Device Fort

16th century keep and gun platform at Pendennis Castle

Device Forts , Henrician Castles or Henrician Blockhouses , are a series of artillery forts that King Henry VIII ordered to be built on the coasts of England and Wales . Traditionally the crown had left the coastal defense in the hands of the local lords and communities, but the danger of a Spanish and French invasion prompted the king to issue a device for a larger construction program from 1539 to 1547. The type of fortress ranked from large stone castles, like the one used to protect The Downs anchorage in Kent , to small log houses, like the one used to monitor the entrance to Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire , to earthworks along the Essex coast . Some forts served their purpose independently, while others were mutually reinforcing. The "Device" program was immensely expensive and swallowed up a total of £ 376,000. Most of the money needed for this was raised by the Crown from the dissolution of the English monasteries a few years earlier.

These useful fortifications were armed with artillery and were intended to be used against enemy ships before these troops could land or attack English ships in port. The first wave of construction work from 1539 to 1543 was characterized by the emergence of circular bastions and multi-row defensive structures in conjunction with many medieval details. These constructions showed massive military weaknesses, but in the second phase of construction until 1547, angled bastions and other innovations influenced by contemporary ideas from mainland Europe were introduced. The castles were commanded by captains appointed by the Crown. They had small garrisons of professional riflemen and soldiers under them, who were reinforced by the local militia in an emergency.

With the exception of a French attack on the Isle of Wight in 1545, the Device Forts were almost unclaimed before peace was made in 1546. Some of the fortifications were abandoned and decommissioned just a few years after they were built. After the outbreak of war with Spain in 1569, the new English Queen Elizabeth I had many of the remaining fortresses rebuilt, also in 1588, during the attack of the Spanish Armada . At the end of the 16th century these defenses were hopelessly outdated and in the first decades of the 17th century most of the forts were allowed to fall into disrepair. Most of the fortifications were used again in the English Civil War in the 1640s and were garrisoned during the interregnum ; they continued to form the backbone of the English coastal defense, this time against the Dutch , after Charles II returned to the English throne in 1660. In the 18th century the Device Forts were again allowed to decay, but were modernized and re-armed during the Coalition Wars until peace was made in 1815.

The fear of a possible invasion by the French flared up several times in the course of the 19th century, but this in combination with the rapid improvement in weapon technology, such as B. the development of steamships and grenades in the 1840s, cannons with rifled barrels and armored ships in the 1850s and torpedo boats in the 1880s. This development fueled new investments in those device forts that were still considered to be of military value and the retirement of others. By 1900, however, developments in artillery and other weapons technology made most of the device forts that had survived seem too small for practical, modern coastal defense. Even though they were used again in the First and Second World Wars , these fortifications were deemed superfluous in the 1950s and were finally decommissioned. The coastal erosion had taken their toll over the centuries, so some sites had been severely damaged or completely destroyed. Many of them have been restored and are now open to the public as tourist attractions.

Early history and construction

Device program cont

background

Map of England and Wales with the locations of the Device Forts:

Henrician Castles,

Henrician Blockhouses and Bulwarks

The Device Forts emerged as a result of changes in English military architecture and foreign policy in the early 16th century. In the late Middle Ages, the importance of the castles used as military fortresses in England decreased. The introduction of gunpowder to the arts of war initially benefited defenders, but soon traditional stone walls could be easily destroyed by early artillery. The few castles that were rebuilt during this period still had the old details, such as gatehouses and crenellated walls, but displayed them more as martial symbols than they had practical uses for defense. Many older castles were simply given up or left to decay.

While fortresses could still be valuable in wartime, they played a limited role in the Wars of the Roses, and when Henry VII took the English throne in 1485, he did not have to besiege any castles or towns during his struggle. Heinrich was soon firmly in the saddle at home and had little reason to fear an invasion of a force from mainland Europe. During his reign he invested little in coastal defense. Modest fortifications existed along the coast, built around simple log houses and towers, mainly in the southwest and along the Sussex coast . There were some more impressive buildings in the north of England, but they were relatively small.

His son, Henry VIII , inherited the throne in 1509 and took a more interventionist position in European affairs; he fought a war with France from 1512-1514 and then another from 1522-1525, this time allied with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire . While France and the Holy Roman Empire were in conflict, attacks on the English coast were frequent, but a full invasion seemed unlikely. In fact, the Crown had traditionally left coastal defense to the local lords and communities and only played a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications. At first, King Henry had little interest in coastal defense; he ordered revisions of the fortifications in 1513 and 1533, but hardly any investments were made afterwards.

In 1533 King Heinrich broke with Pope Paul III. because he wanted to annul his long marriage to Catherine of Aragon and remarry. Catherine was the aunt of King Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire of Spain, who saw the annulment of the marriage as a personal affront. As a consequence, France and Spain concluded an alliance against King Henry in 1538, and the Pope encouraged the two countries to attack England. An invasion of England now seemed certain; In the summer of the same year, King Heinrich personally undertook an inspection tour of some of his coastal fortresses that had only recently been surveyed and assessed: he seemed determined to have extensive improvements made immediately.

Initial phase 1539-1543


Deal Castle 2011 and in a 1539 floor plan that was believed to have been shown to Henry VIII.

In 1539, Henry VIII issued instructions through Parliament for the construction of new defenses along England's coasts, a major construction program that would continue through 1547. This instruction became known as a "device" which meant a documented plan, instruction or scheme. This led to the fortifications being later called "Device Forts". The initial “Defense of the Empire in Times of Invasion” instructions included building forts along the southern coast of England and improving the defenses of the cities of Calais and Guînes in France, which were then occupied by Henry's troops. Commissioners were sent to the south-west and south-east of England to inspect the existing fortifications and suggest locations for new ones.

The first result was the construction of 30 new fortifications of various sizes during 1539. The stone castles Deal Castle , Sandown Castle and Walmer Castle were built to protect the Downs in east Kent, an anchorage that gave access to Deal beaches where an enemy invading army could easily have landed. These defenses, also called "Castles of the Downs", were supported by four forts made of earthworks , the Great Turf Bulwark , the Little Turf Bulwark , the Great White Bulwark of Clay and the Walmer Bulwark , as well as a 4 km long defensive wall and moat . The way inland through a break through the Kent cliffs was guarded by Sandgate Castle . In many cases, temporary bulwarks for gun batteries were built in before the stone gun platforms were completed.

The estuary of the River Thames , the of London also leads, and were shipped by the 80% of Britain's exports, was a mutually-locking network of log houses in Gravesend , Milton and Higham on the south bank of the river, and West Tilbury and East Tilbury protected on the north shore. Camber Castle was built to protect the anchorage outside the ports of Rye and Winchelsea ; Defenses were built around the port of Harwich and three earth bulwarks were built around Dover . Work has also begun on Calshot Castle in Fawley and the log houses East Cowes Castle and West Cowes Castle on the Isle of Wight to protect the Solent , which leads into the commercial port of Southampton . Portland Roads anchorage in Dorset was protected by the new Portland Castle and Sandsfoot Castle and work began on the log cabins to protect the Milford Haven Waterway in Pembrokeshire .

In 1540 the king ordered further work to protect Cornwall . Carrick Roads was an important anchorage in the mouth of the River Fal and was originally intended to be secured with five forts, but only two castles were eventually built, Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle on the opposite banks of the estuary. In 1541 further work on the Solent began with the construction of Hurst Castle over the Needles and Netley Castle on the outskirts of Southampton. After a royal visit to the north of England in 1542, the coastal fortifications around Kingston-upon-Hull were expanded to include Hull Castle and two large log houses. Further work was carried out in Essex in 1543; A total of eight fortresses were built, three of them in Harwich itself, three to protect the estuary that leads into the city, and two on the estuary to Colchester. St Andrew's Castle was begun to further protect the Solent.

The work was carried out quickly and by the end of 1540 24 sites were provided with fortresses and garrisons; almost all other device forts were completed by the end of 1543. When all the Device Forts were finished, however, the alliance between Charles V and the French King was over and the current danger of an invasion was over.

Second phase 1544–1547


Southsea Castle 2011 and pictured in the Cowdray Engraving of the Battle of the Solent in 1545

King Henry went on the offensive again in Europe in 1543 and allied himself again with Spain against France. Despite King Henry's initial successes around Boulogne-sur-Mer in northern France, King Charles V and the French king made peace in 1544, so that England was again exposed to the danger of a possible invasion by France, supported by her allies in Scotland . In response, King Heinrich issued another order ("Device") in 1544 to improve national defense, particularly along the south coast. Work began on Southsea Castle on Portsea Island in 1544 to further improve the protection of the Solent, and in the following year on Sandown Castle on the neighboring Isle of Wight. The construction of Brownsea Castle in Dorset began in 1545 and Sharpenrode Bulwark was also built opposite Hurst Castle from that year.

The French attack took place in 1545 when Admiral Claude d'Annebault crossed the English Channel with his troops and appeared on July 19 with 200 ships off the Solent. King Henry's fleet made a brief outage before retreating behind the protective fortresses. Annebault landed a force at Newhaven while the French fleet was fired from Camber Castle, and on July 23, four divisions were landed on the Isle of Wight, including at the partially completed Sandown Castle. On July 25th, the French expedition moved further along the coast, ending the imminent threat of invasion for England. In the meantime, the French had launched an attack on Seaford on July 22nd and Camber Castle was in action against the French fleet. In June 1546 a peace treaty was signed that ended the war. When King Henry VIII died the following year, he had invested a massive £ 376,000 in building the Device Forts.

Architects and civil engineers


Yarmouth Castle 2009 and its 1559 floor plan showing its swept Italianate style bastion .

Some of the device forts were designed by teams of English civil engineers. The builder John Rogers was bought out of his contract in France and worked on the defenses of Kingston-upon-Hull, while Richard Lee , another civil engineer from the king's French attacks, may have been involved in the construction of Sandown Castle and Southsea Castle; they were paid the handsome annual wages of £ 30 and £ 36 respectively. Sir Richard Morris , the Master of the Ordnance , and James Needham , the Surveyor of the King's Works , had the defenses built on the Thames. The efforts of the team of architects at Hampton Court Palace, led by Augustinian canon Richard Benese , contributed to the high build quality and fine detailing that can be seen on many Device Forts.

King Heinrich himself showed great interest in the construction of the fortresses and sometimes even overruled his technical advisors on certain details. Southsea Castle e.g. B. was described by courtier Sir Edmund Knyvet as "by Her Majesty's highest construction", which typically indicated that the king had personally participated in the construction. The historian Andrew Saunders suspects that King Henry was "probably the leading and unifying influence behind the fortresses."

England also had a tradition of bringing in foreign engineers for military construction; Italians were particularly sought after, as their homeland had a reputation for being technically advanced, especially in the field of fortress construction. One of these foreign civil engineers, Stephan von Haschenperg from Moravia , worked on Camber Castle, Pendennis Castle, Sandgate Castle and St Mawes Castle; evidently he was trying to copy Italian constructions, even if his limited personal knowledge of such fortresses had a bad influence on the final results. Technical treatises from mainland Europe also influenced the planners of the Device Forts, such as Albrecht Dürer's fortification of the city, castle and spots , where contemporary methods of fortress construction in Germany were described, which was published in 1527 and translated into Latin in 1535 . This also applies to Niccolò Machiavelli's Libro dell'Arte della Guerra , published in 1521 and describing the new Italian forms of defensive structures.

architecture

18th century engraving of a map dated 1588 showing the defensive fortifications along the Thames, such as the Thames. B. Milton Blockhouse, Gravesend Blockhouse (above), East Tilbury Blockhouse and West Tilbury Blockhouse (below) shows.

The Device Forts represented a larger and radical building program; the historian Marcus Merriman describes it as "one of the greatest building programs in Britain since the Romans", Brian St John O'Neill as the only "coherent coastal defense program put in place in England before modern times", while Cathcart King describes it as the King Edward's castle building program in North Wales compares.

Although some of the forts are referred to as castles, historians typically distinguish between the type of device forts and those of earlier, medieval castles. Medieval castles were both private residences and defensive structures and typically played a role in the management of the local lands. King Henry's forts were state institutions that were placed in militarily important locations, usually separate from the surrounding estates and settlements. Unlike earlier, medieval castles, they were spartan useful buildings. Some historians, such as B. King , have not followed this interpretation and show the similarities between the two periods, with the historian Dr Duffy calling the Device Forts "fortified castles".

The forts were placed so that they could protect harbors and anchorages, and planned so that they could both target enemy ships with artillery and protect their gunners from the attack of these very ships. Some of these, including the larger castles, including the one in the Downs in Kent, were designed to be self-contained and defendable against attack from the land, while smaller log houses were primarily designed to deal with threats from the sea. Even if there were considerable differences in the construction of the individual forts, they all had details in common and were often built in a consistent style.

The larger forts, such as Deal Castle or Camber Castle, were typically stocky with low parapets and massive thick walls that protected them from fire. They usually had a donjon in the middle, like the medieval castles, and curved, concentric bastions extending from them. The main guns were arranged in several rows so that they could aim at targets at different distances. There were far more gun ports than guns in that fortress. The walls of the bastions were studded with inclined arrow slits for cannons, so that the guns could be pivoted and so resulted in overlapping angles of fire. Inside there was enough space for the gunners and specially designed vents through which the gunpowder vapor could dissipate. Moats often surrounded the forts to protect them from attack from the land, and they were further protected by what historian B. Morley calls "defenses developed in the Middle Ages": portcullis , meurtrières and reinforced gates. The smaller log houses were available with different floor plans, e.g. B. D-shaped, octagonal or square. The log houses on the Thames were typically protected on all sides by additional earthworks and cannons.

These new forts were the most advanced in England at the time, an improvement on the earlier medieval constructions and effective in concentrating firepower on enemy ships. However, they were flawed and primitive compared to their counterparts in mainland Europe. The many rows of guns on top of each other gave the forts a relatively large height, which exposed them to enemy attacks, and the curved shape of the bastions made them sensitive to artillery fire. The concentric construction of the bastions provided protection from overlapping angles of fire in the event of an attack from the land, and the many tiers of guns arranged one above the other meant that the number of guns a fort could use in an enemy attack was reduced.

Some of this only became apparent during the second Device Fort program from 1544. One began to introduce Italian ideas into the fortress construction, even if the influence of King Henry's foreign civil engineers seems to have been limited and the constructions themselves lagged behind those in his French territories. The newly emerged constructions from mainland Europe had "arrowhead" bastions, which - connected in a circle - were called "star forts" and provided fire support against all attackers. Sandown Castle on the Isle of Wight, built in 1545, was a mix of traditional English and continental European ideas; angled and round bastions lie on the lake side. Southsea Castle and Sharpenrode Fort had similar angled bastions. Yarmouth Castle, which was completed in 1547, was the first fortress in England to have new, arrow-shaped bastions, which had further advantages over the angled individual bastions. But not all forts of the second construction wave were built according to Italian ideas and some, such as B. Brownsea Castle , retained the existing, improved architectural style.

logistics


Calshot Castle 2012 (left) and in a floor plan from 1539 (right); building materials from the dissolution of the nearby Beaulieu Abbey were used to build the castle .

The cost of building the forts depended on their size. A small log cabin cost around £ 500 while a medium-sized castle like Sandgate Castle, Pendennis Castle or Portland Castle cost around £ 5,000. Deal Castle, Sandown Castle and Walmer Castle defensive lines cost a total of £ 27,092 while the work on Hull Castle and its two log houses cost £ 21,056. Various officials were entrusted with the supervision of the projects, such as a paymaster , an auditor , a site manager and commissioners from the local nobility. Some fortresses were built for local individuals or families, such as: B. St. Catherine's Castle, which according to records was paid for by the city and local gentry. The Edgcumbe family had the Devil's Point Artillery Tower built to protect the port of Plymouth.

Most of the spending went to the construction teams called "crews" who built the forts. The number of workers varied during the implementation of a project, partly also due to seasonal influences. The size of the teams, however, was remarkable: the construction of Sandgate Castle, for example, employed an average of 640 people in June 1540 and 420 people were required to work on Hull Castle. A skilled worker received a daily wage of between 5 and 6 pence. B. stonemasons, builders, transporters, lime burners, sawmills, plumbers, trenchers and bricklayers. It was difficult to find enough workers; in some cases men had to be forced to serve against their will. Industrial disputes broke out: in 1539 there was a strike over low wages at the Deal Castle site and in 1541 at that of Guisnes Castle. Both were quickly put down by royal officials.

Large quantities of raw materials were also required for the work, e.g. B. stone, wood, lead and many others. During the construction of Camber Castle one used z. B. over 500,000 bricks, in the construction of Sandgate Castle 44,000 tiles and for a small log house on the banks of the Thames, 200 tons of chalk were calculated just for the production of the lime mortar . Some materials were available locally, but coal had to be shipped by sea from the north of England and prefabricated pieces were purchased in London.

Most of the money for the first phase of the Device Forts came from King Henry's dissolution of the English monasteries a few years earlier and from the proceeds collected through the Court of Augmentations and the Court of First Fruits and Tenths . In addition, the dissolution of the monasteries freed up many building materials as the monastic buildings were demolished and many of their materials were reused. Netley Castle e.g. B. was based on an old abbey and many stones from that abbey were used for its construction, parts of St Margaret's Chantry were used for the East Tilbury Blockhouse , Calshot Castle received the roofing of the nearby Beaulieu Abbey, East Cowes Castle and West Cowes Castle stones from the Beaulieu Abbey and the Quarr Abbey and Sandwich Castle were built with stones from the local Carmelite brother house . Milton Blockhouse was built on land that had recently been confiscated from the Milton Chantry . At the beginning of the second construction phase, however, most of the money from the dissolution of the monasteries had already been used and King Heinrich had to borrow money. Government officials noted that at least £ 100,000 was required for the work.

Garrisons

Reconstruction of life in a 16th century garrison at St Mawes Castle

The Device Fort garrisons were made up of relatively small groups of men who normally lived and worked in the forts. The garrisons were tasked with running and maintaining the buildings and artillery during the long periods of peace, and were supplemented by additional soldiers and local militia during a crisis. The size of the garrisons depended on the type of fortress: 39 men were stationed at Camber Castle, 18 men at Walmer Castle and only 9 men at Tilbury Blockhouse. The common soldiers lived in very simple circumstances, usually on the ground floor; the captains of the fortresses had more comfortable quarters, mostly on the upper floors of the donjons. The soldiers ate meat and fish; some of it was hunted or fished by the garrison.

The garrisons were well organized, and strict discipline guidelines were issued in 1539. The historian Peter Harrington believes that life in the forts was usually "boring" and "isolated". Soldiers were expected to procure handguns at their own expense and, if they did not, face penalties. In the 1540s there were only about 200 gunners in all of England; they were important military specialists, and historians Audrey Howes and Martin Foreman observed that "an aura of mystery and danger" surrounded them.

The wage structure in the defenses was recorded in 1540. There you can see that the typical wage in a garrison was 1–2 shillings per day for a captain; his deputy received 8 pence, the same as a porter. Ordinary soldiers and gunners each received 6 pence a day. In total, according to these records, 2,200 men received wages that year, which cost the crown £ 2208. Although most of the garrisons were paid by the Crown, in some cases the local council had to play a role: at Brownsea Castle the parish had to equip a garrison of 6 men and at Sandsfoot Castle the village took responsibility for the maintenance of the garrison and did not have to pay taxes or do any militia service.

Armament

Reconstruction of a cannon with gunners from the 16th century at Pendennis Castle

The artillery in the Device Forts was owned by the Crown and administered centrally in the Tower of London . The authorities in the tower had the cannons moved back and forth between the individual forts as required, which led to frequent complaints from the captains on site. From the various records still preserved today, one can see the armament of individual forts at certain times and between 1547 and 1548 a complete inventory of all weapons in all forts was made. The number of guns varied considerably from location to location. At the end of the 1540s heavily armed forts such as Hurst Castle or Calshot Castle were equipped with 26 and 36 cannons, respectively, while Portland Castle only had 11 cannons. Some forts had more guns than the regular peacetime garrison could handle. The Milton Blockhouse, for example, normally only had a garrison of 13 men but 30 guns.

A whole collection of different guns developed, including heavier weapons such as cannons , field snakes and medium-sized cannons, as well as smaller guns such as Saker , Minions and Falconets . Older guns like slings and bases were also used, but were less effective than newer guns like field snakes. The forts were often equipped with multiple tiers of guns, with the heavier weapons usually placed higher up the fortress and the smaller ones further down. It is not known how far the guns of the time could shoot. Research conducted in the 16th and 17th centuries on the range of the artillery showed that the largest weapons, such as B. the field snake, could hit targets at a distance of 1,600 to 2,750 meters.

The forts were typically armed with a mixture of brass and iron cannons. Brass cannons could fire faster - up to eight times an hour - and were safer to use than their iron counterparts, but were more expensive and required copper that had to be imported. By the 1530s, King Henry had established a new English large arms industry in the Weald and London, employing specialists from mainland Europe. They could make cast iron weapons, but initially didn't have the capacity to provide all of the artillery needed in the Device Forts, especially since King Henry asked for more cannons for his new navy. A technical breakthrough, however, led to the introduction of vertical casting in 1543 and thus to a massive increase in the production capacity of iron cannons. Few of the guns from this period have survived to this day, but an iron portpiece was discovered during the 1997 excavations on the South Blockhouse site in Kingston upon Hull . The gun, now called "Henry's Gun", is one of only four such guns in the world that has survived to this day. It is on display in the museum in Hull.

In addition to the artillery, the Device forts were equipped with infantry weapons. Handguns, usually an early form of matchlock arquebuses called "Hagbush" was used for close defense; they were 1.8 meters long and were set up on tripods. Many forts were also armed with bows, arrows, and polearms such as hipsters , pikes, and halberds . Longbows were still in military use with the English armies in the 1540s, although they quickly went out of fashion later on. These and the polearms were often used by the local militias when they were called in during a crisis.

Later story

16th Century


Walmer Castle 2011 (left) and a floor plan from 1539 of either Walmer Castle or Sandown Castle (right)

After the death of Henry VIII there was a lull in the conflict with France, during which many of the new fortresses were allowed to fall into disrepair. There was little money to pay for repairs and the garrisons were reduced in size. East Cowes Castle was abandoned around 1547 and fell into disrepair while the bulwarks along the Downs were defaced and their armament removed. They were officially decommissioned in 1550. In 1552 the Essex forts were decommissioned and many of them were later demolished. The expenses for the maintenance of the fortresses in Hull led to the fact that the crown entered into a trade with the city council to take over the management of these fortresses. Milton Blockhouse and Higham Blockhouse were demolished between 1557 and 1558. The Mersea Fort was temporarily decommissioned and later returned to active service.

The strategic importance of south-east England decreased after the peace agreement with France in 1558. Instead, military attention was drawn to the Spanish threat to the increasingly soaring south-west of the country. Tensions mounted and war between the two nations finally broke out in 1569. The new threat resulted in the expansion of Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle in Cornwall and repairs to Calshot Castle, Camber Castle and Portland Castle along the south coast. In 1588 the Spanish Armada went to England and in response the Device Forts were mobilized. As part of these operations, West Tilbury Fort was put back into service and topped up with a hastily raised army. Queen Elizabeth I visited the fort, which was expanded under the Italian fortress engineer Federigo Giambelli . Gravesend Castle was expanded and various forts in Essex were temporarily put back into service. Consideration was given to expanding the defenses at Hull and Milford Haven, but the work was not carried out.

Despite the destruction of the Armada, the Spanish threat persisted. The Kent forts were kept in readiness for the remainder of Elizabeth's reign. In 1596 a Spanish invasion fleet with allegedly 20,000 soldiers set out for Pendennis Castle, which at that time was occupied by a garrison of 500 men. Bad weather forced the fleet to turn back, but Queen Elizabeth had her defenses reworked and King Henry's original fortresses significantly expanded with more modern bastions designed by fortress engineer Paul Ive . By the end of this century, however, most device forts were out of date by European standards.

17th century

James I came to the English throne in 1603 and immediately made peace with both France and Spain. His government was little interested in the coastal defense works, and many of the device forts were neglected and dilapidated; the wages for their garrisons were no longer paid. Castles such as Deal Castle and log houses such as Gravesend Blockhouse were classified as in need of extensive repair, with Sandgate Castle in such poor condition that it was "neither habitable nor defensible against any attack, nor in any way suitable for monitoring the streets". Without ammunition and powder, and with only a handful of cannons in working order, Hurst Castle was unable to deter Flemish ships from sailing the Solent. The Pendennis Castle garrison was unpaid for two years, so the men had to collect limpets from the coast to feed. Some of the forts were no longer usable; Camber Castle, whose original function of protecting the local anchorage had become obsolete due to the shifting of the coastline, was abandoned at the behest of King Charles I in 1637, while Sharpenrode Bulwark was already in ruins in the 1620s.

First English Civil War

Sketch of the log house in Gravesend, by Cornelis Bol, mid-17th century

The civil war broke out in England in 1642 between the supporters of King Charles I and those of the Parliament of. Fortresses and artillery played an important role in this conflict, and many of the device forts were in use. The south and east of England were soon largely controlled by the Roundheads. The log houses in Tilbury and Gravesend were garrisoned by Parliament and used to control access to London. The castles along the coasts of Sussex and Kent were captured by parliamentary forces in the opening phase of the war, with Camber Castle then decommissioned to prevent it from being used by the enemy and the rest left garrisoned. The royal fleet, anchored in the Downs, sided with the parliamentarians.

The device forts along the Solent also fell into the hands of the parliamentarians early in the civil war. Calshot Castle was garrisoned the whole time, as was Brownsea Castle, which was reinforced and equipped with additional cannons. West Cowes Castle was quickly captured after a parliamentarian ship was fired from there, and the royalist commander of Yarmouth Castle quickly negotiated the abandonment of his small garrison. The hopelessly inferior garrison of Southsea Castle was caught off guard by parliamentary troops in a night raid. Like Camber Castle, St Andrew's Castle and Netley Castle were quickly captured by the Parliamentarians and then decommissioned. In the northeast, Hull was also on the side of the parliamentarians and its castles and log houses served as defensive structures for the city during the various fortifications.

Most of the southwest sided with the king; Device forts like St Catherine's Castle have been held by the royalists since the beginning of the conflict. The royalists invaded Parliamentarist-controlled Dorset in 1643 and captured Portland Castle and Sandsfoot Castle. The fortunes of war turned against the king and the forts in Dorset were besieged in 1644 and 1645, after which Sandsfoot Castle fell back to the parliamentarians. In March 1646 Thomas Fairfax had marched into Cornwall with a sizeable army. The captain of the fort was suggested to retreat to the stronger fortress of Pendennis Castle, but he surrendered immediately without resistance. Pendennis Castle was covered with fire from land and blocked from the sea by a flotilla of ships. The captain, Sir John Arundell , agreed to an honorable handover on August 15, and about 900 survivors left the fort, some of them temporarily ill due to malnutrition. Pendennis Castle was the penultimate royalist fortress in that Civil War, followed by Portland Castle, which finally surrendered in April 1646.

Second English Civil War

Little Dennis Blockhouse 2008

After a few years of uncertain peace, the second English civil war broke out in 1648 , this time the Scottish troops fighting alongside the royalists of King Charles. The Parliamentarian naval force was based in the Downs and was protected by the nearby Device forts. But from May there was a royalist uprising in Kent. Sandown Castle confessed to the king, and the soldier and former naval captain Major Keme convinced the Garrisons of Deal Castle and Walmer Castle to give up. Sandgate Castle probably also joined the royalists. Now that both the coastal fortresses and the navy were under the control of the royalists, the parliamentarians feared the landing of enemy forces on the coast or military aid for the Scots.

A rebellion also broke out in Essex in June and the city of Colchester was taken by the royalists. Sir Thomas Fairfax besieged them and Mersea Fort was captured by parliamentary forces and used to cut off the city from any aid across the river. Meanwhile, in early June, the MPs quelled the Kent uprising at the Battle of Maidstone and sent a force led by Colonel Rich to look after the castles in the Downs.

Walmer Castle was the first of these castles to be besieged, and their garrison surrendered on July 12th. Then an earthwork fort was built between Sandown Castle and Deal Castle, both of which were defended by about 150 men each. Deal Castle, which had been replenished from the sea by the royalists, was besieged in July. A royalist fleet bombed the parliamentary positions and temporarily landed a force of 1,500 Flemish mercenaries in support of the revolt, but financial difficulties forced the mercenaries to return to mainland Europe. The fleet, led by Prince Karl, attempted to land a new force in August, but despite three attempts, the operation failed and the force suffered significant losses. The Garrison at Deal Castle surrendered on August 25th, followed by that of Sandown Castle on September 5th.

Interregnum and Stuart Restoration

The southern log cabin (center) and the castle (right) in Hull, from the seaside, by Wenceslaus Hollar , mid-17th century

Unlike many castles Parliament avoided in the Device Forts the razing - that is, the intentional damage or destruction - during the years of interregnum . Many of the forts were left with sizeable garrisons for fear of royalist invasion, and they were run by newly appointed governors. Netley Castle was put back into service because of these fears. Many device forts were used as prison for prisoners of war or political prisoners. B. Hull Castle, Mersea Castle, Portland Castle, Southsea Castle and West Cowes Castle. In the first Anglo-Dutch War from 1652 to 1654, forts such as Deal Castle were reinforced with earthworks and occupied with additional soldiers. Portland Castle played a role in a three day battle between English and Dutch forces in the Portland Roads . Some sites were also decommissioned: Little Dennis Blockhouse, part of the Pendennis Defense Complex, and Mersea Castle were abandoned in 1654 and 1655 and Brownsea Castle was sold to a private individual.

Charles II came to the English throne in 1660 and reduced the size and wages of the garrisons throughout the kingdom. The Device Forts initially remained the centerpiece of the south coast defense, but their construction was already very out of date. Deal Castle continued to play an important role in the defense of the Downs in the second and third Anglo-Dutch Wars , supported by local militias. Forts such as Hurst Castle, Portland Castle, and Sandgate Castle continued to be garrisoned, but others were decommissioned; Sandsfoot Castle was abandoned in 1665 after a dispute over control of the defenses, and Netley Castle was abandoned and abandoned.

Concerns about the Dutch threat increased after an unexpected raid from the sea along the Thames in 1667 , in which Gravesend Blockhouse and Tilbury Fort turned the attack away from the capital. In response, King Karl had extensive improvements made to the coastal defense works. Part of these investments have been made in Pendennis Castle, Southsea Castle and Yarmouth Castle, while Tilbury Fort has been greatly expanded at high cost with a modern system of curtain walls , bastions and moats . In the last phase of construction under King Charles in the 1680s, the fort and the southern blockhouse in Hull were integrated into a massive, new fortress called the Citadel .

Some of the Device Forts played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 against Charles' brother, King James II . Deal townsfolk captured the local fort in support of William of Orange and took steps to defend the Downs from a feared Irish invasion that never took place. Southsea Castle held the king's illegitimate son, James FitzJames , the Duke of Berwick , who was forced to surrender when his father's skins swam away. Yarmouth Castle was controlled by Robert Holmes , a supporter of Jacob, but the residents of the place and the garrison, who sided with King William, prevented it from being used in support of the Loyalist cause.

18th and 19th centuries

1700-1791

St Mawes Castle (center) and Pendennis Castle (left) in an 1823 painting by William Turner

The military importance of the Device Forts decreased in the course of the 18th century. Some of the forts were rebuilt so that they had more comfortable accommodations for their residents. Cowes Castle was partially rebuilt in 1716 to modernize the housing, with most of the keep demolished and residential wings and gardens added over the land based defenses. Brownsea Castle was converted into a country house from the 1720s . Walmer Castle became the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and the Duke of Dorset , Lionel Sackville , had extensive work carried out there from 1708. Presumably there was some rivalry in the relationship between Sackville and Naval Officer Sir John Norris , who had the nearby Deal Castle remodeled at the same time, creating comfortable, wood-paneled living quarters for himself with a view of the sea .

There was criticism of the defenses of the Device Forts, which often only housed minimal garrisons and fell into disrepair. Southsea Castle e.g. B. had only one garrison, which, according to a contemporary report, consisted of "an old sergeant and three or four men selling cakes and beer". So suggestions arose to give up the location at all. Portland Castle suffered badly from coastal erosion and, as it was only occupied by a "caretaker" garrison, was reportedly not repaired for years. A report from 1714 found that the long neglected Pendennis Castle was "in very bad shape". The French military exposed Deal Castle, Walmer Castle and Sandown Castle as very sensitive to any possible attack, describing them as "very old and little more than gun platforms". Mersea Fort and East Tilbury Fort fell into disrepair and were abandoned, the latter being washed over by the Thames. However, some very limited investments were made in the fortresses, e.g. B. Pendennis Castle's defenses were modernized in the 1730s and Calshot Castle's in the 1770s.

1792-1849

The Duke of Wellington's room at Walmer Castle. The Duke was captain there from 1829 to 1852.

The coalition wars at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries meant that some of the device forts were garrisoned and repaired as part of a series of gun batteries around the most important locations. Some of the forts, such as Sandgate Castle, Southsea Castle, Hurst Castle and Pendennis Castle, protected strategically important places and so they have been extensively modernized. Hurst Castle z. B. was upgraded with batteries of heavy 36-pounder guns and Pendennis Castle was equipped with 48-pounder guns. The Sandgate Castle Donjon was rebuilt in the form of a Martello Tower as part of a larger program of work along England's south coast . New gun batteries were built at Deal Castle and Sandown Castle in Kent and Tilbury Fort, while Mersea Castle was put back into service with a new gun battery. Calshot Castle has been renovated, and Southsea Castle's defenses have been extensively modernized, as has those in Hull, where the fort and log cabin have been rebuilt.

Some of the device forts worked with volunteer units dug up during the wars to counter the threat of a French invasion. Walmer Castle served its Captain William Pitt the Younger - then both Prime Minister and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports - as the base for the volunteer cavalry and a fleet of 35 armed fishing boats called the Luggers . Infantry and cavalry units called the Fencibles were stationed at nearby Deal Castle , and in 1802, bombardiers recruited by Pitt carried out military exercises on the fort. Ammunition for the sea fencibles stationed nearby was stored at Calshot Castle. A newly formed volunteer artillery unit was stationed at Pendennis Castle, training other garrisons across Cornwall.

The Coast Guard used some of the forts as a base to crack down on smugglers. Calshot Castle was a good place to position waiting interceptors and by the mid-18th century there were two officers and 42 men stationed there. Sandown Castle in Kent was also used by the Coast Guard for operations against smugglers. In the following decades, some of the device forts were declared dispensable and new uses were made. After the war, guns were removed from Portland Castle and the fort was converted into a private residence. Gravesend Blockhouse was replaced by the New Tavern Fort and demolished in 1844. From 1826 the ruins of Netley Castle were transformed into a neo-Gothic house.

1850-1899

Hurst Castle from the east with the defenses from the 16th century (center), flanked by the extensive additions from the mid-19th century

From the mid-19th century, changes in military technology repeatedly challenged the value and construction of Britain's coastal defenses. The introduction of grenades and steamers created new risks of a possible French attack on England's south coast and fears of conflict increased in the early 1850s. Southsea Castle and St Mawes Castle were expanded with new gun batteries, Pendennis Castle was re-equipped with larger guns and Hurst Castle was extensively rebuilt. There were discussions about re-arming Calshot Castle, but the proposals were rejected, in part because of doubts about the suitability of the 16th century walls for modern warfare. The Crimean War raised fears of a possible invasion again and in 1855 the south coast of England was fortified again. In 1855 new guns were installed at St Catherine's Castle and Yarmouth Castle. The remnants of the western blockhouse were destroyed by the construction of a new fortification, the West Blockhouse Fort , which was constructed in response to the threat from France.

New concerns about France in connection with the development of rifled barrel cannons and ironclad ships led to the establishment of the Royal Commission on the Defense of the United Kingdom in 1859 and to the expression of concerns about the security of the south coast. In response, Sandgate Castle was equipped with more powerful cannons in 1859 and extensive work was carried out on Southsea Castle. Hurst Castle were equipped with two huge batteries of heavy breech-loading cannons with rifled barrels, which were protected by iron armor plates. They were intended for use against fast-moving enemy warships. The Tilbury Blockhouse was demolished after 1868 to make way for heavier artillery on the fort. An army garrison was re-stationed at Portland Castle in 1869 over fears of invasion, but the fort was not re-armed.

A new wave of concerns over France followed in the 1880s, accompanied by the introduction of the still powerful naval artillery and fast warships and torpedo boats, which sparked a new wave of modernization. An electronically operated minefield was laid through the Carrick Roads in 1885 and was jointly monitored by St Mawes Castle and Pendennis Castle. New rapid fire cannons were installed on Hurst Castle to allow enemies to be attacked. Calshot Castle was put back into service as a coastal fort and equipped with a new battery of rapid fire cannons to protect the estuary from attack. The original parts of the 16th century fortresses, such as Southsea Castle and Calshot Castle, were too small and unsuitable for modern weapons, but were used to build searchlights and radio direction finders . In some cases the masonry was slowly allowed to deteriorate.

Some other locations were deemed no longer viable. West Cowes Castle was decommissioned in 1854 and became the clubhouse of the Royal Yacht Squadron. Sandown Castle in Kent, which suffered badly from coastal erosion, was demolished in 1863. The Hull Citadel and its 16th century fortifications were demolished in 1864 to make way for docks. Yarmouth Castle was decommissioned in 1885 and converted into a Coast Guard signal station. Sandgate Castle, which also suffered from coastal erosion, was sold to the South Eastern Railway Company in 1888 .

20th and 21st centuries

1900-1945

World War II 6 '' (152 mm) Mark-24 cannon in the Half Moon Battery at Pendennis Castle

At the beginning of the 20th century, developments in the cannon and armor sector ensured that most of the remaining device forts were simply too small to accommodate modern weapon systems and the associated logistics facilities, such as ammunition stores. A 1905 report on the defenses at Falmouth concluded that the naval artillery at St Mawes Castle had become obsolete because the necessary guns could be mounted partly at Pendennis Castle and partly at newer locations along the coast, and so on the guns were dismantled in St Mawes Castle. A 1913 report concluded that keeping the artillery at Calshot Castle was also unnecessary, so that location was instead converted into an experimental seaplane station.

Meanwhile, complaints have arisen about the neglectful treatment of historical military installations by the War Office . The War Office, on the other hand, feared that it would ultimately have to finance these properties from its own budget. Yarmouth Castle was transferred to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests in 1901 ; Parts of it were rented to the neighboring hotel. The War Office determined that Walmer Castle and Deal Castle no longer had any military value and in 1904 agreed to transfer the two forts to the Office of Works , which made the two previous forts accessible to visitors. Portland Castle was put on a list called Schedule C, which meant the Army would continue to use and manage the historic property, but would be advised by the Office of Works on upcoming repairs.

With the outbreak of World War I , the navy's operations were mainly concentrated on the southeast and south coasts. Pendennis Castle's defenses were reinforced, while Southsea Castle formed part of the Fortress-Portsmouth plan to defend the Solent with the installation of Zeppelin anti-aircraft cannons . Calshot Castle formed the base for the fight against the submarines and the remaining forts in the Downs were used to support the Dover Patrol activities . St Mawes Castle and Portland Castle were used as barracks and Walmer Castle became the weekend home for the Prime Minister , Herbert Henry Asquith , who took advantage of his good communication links with the front line in France.

During World War II, Britain's coastal defense relied on extensive barriers built along the coasts in conjunction with a large number of small artillery defense positions protected by an air screen. Several device forts were put back into service. Pendennis Castle, St Catherine's Castle, St Mawes Castle and Walmer Castle were fitted with naval gun batteries , Calshot Castle and Hurst Castle were re-armed with naval guns and anti-aircraft cannons , and Sandsfoot Castle served as the anti-aircraft battery. Southsea Castle remained in service and was involved in Operation Grasp , in which the French fleet was captured in 1940. Other device forts were used as supply facilities. Yarmouth Castle was requisitioned again for military use, Portland Castle served as housing, office and weapons storage, and West Cowes Castle served as naval headquarters for part of Operation Neptune . Camber Castle served as a warning post and decoy station to hold off attacks from nearby Rye. Early in the war, a German bomber destroyed the captain's quarters at Deal Castle, so that William Birdwood had to move to Hampton Court Palace . The Prime Minister, Winston Churchill , was appointed captain of Walmer Castle during the war but refused to reside there because he said it was too expensive to maintain and was also within range of the German artillery.

1946 - today

Sandgate Castle , destroyed by coastal erosion and converted into a private home in the 1970s

After the war, coastal defense became increasingly irrelevant as nuclear weapons now dominated the battlefield. The remaining device forts in military use were initially occupied with garrisons from reservist units and finally abandoned as military facilities. St Catherine's Fort and Portland Fort were decommissioned in the late 1940s, Hurst Castle, Pendennis Castle and Yarmouth Castle in the 1950s, Southsea Castle in 1960 and then the closure of Calshot Castle Air Force Base in 1961.

Extensive restoration work was then carried out on the Device Forts: the more modern extensions of Calshot Castle, Deal Castle, Hurst Castle, Pendennis Castle, Portland Castle, St Catherine's Castle and Southsea Castle were removed so that the forts can regain their appearance from earlier periods of their history assumptions that stretched from the 16th to the 19th century. During this period, from 1951 onwards, extensive research was carried out on the forts, and the Ministry of Works commissioned a long-term study of device forts, which in turn led to increased academic interest in the history of these fortifications in the 1980s.

A number of these forts were opened to the public in the post-war years. Deal Castle, Hurst Castle, Pendennis Castle and Portland Castle opened in the 1950s and Southsea Castle in 1967. Calshot Castle followed in the 1980s, Camber Castle after a long restoration period in 1994 and Sandsfoot Castle opened after repairs in 2012. The number of visitors varies from location to location; so visited z. B. Southsea Castle over 90,000 visitors in 2011 and 2012. Other forts were used for other purposes: Netley Castle was initially a nursing home and then was converted into private apartments. Brownsea Castle became a corporate hotel for employees of the John Lewis Partnership and Sandgate Castle was converted into a private residence in the 1970s.

By the beginning of the 21st century, many device forts had been damaged or even completely destroyed by coastal erosion. This problem has existed in some places since the 16th century and still exists today, e.g. B. at Hurst Castle. East Cowes Castle and East Tilbury Fort were completely washed away, while East Blockhouse, Mersea Castle and Sandsfoot Castle were badly damaged by the sea. A third of Sandgate Castle and most of St Andrews Castle were also lost. At other locations, the forts were torn down, built over or simply fell into disrepair over time. Almost no more traces are z. B. obtained from the bulwarks along the Downs. The remaining sites are protected under the United Kingdom's Monument Protection Regulations, either as a Scheduled Monument or a Listed Building.

Individual references and comments

↑ In the sixteenth century a number of contemporary terms were used for these fortresses, often several for the same fortress. They were called z. B. blockhouse (German: block house ), bulwark (German: bulwark ), castle (German: castle ) or fortress (German: fortress ). Modern historians also used different names to describe and analyze these fortresses: B. Morley, for example, differentiates between "Henrician Castles", ie the larger fortresses such as Walmer Castle , Deal Castle or Hull Castle , on the one hand, and the "Henrician Blockhouses", such as Tilbury Fort or Gravesend Fort, on the other hand. Peter Harrington makes a similar distinction between “castles” / “forts” on the one hand and “blockhouses” on the other. Andrew Saunders distinguishes between three groups, "castles", "forts" and "blockhouses", and extends the term "device program" to all of England and Wales.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . Pp. 8-9.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 3, 8.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 37, 40.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f It is very difficult to compare costs and prices from the early modern period with today's prices and costs. The total cost of £ 376,000 to build the Device Forts in 1547 in 2015 modern money could be anywhere from £ 1.949 billion (using the UK earnings index) to £ 82.12 billion (using the GDP measurement method). A castle at the then price of £ 5000 would cost between £ 25.92 million and £ 1.092 billion today. Richard Lee's annual salary of £ 30 at the time corresponds to between £ 15,770 (according to the RPI measurement method) and £ 155,500 (according to the UK earnings index) in 2015 modern money. The daily wage of 5p for a worker at the time can now range from £ 26 to £ 259.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lawrence H. Officer, Samuel H. Williamson: Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present . MeasuringWorth. 2014. Retrieved September 6, 2016.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 9-11.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 34-36.

^ ^A ^b H. M. Colvin: Castles and Government in Tudor England in The English Historical Review . No. 27. Issue 83 (1968). P. 225.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 168-169.

^ Matthew Johnson: Behind the Castles Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance . Routledge Press, London 2002. ISBN 978-0-415261-00-5 . Pp. 178-180.

^ MW Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . Pp. 103-111.

^ Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1994. ISBN 978-0-521-45828-3 . Pp. 256-257.

^ Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1994. ISBN 978-0-521-45828-3 . P. 249.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . Pp. 11, 21, 333.

^ Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). P. 69.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 176-177.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 7.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 5.

↑ ^a ^b M. W. Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . P. 111.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 63.

↑ JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . Pp. 63-64.

↑ JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 66.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 6.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 26.

^ Design for Henrician castle on the Kent coast . British Library. Retrieved September 6, 2016.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 177-178.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 11.

^ ^A ^b ^c Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). P. 70.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 12.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 20.

^ ^A ^b ^c D. J. Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . P. 178.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 16.

^ Edward C. Harris: Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 14 (1980). Pp. 54-55.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle, AD 1539-40 in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 20 (1893). P. 229.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Milton Blockhouse, Gravesend: Research and Excavation in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 96 (1980). P. 342.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 42.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 21.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 1.

^ ^A ^b Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 41.

^ HM Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: 1485-1660 . Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . P. 470.

^ ^A ^b Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 153.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 8, 28.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 22.

^ ^A ^b P. Crane: East Blockhouse, Angle: Archaeological Excavation, July 2011 . Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Carmarthen 2012. p. 2.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 24.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 25.

^ ^A ^b Adrian Pettifer: English Castles: A Guide by Counties . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2002. ISBN 978-0-85115-782-5 . P. 86.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 29.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . P. 177.

^ HM Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: 1485-1660 . Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . P. 472.

^ HM Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: 1485-1660 . Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . Pp. 470-471.

↑ St Andrew's Castle . Historic England. Retrieved September 7, 2016.

↑ JR Kenyon: An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 13 (1979). P. 75.

^ Bernard Lowry: Discovering Fortifications: From Tudors to the Cold War . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough 2006. ISBN 978-0-747806-51-6 . P. 9.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bernard Lowry: Discovering Fortifications: From Tudors to the Cold War . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough 2006. ISBN 978-0-747806-51-6 . P. 10.

^ ^A ^b J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . Pp. 79-80.

↑ JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 80.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 29-30.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 30.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 51.

↑ ^a ^b Fort Victoria . Historic England. Retrieved September 7, 2016.

^ ^A ^b Henry Potter: Henry VIII and Francis I: The Final Conflict, 1540-47 . Koninklijke Brill, Leiden 2011. ISBN 978-9-004204-31-7 . P. 376.

^ ^A ^b J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 86.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 45.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 46.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . Pp. 33, 35.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 46-47.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 70.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d ^e Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 45.

^ Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). Pp. 68, 71.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 15.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 11.

↑ Jonathan Hughes: Benese, Richard (d.1547) . Oxford University Press. 2008. Retrieved September 7, 2016.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 7.

^ HM Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: "1485-1660". Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . Pp. 561-562.

^ Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). P. 68.

^ AW Skempton (Editor): A Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland . Volume I: 1500-1830 . Thomas Telford Publishing, London 2002. ISBN 978-0-727729-39-2 . P. 303.

^ ^A ^b Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 44-45.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 31.

^ Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). Pp. 67-68.

↑ On this map of the Thames, south is at the top, contrary to the practice on other maps; West is therefore on the right and east on the left.

^ ^A ^b ^c D. J. Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . P. 175.

↑ Marcus Merriman: Lee, Sir Richard (1501 / 2-1575) . Oxford University Press. 2004. Retrieved September 8, 2016.

^ ^A ^b O. H. Creighton: Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England . Equinox, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-904768-67-8 . P. 51.

^ R. Allen Brown: Castles from the Air . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989. ISBN 0-521329-32-9 . Pp. 70-71.

^ BM Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 15.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 175-176.

^ ^A ^b D. J. Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . P. 180.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 37.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 40.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 37-38.

↑ ^a ^b M. W. Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . P. 112.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 37-39, 43-44.

^ ^A ^b Bernard Lowry: Discovering Fortifications: From Tudors to the Cold War . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough 2006. ISBN 978-0-747806-51-6 . P. 13.

^ BM Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 22.

^ BM Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 23.

^ BM Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . Pp. 22-24.

^ DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . P. 179.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Milton Blockhouse, Gravesend: Research and Excavation in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 96 (1980). Pp. 349, 357-358.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). P. 143.

^ ^A ^b Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 12.

↑ JR Kenyon: An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 13 (1979). Pp. 61-62.

↑ ^a ^b M. W. Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . P. 113.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 52.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 43-44

↑ JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . Pp. 89-90.

^ ^A ^b J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . Pp. 77, 90.

↑ SE Rigold: Yarmouth Castle, Isle of Wight . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 1978 (2012). ISBN 978-1-850740-49-0 . P. 4.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d ^e B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 26.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 46.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 8.

^ ^A ^b A. W. Skempton (editor): A Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland . Volume I: 1500-1830 . Thomas Telford Publishing, London 2002. ISBN 978-0-727729-39-2 . P. 582.

^ John Leland, Lucy Toulmin Smith (editor): The Itenerary of John Leland In or About the Years 1535–1543 . Volume 1. George Bell and Sons, London 1907. pp. 202-203.

↑ John Chandler, Mark Brayshay (Editor): Topographical Writers in South-West England . University of Exeter Press, Exeter 1996. ISBN 978-0-859894-24-1 . Chapter: John Leland in the West Country . P. 43.

^ Devils Point Artillery Tower . Historic England. Retrieved September 21, 2016.

↑ Blockhouse . Historic England, English Heritage. Retrieved September 21, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 28.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 18.

↑ In the 16th century stonemasons, bricklayers and builders worked with stone, bricks and wood. Transporters transported the building materials. Lime burners were an important raw material for mortar. The saws saw the timber. The plumber worked with the lead sheet that was needed for the roofing. The trench makers made waterways, trenches and earth walls.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 26.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). P. 144.

^ BM Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 29.

^ ^A ^b J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 71.

^ Coalhouse Fort battery and artillery defenses . Historic England, English Heritage. Retrieved September 22, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b ^c East Cowes Castle . Historic England, English Heritage. Retrieved September 22, 2016.

^ ^A ^b West Cowes Castle . Historic England, English Heritage.

^ ^A ^b Victor TC Smith: The Milton Blockhouse, Gravesend: Research and Excavation in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 96 (1980). P. 344.

↑ Milton Chantry . Historic England, English Heritage. Retrieved September 22, 2016.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 37-38.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 1, 35.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort and the Development of Artillery Fortifications in the Thames Estuary in The Antiquaries Journal . Issue 40 (1960). Issue 3–4. P. 154.

↑ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort, Essex . Revised edition. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London (1960) 1977. ISBN 0-116703-11-3 . P. 9.

^ Paul Pattison: Tilbury Fort . English Heritage, London 2004. ISBN 978-1-850748-66-3 . P. 21.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. p. 162.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 38-39.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 37.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 47.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 39.

^ ^A ^b Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . P. 16.

^ ^A ^b Henry Symonds: Sandsfoot and Portland Castles in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 35 (1914). Pp. 32-33.

^ PJ Norrey: The Restoration Regime in Action: The Relationship between Central and Local Government in Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire, 1660-1678 in The Historical Journal . Issue 31 (1988). Number 4. p. 794.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 33.

^ ^A ^b John Sydenham: History of the Town and Country of Poole . John Sydenham, Poole 1839. pp. 387-390.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 41.

↑ ^a ^b J. G. Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 20.

↑ JR Kenyon: An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 13 (1979). P. 72.

↑ ^a ^b J. G. Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 11.

^ Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 8.

↑ ^a ^b J. R. Kenyon: An Aspect of the 1559 Survey of the Isle of Wight: The State of all the Quenes maties Fortresses and Castelles in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 13 (1979). P. 76.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . Pp. 44-46.

^ ^A ^b Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 46.

^ ^A ^b ^c Paul EJ Hammer: Elizabeth's Wars: War, Government and Society in Tudor England, 1544-1604 . Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke 2003. ISBN 978-1-137173-38-6 . P. 79.

^ ^A ^b B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . Pp. 21-23.

↑ ^a ^b Henry's Gun . Hull City Council. Retrieved September 23, 2016.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 42.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 345.

↑ A Colored Bird's Eye View of "A Castle for the Downes;" Probably an Early Design for Walmer and Sundown Castles . British Library. Retrieved September 23, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 "in" The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). P. 103.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 47.

^ HM Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: "1485-1660". Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . Pp. 457, 459, 462, 464-465.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d H. M. Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: 1485-1660 . Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . P. 471.

↑ ^a ^b H. M. Colvin, DR Ransome, John Summerson: The History of the King's Works . Volume 4: 1485-1660 . Part 2. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1982. ISBN 0-116708-32-8 . P. 475.

^ Joseph H. Hirst: Castle of Kingston-upon-Hull in East Riding Antiquarian Society . Issue 3 (1895). P. 30.

^ KJ Alison: Fortifications . British History Online. 1969. Retrieved September 23, 2016.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Milton Blockhouse, Gravesend: Research and Excavation in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 96 (1980). P. 347.

^ ^A ^b Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 40.

^ ^A ^b Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . Pp. 34-35.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 35.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 35.

^ ^A ^b Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 22.

^ ^A ^b Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . Pp. 28-29.

^ ^A ^b Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. pp. 78-81.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort and the Development of Artillery Fortifications in the Thames Estuary in The Antiquaries Journal . Issue 40 (1960). Issue 3–4. Pp. 155-156.

^ Paul Pattison: Tilbury Fort . English Heritage, London 2004. ISBN 978-1-850748-66-3 . P. 20.

↑ Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . P. 18.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). P. 151.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 48.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . Pp. 35, 38.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 38.

^ ^A ^b Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 69.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 49.

^ BH St John O'Neill: Deal Castle, Kent . Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, London 1985 (1966). ISBN 1-850740-32-1 . P. 6.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 21 (1895). Pp. 249-250.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). Pp. 152-153.

^ Department of the Environment: Pendennis and St Mawes Castles . Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1975. p. 10.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . Pp. 35, 41.

↑ Stephen Bull: The Furie of the Ordnance: Artillery in the English Civil Wars . The Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2008. ISBN 978-1-843834-03-8 . Pp. XXI-XXII.

^ Peter Gaunt: The English Civil War: A Military History . IB Taurus, London 2014. ISBN 978-1-848858-81-7 . P. 88.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). Pp. 153-154.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 42.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 21 (1895). Pp. 250-251.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. p. 131.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. p. 183.

^ CV Wedgwood: The King's War, 1641-1647 . Collins Fontana, London 1970 (1958). Pp. 98-99.

^ John Sydenham: History of the Town and Country of Poole . John Sydenham, Poole 1839. p. 391.

^ ^A ^b Charles Van Raalte: Brownsea Island in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society . Issue 26 (1905). P. 190.

^ George Nelson Godwin: The Civil War in Hampshire (1642-45) and the Story of Basing House . New, revised edition. Henry March Gilbert and Son, Southampton 1904. p. 6.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g The Borough of Yarmouth . British History Online. 1912. Retrieved September 26, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b S. E. Rigold: Yarmouth Castle, Isle of Wight . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 1978 (2012). ISBN 978-1-850740-49-0 . P. 15.

^ The Castle . Royal Yacht Squadron. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015. Retrieved September 26, 2016.

^ George Nelson Godwin: The Civil War in Hampshire (1642-45) and the Story of Basing House . New, revised edition. Henry March Gilbert and Son, Southampton 1904. pp. 26-27.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 14.

↑ Stephen Brooks: Southsea Castle . Pitkin Guides, Andover 1996. ISBN 0-85372-809-7 . P. 10.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 50.

↑ ^a ^b St Andrew's Castle . Historic England. Retrieved September 26, 2016.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d Michael Heaton: Netley Castle, Hampshire . Michael Heaton Heritage Consultants. Archived from the original on September 25, 2006. Retrieved September 26, 2016.

↑ Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . Pp. 27-28.

^ Robert Davison: Dartmouth Castle, Devon . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 978-1-850747-59-8 . P. 29.

^ Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 49-50.

^ ^A ^b Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . Pp. 19, 24.

^ W. Bowles Barrett: Weymouth and Melcombe Regis in the Time of the Great Civil War in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 31 (1910). Pp. 206-207.

^ W. Bowles Barrett: Weymouth and Melcombe Regis in the Time of the Great Civil War in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 31 (1910). Pp. 208-209.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London, 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 24.

^ ^A ^b Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 39.

^ Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 156.

↑ James D. Mackenzie: The Castles of England: Their Story and Structure . Volume II. Macmillan, New York 1896. p. 13.

↑ Samuel Pasfield Oliver: Pendennis and St Mawes: An Historical Sketch of the Two Cornish Castles . W. Lake, Truro 1875. pp. 93-94.

^ Department of the Environment: Pendennis and St Mawes Castles . Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1975. p. 11.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . Pp. 39-40.

^ ^A ^b Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 40.

^ ^A ^b Department of the Environment: Pendennis and St Mawes Castles . Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1975. p. 12.

^ ^A ^b D. E. Kennedy: The English Naval Revolt of 1648 in The English Historical Review . No. 77 (1962). No. 303. pp. 251-252.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 21 (1895). P. 250.

^ Robert Ashton: Counter-revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646-8 . The Bath Press, Avon 1994. ISBN 978-0-300061-14-7 . Pp. 439-440.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f The Tudor Fort at East Mersea . Mersea Museum. Archived from the original on April 6, 2016. Retrieved September 27, 2016.

^ Robert Ashton: Counter-revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646-8 . The Bath Press, Avon 1994. ISBN 978-0-300061-14-7 . P. 440.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 51.

^ ^A ^b Robert Ashton: Counter-revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646-8 . The Bath Press, Avon 1994. ISBN 978-0-300061-14-7 . P. 442.

^ ^A ^b B. H. St John O'Neill: Deal Castle, Kent . Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, London 1985 (1966). ISBN 1-850740-32-1 . P. 7.

^ ^A ^b Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 31.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 53.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. p. 118.

^ ^A ^b John Webb: The Siege of Portsmouth in the Civil War . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1977. ISBN 0-901559-33-4 . Pp. 18-19.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. pp. 211-213.

↑ ^a ^b Cowes Castle . Royal Yacht Squadron. Archived from the original on April 6, 2015. Retrieved September 27, 2016.

↑ Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . Pp. 42, 44.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. pp. 118, 131.

^ ^A ^b ^c Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 32.

^ BH St John O'Neill: Deal Castle, Kent . Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, London 1985 (1966). ISBN 1-850740-32-1 . P. 10.

↑ ^a ^b Little Dennis Blockhouse . Historic England. Retrieved September 27, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b Oliver Garnett: Brownsea Castle . Revised edition. The National Trust, Swindon 2005 (1993). ISBN 978-1-84359-110-8 . P. 7.

^ ^A ^b B. H. St John O'Neill: Deal Castle, Kent . Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, London 1985 (1966). ISBN 1-850740-32-1 . P. 11.

^ ^A ^b Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. pp. 123-125.

^ Howard Tomlinson: The Ordnance Office and the King's Forts, 1660-1714 in Architectural History . Issue 1 (1973). P. 6.

^ William Page: Parishes: Hordle . British History Online. 1912. Retrieved September 27, 2016 .;

↑ JG Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 21.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 21 (1895). P. 248.

^ PJ Norrey: The Restoration Regime in Action: The Relationship between Central and Local Government in Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire, 1660-1678 in The Historical Journal . Issue 31 (1988). Number 4. p. 474.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). Pp. 154-155.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 84-85.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 85-87.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort and the Development of Artillery Fortifications in the Thames Estuary in The Antiquaries Journal . Issue 40 (1960). Issue 3–4. P. 163.

↑ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort, Essex . Revised edition. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London (1960) 1977. ISBN 0-116703-11-3 . Pp. 11-13.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 15.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 91.

^ Peter Moore: Tilbury Fort: A Post-Medieval Fort and its Inhabitants . Newham Museum Service, London 1990. p. 7.

↑ ^a ^b S. E. Rigold: Yarmouth Castle, Isle of Wight . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 1978 (2012). ISBN 978-1-850740-49-0 . P. 16.

↑ Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . Pp. 56, 59.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 100-101.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. p. 126.

^ BH St John O'Neill: Deal Castle, Kent . Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, London 1985 (1966). ISBN 1-850740-32-1 . P. 12.

^ John Childs: The Army, James II, and the Glorious Revolution . Manchester University Press, Manchester 1980. ISBN 978-0-312049-49-2 . Pp. 151, 193.

↑ John Miller: Cities Devided: Politics and Religion in English Provincal Towns, 1660-1722 . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-928839-7 . P. 241.

^ ^A ^b Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England): Studland . British History Online. 1970. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

↑ West Cowes Castle . Historic England.

^ ^A ^b Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . Pp. 32-33.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Jonathan Coad, Susannah Lawsan (Editor): Walmer Castle and Gardens . English Heritage, London 2008. ISBN 1-85074-726-1 . Chapter: History of the Castle . P. 29.

↑ ^a ^b J. K. Laughton: Norris, Sir John (1670 / 71-1749) . Oxford University Press. 2008. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 17.

↑ Stephen Brooks: Southsea Castle . Pitkin Guides, Andover 1996. ISBN 0-85372-809-7 . P. 12.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 41.

^ Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . Pp. 25, 27.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 115-116.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 122.

^ A. Baggs, Beryl Board, Philip Crummy, Claude Dove, Shirley Durgan, N. Goose, R. Pugh, Pamela Studd, C. Thornton: Fishery . In: A History of the County of Essex: Volume 9: The Borough of Colchester . British History Online. Pp. 264-269. 1994. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

^ East Tilbury Blockhouse . Historic England. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

^ ^A ^b Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . Pp. 42-43.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). P. 105.

↑ ^a ^b J. G. Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 14.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 54.

^ ^A ^b B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 41.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). Pp. 67-68.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London, 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 23.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 42.

^ Edward C. Harris: Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 14 (1980). Pp. 73-82.

^ Sheila Sutcliffe: Martello Towers . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Rutherford 1973. ISBN 978-0-838613-13-9 . P. 55.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort and the Development of Artillery Fortifications in the Thames Estuary in The Antiquaries Journal . Issue 40 (1960). Issue 3–4. P. 166.

^ Paul Pattison: Tilbury Fort . English Heritage, London 2004. ISBN 978-1-850748-66-3 . P. 27.

^ ^A ^b Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with “The Three Castles that Keep the Downs” . Henry Gray, London 1890. p. 226.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. p. 138.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 34.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 18.

↑ Audrey Howes, Martin Foreman: Town and Gun: The 17th-Century Defenses of Hull . Kingston Press, Kingston upon Hull 1999. ISBN 1-902039-02-5 . Pp. 1, 66, 169.

^ ^A ^b Hull Castle, South Blockhouse and Part of Late 17th Century Hull Citadel Fort at Garrison Side . Historic England. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. pp. 246, 248-249.

^ ^A ^b Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). P. 106.

^ ^A ^b K. W. Maurice-Jones: The History of Coast Artillery in the British Army . The Naval and Military Press, Uckfield 2012 (1959). ISBN 978-1-781491-15-7 . P. 102.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. pp. 248-249.

^ Charles RS Elvin: Records of Walmer, Together with "The Three Castles that Keep the Downs" . Henry Gray, London 1890. pp. 246, 248.

^ JG Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 17.

^ ^A ^b Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). Pp. 106-107.

^ Charles RS Elvin: The History of Walmer and Walmer Castle . Cross and Jackman, Canterbury 1894. p. 188.

^ Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . Pp. 27-28, 30.

^ Richard Warner: The History of the Isle of Wight . T. Cadell & W. Davies & T. Baker, Southampton 1795. p. 67.

^ NN: A Guide to all the Watering and Sea Bathing Places . Longman & Hurst & Rees & Orme & Brown, London 1824. p. 137.

^ NN: The Annual Register: A Review of Public Events at Home and Abroad, for the Year 1882 . Part II. Rivingtons, London 1883. pp. 37-38.

^ Victor TC Smith: The Artillery Defenses at Gravesend in Archaeologia Cantiana . No. 89 (1974). Pp. 158-161.

↑ ^a ^b Gravesend Blockhouse . Historic England. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

^ William Guillame: Architectural Views and Details of Netley Abbey . Forbes and Knibbs, Southampton 1848. p. 4.

^ Nikolaus Pevsner, David Lloyd: The Buildings of England . Penguin Books, London 1967. ISBN 0-140710-32-9 . Chapter: Hampshire and the Isle of Wight . Pp. 348-350.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). P. 76.

^ ^A ^b Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 43.

↑ Steam power enabled ships to cross the English Channel much faster than sailing ships, which could only slowly pass the defenses at the estuaries when sailing against the tide, making them sensitive to cannon attack from land. They have now been replaced by steamships that could pass the device forts at high speed.

^ RSJ Martin and AH Flatt: Golden Hill Fort, Freshwater, Isle of Wight . Golden Hill Fort. 2007. Archived from the original on January 17, 2016. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Stephen Brooks: Southsea Castle . Pitkin Guides, Andover 1996. ISBN 0-85372-809-7 . P. 16.

^ Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 19.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 26.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). P. 77.

^ Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 158.

^ ^A ^b ^c Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 44.

↑ The administration was concerned that modern artillery shells hitting the stone walls of the donjon of Calshot Castle would generate large numbers of stone fragments that would incapacitate the gun crews.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e History of St Catherine's Castle . English Heritage. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ ^A ^b St Catherine's Castle 16th century blockhouse, 19th century gun battery and 20th century gun emplacement at St Catherine's Point . Historic England. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ West Blockhouse, Dale . Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

↑ Cadw: West Blockhouse Fort, Dale . British Listed Buildings. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ Edward C. Harris: Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 14 (1980). Pp. 82, 86.

^ ^A ^b Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. pp. 19, 21.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . Pp. 26-27.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). Pp. 85-87.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Tilbury Fort and the Development of Artillery Fortifications in the Thames Estuary in The Antiquaries Journal . Issue 40 (1960). Issue 3–4. P. 172.

^ ^A ^b Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 30.

^ Adrian Pettifer: English Castles: A Guide by Counties . Boydell Press, Woodbridge 2002. ISBN 978-0-85115-782-5 . P. 66.

^ ^A ^b Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 159.

^ ^A ^b J. G. Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). Pp. 97-98.

^ ^A ^b J. G. Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 28.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). Pp. 109-110.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). Pp. 103-104, 109-110.

^ JG Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 18.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d S. E. Rigold: Yarmouth Castle, Isle of Wight . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 1978 (2012). ISBN 978-1-850740-49-0 . P. 19.

↑ WL Rutton: Sandgate Castle, AD 1539-40 in Archaeologia cantiana . Issue 20 (1893). P. 253.

^ T. Hayter Lewis: The Castles of Sandown and Sandgate in Journal of the British Archaeological Association . Issue 40 (1884). P. 178.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). Pp. 103-104.

^ ^A ^b Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 161.

↑ ^a ^b J. G. Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . Pp. 20-22.

^ Sebastian Fry: A History of the National Heritage Collection . English Heritage, London 2014. ISSN 2046-9799. Volume 2: 1900-1913 . Pp. 10-14.

^ Dave Hopkins: Extensive Urban Survey - Hampshire and the Isle of Wight . English Heritage, London 2004. p. 7.

^ Sebastian Fry: A History of the National Heritage Collection . English Heritage, London 2014. ISSN 2046-9799. Volume 2: 1900-1913 . Pp. 11-12, 15-16.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 35.

^ Sebastian Fry: A History of the National Heritage Collection . English Heritage, London 2014. ISSN 2046-9799. Volume 2: 1900-1913 . Pp. 13-14.

^ Robert Davison: Dartmouth Castle, Devon . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 978-1-850747-59-8 . P. 34.

↑ Stephen Brooks: Southsea Castle . Pitkin Guides, Andover 1996. ISBN 0-85372-809-7 . P. 17.

^ Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 47.

^ Mike Osborne: Defending Hampshire: The Military Landscape from Prehistory to the Present . The History Press, Stroud 2011. ISBN 978-0-752459-86-8 . P. 127.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 55.

↑ Jonathan Coad, Susannah Lawsan (Editor): Walmer Castle and Gardens . English Heritage, London 2008. ISBN 1-85074-726-1 . Chapter: History of the Castle . P. 35.

^ Roy Jenkins: Churchill . Pan Book, London 2002. ISBN 978-0-330488-05-1 . P. 295.

↑ Jane Mulvagh: Madresfield: The Real Brideshead . Doubleday, London 2008. ISBN 978-0-385607-72-8 . P. 320.

↑ ^a ^b St Catherine's Castle Coastal Battery . Historic England. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ Stanley C. Jenkins: St Mawes Castle, Cornwall at Fort . Issue 35 (2007). P. 162.

^ JG Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 22.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Sandsfoot Castle . Historic England. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ Deal Emergency Coastal Battery . Historic England. Retrieved September 30, 2016.

^ ^A ^b ^c Paul Pattison: Pendennis Castle and St Mawes Castle . English Heritage, London 2009. ISBN 978-1-850747-23-9 . P. 48.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle: The Evolution of a Tudor Fortress 1790-1945 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 19 (1985). Pp. 100-101.

↑ ^a ^b ^c J. G. Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 29.

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d Arthur Corney: Southsea Castle . Portsmouth City Council, Portsmouth 1968. p. 22.

↑ Malcolm H. Murfett: Naval Warfare 1919–45: An Operational History of the Volatile War at Sea . Routledge, Abingdon 2009. ISBN 978-1-134-04813-7 . P. 84. Limited preview in Google Book search

↑ Eric Gault Finley: RCN Beach Commando “W” . Gilmore, Ottawa 1994. p. 1.

^ Operation Neptune . NHB. Pp. 7-8. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . Pp. 30-32.

↑ Monument No. 1413734 . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 133.

↑ Camber Castle . Heritage Gateway. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Camber Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Sarah E. Parker: Grace & Flavor: A Handbook of Who lived Where in Hampton Court Palace, 1750 to 1950 . Historic Royal Palaces, Surrey 2005. ISBN 1-873993-50-1 . P. 104.

^ Winston S. Churchill: The Second World War . Volume 3: The Grand Alliance . Cassell Books, London 1948. p. 737.

^ Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . P. 225.

↑ ^a ^b ^c Stephen Brooks: Southsea Castle . Pitkin Guides, Andover 1996. ISBN 0-85372-809-7 . P. 20.

^ ^A ^b Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 3, 32.

^ ^A ^b Nick Chapple: A History of the National Collection . Volume 6: 1945-1953 . English Heritage, London 2014. ISSN 2046-9799. P. 84.

↑ Deal Castle . Hansard. May 1, 1956. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b J. G. Coad: Calshot Castle, Hampshire . Revised edition. English Heritage, London 2013. ISBN 978-1-850741-02-2 . P. 24.

↑ Jonathan Coad: Calshot Castle: The Later History of Tudor Fortress, 1793-1945 in The English Heritage Historical Review . Issue 1 (2006). P. 112.

↑ ^a ^b Calshot Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ JG Coad: Hurst Castle, Hampshire . 2nd Edition. English Heritage, London 1990. ISBN 1-85074-053-4 . P. 11.

^ Pendennis Castle . English Heritage. Archived from the original on November 27, 2015. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Susannah Lawson: Portland Castle, Dorset . English Heritage, London 2002. ISBN 978-1-850747-25-3 . P. 4, 32.

^ Sandsfoot Gardens . Dorset Councils Online. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 16.

↑ Oliver Gillie: A Flawed Bastion Against the Armada Reopens . The Independent. April 2, 1994. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Culture Leisure and Sport Decision Meeting . Portsmouth City Council. October 12, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Netley Castle . Hampshire Garden Trust. Archived from the original on August 18, 2015. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Edward C. Harris: Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 14 (1980). Pp. 53, 86.

↑ Oliver Garnett: Brownsea Castle . Revised edition. The National Trust, Swindon 2005 (1993). ISBN 978-1-84359-110-8 . P. 23.

↑ Brownsea Island's Half Century Haven Marked . BBC News. May 17, 2013. Archived from the original on July 27, 2013. Retrieved on October 4, 2016.

^ ^A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P.56.

^ John Sydenham: History of the Town and Country of Poole . John Sydenham, Poole 1839. pp. 389-390.

^ Parishes: Brading . British History Online. 1912. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ RCHME: An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Dorset, Volume 2, South East . British History Online. Pp. 330-374. 1970. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ TB Groves: Notes on Sandsfoot Castle in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 3 (1879). P. 29.

^ Henry Symonds: Sandsfoot and Portland Castles in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 35 (1914). P. 30.

^ Abbey Hunt: English Heritage Coastal Estate: Risk Assessment . English Heritage, Portsmouth 2011. ISSN 1749-8775. P. 41.

^ Hurst Spit Stabilization Scheme: Engineers Report . New Forest District Council. Archived from the original on January 17, 2016. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Victor TC Smith: Coalhouse Fort and the Artillery Defences at East Tilbury . Coalhouse Fort Project, London 1985. p. 5.

↑ Deodato wallpaper, Edward Bromhead, Maia Ibsen, Nicola Casagli, Claudio Margottini (editor), Paolo Canuti (editor), Kyoji Sassa (editor): Landslide Science and Practice . Volume 6: Risk Assessment, Management and Migration . Chapter: Coastal Erosion and Landsliding Impact on Historical Sites in SE Britain . Springer Verlag, Heidelberg 2013. ISBN 978-3-642313-19-6 . P. 456.

^ Edward C. Harris: Archaeological Investigations at Sandgate Castle, Kent, 1976-9 in Post-Medieval Archeology . Issue 14 (1980). P. 54.

↑ Historic Environment Commissions Report: Impact . English Heritage. 2011. Archived from the original on October 6, 2016. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved October 4, 2016. @1@ 2

↑ Tudor Blockhouse 300m South of Mersea Stone . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Henry Symonds: Sandsfoot and Portland Castles in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 35 (1914). P. 33.

^ TB Groves: Notes on Sandsfoot Castle in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 3 (1879). Pp. 22-23.

^ WC Norman: Sandsfoot Castle, Weymouth in Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club . Issue 41 (1920). P. 34.

↑ Brownsea Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Camber Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Artillery Castle at Deal . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Hurst Castle and Lighthouse . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Netley Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Pendennis Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Portland Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Promontory Defined by an Iron Age Linear Earthwork, St Andrew's Castle and Additional Remains on Hamble Common . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ St Mawes Castle, Gatehouse, Blockhouse, Magazine and Outer Defences . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Sandgate Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Sandown Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

^ Southsea Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Walmer Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

↑ Yarmouth Castle . Historic England. Retrieved October 4, 2016.

Web links

Commons : Device Forts - Collection of images, videos, and audio files

[Bemerkung1-1] In the sixteenth century a number of contemporary terms were used for these fortresses, often several for the same fortress. They were called z. B. blockhouse (German: block house ), bulwark (German: bulwark ), castle (German: castle ) or fortress (German: fortress ). Modern historians also used different names to describe and analyze these fortresses: B. Morley, for example, differentiates between "Henrician Castles", ie the larger fortresses such as Walmer Castle , Deal Castle or Hull Castle , on the one hand, and the "Henrician Blockhouses", such as Tilbury Fort or Gravesend Fort, on the other hand. Peter Harrington makes a similar distinction between “castles” / “forts” on the one hand and “blockhouses” on the other. Andrew Saunders distinguishes between three groups, "castles", "forts" and "blockhouses", and extends the term "device program" to all of England and Wales.

[Morley89-2] A ^b ^c ^d B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . Pp. 8-9.

[Harrington38-3] A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 3, 8.

[SaundersC3740-4] Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 37, 40.

[Bemerkung2-5] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f It is very difficult to compare costs and prices from the early modern period with today's prices and costs. The total cost of £ 376,000 to build the Device Forts in 1547 in 2015 modern money could be anywhere from £ 1.949 billion (using the UK earnings index) to £ 82.12 billion (using the GDP measurement method). A castle at the then price of £ 5000 would cost between £ 25.92 million and £ 1.092 billion today. Richard Lee's annual salary of £ 30 at the time corresponds to between £ 15,770 (according to the RPI measurement method) and £ 155,500 (according to the UK earnings index) in 2015 modern money. The daily wage of 5p for a worker at the time can now range from £ 26 to £ 259.

[MeasuringWorth-6] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lawrence H. Officer, Samuel H. Williamson: Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present . MeasuringWorth. 2014. Retrieved September 6, 2016.

[Harrington911-7] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 9-11.

[SaundersC3436-8] Andrew D. Saunders: Fortress Britain: Artillery Fortifications in the British Isles and Ireland . Beaufort, Liphook 1989. ISBN 1-855120-00-3 . Pp. 34-36.

[ColvinA225-9] A ^b H. M. Colvin: Castles and Government in Tudor England in The English Historical Review . No. 27. Issue 83 (1968). P. 225.

[King168169-10] DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 168-169.

[Johnson178180-11] Matthew Johnson: Behind the Castles Gate: From Medieval to Renaissance . Routledge Press, London 2002. ISBN 978-0-415261-00-5 . Pp. 178-180.

[Thompson103111-12] MW Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . Pp. 103-111.

[Pounds256257-13] Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1994. ISBN 978-0-521-45828-3 . Pp. 256-257.

[Pounds249-14] Norman John Greville Pounds: The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1994. ISBN 978-0-521-45828-3 . P. 249.

[BiddleHillerScottStreeten1121333-15] Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . Pp. 11, 21, 333.

[Walton69-16] Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). P. 69.

[King176177-17] DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 176-177.

[Morley7-18] A ^b ^c ^d B. M. Morley: Henry VIII and the Development of Coastal Defense . Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London 1976. ISBN 0-116707-77-1 . P. 7.

[Harrington5-19] A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 5.

[Thompson111-20] M. W. Thompson: The Decline of the Castle . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987. ISBN 1-854226-08-8 . P. 111.

[Hale63-21] J. R. Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 63.

[Hale6364-22] JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . Pp. 63-64.

[Hale66-23] JR Hale: Renaissance War Studies . Hambledon Press, London 1983. ISBN 0-907628-17-6 . P. 66.

[Harrington6-24] A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 6.

[CoadC26-25] Jonathan Coad: Deal Castle, Kent . English Heritage, London 2000. ISBN 1-850746-97-4 . P. 26.

[OnlineGallery-26] Design for Henrician castle on the Kent coast . British Library. Retrieved September 6, 2016.

[King177178-27] DJ Cathcart King: The Castle in England and Wales: An Interpretative History . Routledge Press, London 1991. ISBN 978-0-415003-50-6 . Pp. 177-178.

[Harrington11-28] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 11.

[Walton70-29] A ^b ^c Steven A. Walton: State Building Through Building for the State: Foreign and Domestic Expertise in Tudor Fortification in Osiris . No. 1. Issue 25 (2010). P. 70.

[Harrington12-30] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 12.

[Harrington20-31] A ^b Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 20.

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[BiddleHillerScottStreeten1-39] Martin Biddle, Jonathan Hiller, Ian Scott, Anthony Streeten: Henry VIII's Coastal Artillery Fort at Camber Castle, Rye, East Sussex: An Archaeological, Structural and Historical Investigation . Oxbow Books, Oxford 2001. ISBN 0-904220-23-0 . P. 1.

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[Harrington22-44] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 22.

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[Lowry10-56] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Bernard Lowry: Discovering Fortifications: From Tudors to the Cold War . Shire Publications, Princes Risborough 2006. ISBN 978-0-747806-51-6 . P. 10.

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[Harrington2930-59] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . Pp. 29-30.

[Harrington30-60] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 30.

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[Harrington46-66] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 46.

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[Bemerkung3-82] On this map of the Thames, south is at the top, contrary to the practice on other maps; West is therefore on the right and east on the left.

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[Bemerkung4-120] In the 16th century stonemasons, bricklayers and builders worked with stone, bricks and wood. Transporters transported the building materials. Lime burners were an important raw material for mortar. The saws saw the timber. The plumber worked with the lead sheet that was needed for the roofing. The trench makers made waterways, trenches and earth walls.

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[Harrington39-139] Peter Harrington: The Castles of Henry VIII . Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2007. ISBN 978-1-472803-80-1 . P. 39.

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[Bemerkung5-314] Steam power enabled ships to cross the English Channel much faster than sailing ships, which could only slowly pass the defenses at the estuaries when sailing against the tide, making them sensitive to cannon attack from land. They have now been replaced by steamships that could pass the device forts at high speed.

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[Bemerkung6-322] The administration was concerned that modern artillery shells hitting the stone walls of the donjon of Calshot Castle would generate large numbers of stone fragments that would incapacitate the gun crews.

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