest cities in the region and had several magnificent buildings. These included the theater , a temple dedicated to Asclepius , the Greek god of healing, and a gymnasium . Around 380 BC BC Butrint was fortified with a new 870 meter long wall that enclosed an area of ​​four hectares .

Roman time

228 BC Butrint became a Roman protectorate together with Corfu , but only from 167 BC. Roman influence increased and eventually became dominant. But until well into the imperial era , Butrint was able to maintain a certain independence with its surroundings, which existed in the form of a koinon and was run by the Praesebes . 146 BC Butrint came to the newly established province of Macedonia .

48 BC Chr. Attended Julius Caesar , the city and declared it to veterans colony . But the local landowner Titus Pomponius Atticus raised objections to his correspondent Cicero , who then argued against the plan in the Senate . As a result of this resistance, the city received only a small number of colonists. Atticus, who owned lands around Butrint, was celebrated by the locals for his success and became one of the most influential people in town. On the bank across from the city, he had the richly decorated Villa Amaltea built, one of Butrint's most important excavations.

But already a few years later, shortly after his victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium in 31 BC. BC, Emperor Augustus renewed plans to turn Butrint into a veterans' colony. New residential areas, an aqueduct , a bath , a forum complex and a nymphaeum were built. The theater was also expanded. During this time, the size of the city doubled, which experienced its peak in the next few decades. The many busts and statues of Augustus, his wife Livia and his general Agrippa show the importance of these personalities for Butrint. The city was named Colonia Iulia (or Augusta) Buthrotum in honor of the emperor and minted coins as such.

According to an inscription and a statue of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus discovered next to it, Nero's grandfather was born in 16 BC. BC city patron of Butrint. The city was also home to many other members of the Ahenobarbus family .

With Christianization, Butrint became the seat of a bishop in the 4th century . Around 380 an earthquake caused great damage. Butrint survived the raids during the migration period unscathed because of its protected location on a peninsula, while the Slavs were able to take the neighboring Onchesmos (today Saranda ) in 547 on their raids . The diocese still lives today as a Roman Catholic titular diocese under the name Buthrotum (Latin for Butrint).

Fought between Byzantines, Slavs, Normans and Angevin

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6th century baptistery

After a renewed heyday under the rule of the Byzantine Empire , a long decline began when Slavs invaded Epirus in the 8th century . But in the 10th century the city regained its urban rank and received a new basilica. It belonged to the Bulgarian Empire .

In the 11th and 12th centuries, the city suffered from the military campaigns of the southern Italian Normans who tried to gain a foothold on the Balkan Peninsula . After the defeat of the Byzantine Empire in the course of the Fourth Crusade, Butrinto came to the Byzantine despotate of Epirus after 1204 . In the second half of the 13th century Butrint was given as a dowry from Helena Angelina Dukaina from the Angeloi family to her husband, the Hohenstaufen king Manfred of Sicily . This left it to one of his vassals, Philipp Chinard (* around 1205, † 1266), for administration.

The same as for the Normans applied to Charles I of Anjou , who tried from southern Italy to set up a base for the conquest of Constantinople in Albania and founded the Regnum Albaniae on February 21, 1272 . However, Byzantium recaptured the city in 1274. Karl then allied himself with numerous powers and was defeated by Berat in 1281 and an uprising in Sicily ended his expansion plans in 1282 . However, as early as the 1330s, the Serbs were advancing south and conquering Albania and northern Greece. Butrint came from 1318 to 1340 to the Orsini family, whose Albanian branch leaned on Venice and from 1323 to 1335 ruled the despotate of Epirus under Johannes Orsini. The despotate dissolved from 1337 to 1340, and the region became Byzantine again for a short time.

Venetian and Ottoman times (1318 / 40–1912)

Venetian tower, in front of it the thermal baths

What was left of the city of Butrint was occupied by the Republic of Venice , which maintained a base here with interruptions until 1797 in order to secure the Strait of Corfu for their ships. The rest of the region was occupied by the Ottomans. In addition to the fort on the city hill, the Venetians also built another triangular fortress on the other side of the Vivar Canal, which monitored the access from the sea to the city.

Cyriacus of Ancona visited the city as early as 1435 and 1448 , where he noticed several classical inscriptions, three of which he transcribed.

In the 17th century, the Ottomans took possession of this fortress for some time. In September 1716, Venice regained the castle from the Ottomans under Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg . In 1797, Butrint briefly became French property when the Republic of Venice was dissolved by Napoleon Bonaparte after the Peace of Campo Formio .

Just two years later, Butrint was conquered by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and thus finally came to the Ottoman Empire, to which it belonged until Albanian independence in 1912.

In 1805, François Pouqueville , French consul in Ioannina at the court of Ali Pasha, visited Butrint and then reported on two rings of walls, a Roman city, an acropolis and a Byzantine church. Émile Isambert , who visited Butrint in 1881, confirmed the Frenchman's observations. In 1897 Eugen Oberhummer published a first overview of the history of the ancient city.

Rediscovery and exploration

Early Christian mosaic in the baptistery

In 1928 a history of the ancient and medieval city appeared for the first time in Greek , but without any archaeological basis. In the same year, the Italian archaeologist Luigi Maria Ugolini began researching the ruins of Butrint. An early 6th century baptistery was uncovered. The so-called Venus de Butrint was found , which turned out to be the bust of Apollo, and the theater was excavated by 1932. Ugolini died of malaria in 1936 . The excavations were continued by Pirro Marconi , who, however, crashed in an airplane in 1938. He was followed by Domenico Mustilli until the beginning of the Greco-Italian War in 1939 , but the work was transferred to Pellegrino Claudio Sestieri by the Direzione per l'Archeologia del Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione d'Albania . During these excavations, a portal, a mosaic of Asclepius and a small Byzantine church emerged.

For the visit of the Soviet Prime Minister Nikita Khrushchev in May 1959, the Albanian dictator Enver Hoxha ordered the construction of a new road from Saranda to Butrint. Under the Albanian archaeologist Hasan Ceka , who had already been part of Ugolini's research, the previous excavations were cleaned up and secured. In the 1950s, the museum was also set up to house the finds.

The excavations then rested for a long time and were not continued until the 1970s under Dhimosten Budina . He discovered the Roman aqueduct, and the temple of Asclepius was excavated. With the support of other colleagues, artifacts from the 12th and 13th centuries came to light and were documented. Budina dug at the Acropolis in the 1980s, his colleague Selim Islami in the theater and Skender Anamali in the baptistery. Archaic ceramics were discovered as well as a Roman bath about 500 meters outside the city, and it was possible to prove the high school.

In 1991 the first Greek-Albanian excavation took place. Long-term excavations with British archaeologists began in 1994, but were interrupted due to a lack of security as a result of the 1997 lottery uprising . Further explorations followed thereafter.

In 1992 the ruins and their surroundings were placed on the list of world cultural heritage by UNESCO . The candidacy submitted in 1990 was accepted on the following grounds: “The evolution of the old natural environment that led the inhabitants to abandon Butrint at the end of the Middle Ages, means that this archaeological site provides valuable evidence of ancient and medieval civilizations on the territory of modern Albania. ”Eight years later, the Albanian government protected a slightly larger area than the Butrint National Park, which in 2005 was expanded to include a buffer zone around the world heritage from 29 to 86 square kilometers. In 2003 Butrint and a large area including the lake became a Ramsar sanctuary .

In 1997, the Butrint Museum, located in the central castle, was looted as a result of the civil war in Albania . In the meantime, however, many items have been secured and returned.

Buildings

Numerous buildings testify to the different epochs of the city's history. The most important excavated buildings from antiquity include the theater, the Dionysus altar , the Asklepios temple, the Minerva temple, the nymphaeum , a thermal bath , a gymnasium , the forum , an aqueduct , the lion gate and the baptistery from the 5th century Century.

From the time of the Roman Emperor Justinian I dates back to early Christian basilica .

In the Middle Ages , the Venetians built a castle on the Acropolis , which is now the Butrint Museum.

Public buildings

theatre

The theater with proscenium

The semicircular theater is one of the best preserved buildings in Butrint. It is just below the Acropolis and faces the Vivari Canal. Right next to it is the temple of Asclepius. The theater was built in the 3rd century BC. Erected in Greek style , possibly on the walls of an older and smaller theater. The auditorium (lat. Cavea ) was expanded considerably. The seats were divided hierarchically; the lowest seats, and therefore those closest to the stage, belonged to the higher classes in the city. The many footrests in this row, which are decorated with lion motifs, testify to this best. The auditorium is divided into five sectors (Gr. Kerkides ), each of which has 13 rows of seats.

With the expansion of the city during its Roman period, the theater also underwent many renovations and extensions around the 2nd century. Among other things, the stage building (large Skené ) was redesigned and raised to two floors. The actors appeared and disappeared through the three arched doors. Various statues stood between these doors. The Romans also built boxes for the upper classes above the two entrances . The theater's auditorium was 24 meters in diameter and could accommodate up to 2000 people.

Luigi Maria Ugolini excavated the theater between 1928 and 1930. The goddess of Butrint , a statue from the front of the stage building, was one of his finds. Little remains of the Greek theater have survived. The front of the Roman stage (lat. Pulpitum ) was equipped with many sculptures in its time, among which the portrait heads of the goddess of Butrint , Augustus , Agrippa , Asclepius and the statue of a muse are among the most important finds.

aqueduct

The city experienced rapid population growth during its Roman times. In order to ensure the water supply, the aqueduct was built, which led from an as yet unknown source near today's village of Xarra over a length of 12 kilometers to the city. He also crossed the Vivari Canal, which is around 200 meters wide. It is possible that the aqueduct in this section was also passable for pedestrians and smaller vehicles and was therefore also used as a bridge. The aqueduct was built during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC to 14 AD), during which many other structures were built.

Forum

The forum was the heart of a Roman city . In Butrint it was located near the Temple of Asclepius, in the center of the Greek city. It was erected on the walls of an older stoa that was 4.5 by 25 meters. The surviving remains from the late 2nd or 1st century BC Chr. Concentrate on three parts of the building that stood around the square of the forum.

Temples and churches

Asclepius sanctuary

Treasure house of the Asclepius sanctuary next to the theater

In addition to the temple, the sanctuary of Asklepios consists of a whole complex that also included a stoa (pillared hall) and a treasury . He was born in the 4th century BC. Founded in BC, and already in the next century various extensions were undertaken, which included the theater and a peristyle building (possibly an accommodation for pilgrims). The entire complex was separated from the rest of the city by a temenos .

In 1932 a marble head of Asclepius was found, which may have belonged to a statue. In addition, various coins with snake motifs (symbol of the healing arts) testify to the great importance of the Asclepius cult for the city of Butrint.

Baptistery

Baptistery

From the 5th century onwards, Christianity flourished in the city and Butrint got its own bishop . The baptistery and basilica were built in the early 6th century. In 1928 the Italian archaeological mission discovered the baptistery. The mosaic floor , which was created by mosaicists from Nicopolis , is particularly important . The mosaic is usually covered with sand for protection.

basilica

The early Christian-Byzantine basilica

The great basilica was built along with the baptistery in the early 6th century. It was the seat of a bishop until the 16th century, when he moved to Glyki (in the valley of Cocytus) near Arta . The basilica consisted of a nave with side aisles , a transept and the apse . The entire floor was decorated with mosaics . The arcades , up to five meters high , separated the nave from the side houses.

Military installations

Venetian castle

Tourists in the courtyard of the Venetian Castle

The Venetian castle is located at the western end of the Acropolis, from where you have a good view of the Vivar Canal and the Strait of Corfu. From the 13th century, as part of the Venetian colonial empire , Butrint was an important base between the Adriatic and Aegean Seas . The pentagonal fort has a square tower at the northeast corner, which is a reconstruction from the 1930s. According to Ugolini's records, there was also a second tower inside the fort, which may have been the castellan's residence .

More fortresses

On the bank of the canal below the castle, the Republic of St. Mark built another tower that secured access to the city and the fort.

On the opposite bank they built the Kalaja trekëndore (triangle castle ) , a complex that is still clearly visible today. Originally located on an island, which presumably determined the shape, it was primarily intended to secure the fishing activities at Butrint.

The small fortress of Ali Pasha about two and a half kilometers west of Butrint, right at the mouth of the Vivar Canal into the Ionian Sea, was named after Ali Pascha of Ioannina , who was eager for independence from Constantinople . However, it already appears on Venetian maps from 1718 and could have been the property of the Corfiot Gonemi family, from whom it came to Ali Pasha, who had it renewed.

Other buildings

Trikonchos Palace

Butrint has a large number of townhouses and villas. The Trikonchos Palace is the largest town house among them. Initially, the building was a Roman villa with mosaic floors, painted walls and an inner courtyard with a fountain as the most important element. The villa was expanded in the 4th century AD when an east wing was added to the original house, which with its three conches gave the palace its current name.

Lion gate

Lion gate

Another important sight is the Lion Gate from the 4th century BC. BC, one of six entrances to the city. It shows a lion about to eat a bull . Most likely, the lion was supposed to symbolize the residents of the city, and the bull their enemies. The gate only has a very narrow passage to allow as few people as possible to enter at the same time.

Archaeological Museum

Ceramic amphorae exhibited in the museum

Butrint's first museum was opened in the 1930s by Luigi Maria Ugolini and his Italian archaeological mission. In 2005 it was renovated and reopened. It is located in the Venetian castle.

City personalities

Two Christian saints come from ancient Butrint and are venerated in the Orthodox Church : Therinus and Donatus von Butrint were both born in Butrint.

literature

Web links

Commons : Butrint  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ FGrH 1, fragment 1
  2. ^ Jarrett A. Lobell: Ages of Albania. Archeology, March 2006, accessed May 16, 2012 .
  3. ^ Grand Tourists and Artists. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on October 8, 2014 ; accessed on May 16, 2012 (English).
  4. ↑ Entry in the UNESCO list. Retrieved April 12, 2012 .
  5. ^ Albania - UNESCO World Heritage Center. Retrieved May 16, 2012 .
  6. ↑ Stephanos Byzantinos sv Βουθρωτόνς .
  7. ^ Halil Myrto: Albania archeologica. Bibliografia sistematica dei centri antichi , Vol. 1, Edipuglia, Bari 1998, pp. 50-51.
  8. ↑ Virgil , Aeneid . 3rd book, verse 292-505 ( online )
  9. ↑ Neritan Ceka : Buthrotum. Its History & Monuments . Cetis Tirana, Tirana 2002, ISBN 99927-801-2-6 , pp. 19 .
  10. ↑ Margareta Divjak-Mirwald: An encounter in Buthrotum. (PDF; 5 MB) In: Circulare (No. 2/2010). Sodalitas, May 2010, p. 4 f. , accessed October 20, 2019 .
  11. ^ The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries BC . In: Cambridge University Press (Ed.): The Cambridge Ancient History . tape 3 , no. 3 , 1982, ISBN 0-521-23447-6 , pp. 269 .
  12. ↑ Neritan Ceka : Buthrotum. Its History & Monuments . Cetis Tirana, Tirana 2002, ISBN 99927-801-2-6 , pp. 22 .
  13. ↑ a b c The Roman Colony. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 16, 2014 ; accessed on April 13, 2012 (English).
  14. ↑ Caesar and the colony at Butrint ( Memento from September 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  15. ^ Richard Hodges, William Bowden, Kosta Lako, Richard Andrews: Byzantine Butrint: excavations and surveys 1994–1999 . Oxbow Books, 2004, ISBN 1-84217-158-5 , pp. 54 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  16. ↑ Eugen Oberhummer : Buthroton . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume III, 1, Stuttgart 1897, Col. 1084 f.
  17. ^ Norbert Kamp: Chinard, Filippo. In: Treccani.it. Retrieved April 19, 2018 (Italian).
  18. ^ Robert Elsie: A Biographical Dictionary of Albanian History . IB Tauris, London, New York 2012, ISBN 978-1-78076-431-3 , pp. 81 f . (English, online preview in Google Book Search).
  19. ^ Camillo Minieri Riccio: Genealogia di Carlo I di Angiò: prima generazione . Vincenzo Priggiobba, Naples 1857, p. 140, Document No. XIV (Italian, archive.org ).
  20. ↑ Steven Runciman: The Sicilian Vespers. A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century . University Press, Cambridge 1958, pp. 176 ( online preview in Google Book search).
  21. ^ Halil Myrto: Albania archeologica. Bibliografia sistematica dei centri antichi , Vol. 1, Edipuglia, Bari 1998, p. 56.
  22. ^ Halil Myrto: Albania archeologica. Bibliografia sistematica dei centri antichi , Vol. 1, Edipuglia, Bari 1998, pp. 56-57.
  23. ↑ Eugen Oberhummer : Buthroton . In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume III, 1, Stuttgart 1897, Col. 1084 f.
  24. ↑ Luigi Maria Ugolini described the excavations: Il mito d'Enea - Gli scavi , Rome 1937.
  25. ↑ Neritan Ceka : Buthrotum. Its History & Monuments . Cetis Tirana, Tirana 2002, ISBN 99927-801-2-6 , pp. 24 .
  26. ↑ Kruschev at Butrint. (No longer available online.) In: butrint.org. Archived from the original on August 17, 2014 ; accessed on May 13, 2012 .
  27. ^ Notice in the museum , photographed on July 20, 2010
  28. ↑ a b Neritan Ceka : Buthrotum. Its History & Monuments . Cetis Tirana, Tirana 2002, ISBN 99927-801-2-6 , pp. 25 .
  29. ^ Richard Hodges, WA Bowden, K. Lako (eds.): Byzantine Butrint. Excavations and surveys 1994–1999, Oxbow Books, Oxford 2005.
  30. ↑ A UNESCO World Heritage site. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on February 21, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  31. ↑ Brian Ayers: Albania dusts off ancient treasures. BBC , April 3, 2009, accessed April 12, 2012 .
  32. ^ The Theater and the Treasury. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on January 30, 2014 ; Retrieved April 12, 2012 .
  33. ↑ Theater of Buthrotum. (No longer available online.) Theatrum.de, archived from the original on January 17, 2012 ; Retrieved April 12, 2012 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.theatrum.de
  34. ↑ Saranda-Butrint. Timediver, accessed April 12, 2012 .
  35. ^ The Theater. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 14, 2014 ; Retrieved April 12, 2012 .
  36. ↑ The aqueduct. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 18, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  37. ^ The Forum. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 5, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  38. ↑ Monumentet & habitatet. butrint.al, accessed October 20, 2019 (Albanian).
  39. ↑ Nikola Moustakis: Sanctuaries as political centers. Investigations into the multidimensional areas of activity of sanctuaries across the polis in ancient Epirus . Utz, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-8316-0560-2 , p. 621-623 ( persee.fr ).
  40. ↑ Milena Melfi: The sanctuary of Asclepius . Oxbow, Oxford 2007, ISBN 978-1-84217-234-6 , pp. 17-32 ( academia.edu ).
  41. ^ The healing god Asclepius. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 6, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  42. ^ The Baptistery and early Christian Butrint. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 14, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  43. ^ The Great Basilica. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 7, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 .
  44. ↑ a b Medieval and Venetian fortifications. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on October 3, 2011 ; accessed on April 13, 2012 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.butrint.org
  45. ^ The Triangular Fortress. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on January 30, 2014 ; accessed on April 13, 2012 (English).
  46. ^ The castle of Ali Pasha. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on October 15, 2013 ; accessed on April 13, 2012 (English).
  47. ^ A private residence - the triconch palace. (No longer available online.) Butrint.org, archived from the original on September 14, 2014 ; accessed on April 12, 2012 . ; William Bowden, Richard Hodges: Butrint 3. Excavations at the triconch palace. Oxbow for the Butrint Foundation, Oxford 2011. ISBN 978-1-84217-980-2
  48. ^ Castle & Museum. (No longer available online.) Butrint, archived from the original on October 19, 2015 ; accessed on December 14, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / butrint.al
  49. ^ Robert Elsie: The Christian Saints of Albania. In: Balkanistica 13, 2000, pp. 36–57 full text

Coordinates: 39 ° 44 ′ 43.7 "  N , 20 ° 1 ′ 13.6"  E