Jews in Rome

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The first records of Jews in Rome come from ancient Rome and are over two thousand years old. The history of the Jews in late antiquity is known from various Latin and Greek sources. There are around 16,000 Jews living in Rome today.

Jews in pre-Christian Rome

Relief representation of the Roman triumphal procession with menorah after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 on the Arch of Titus in Rome

For the first time Jews were mentioned as ambassadors in Italy , who were given by Judas Maccabeus in 161 BC Were sent to Rome . According to the biblical tradition in Book 1 of the Maccabees, they signed a contract with the Roman Senate ; Historians like AN Sherwin-White , however, do not believe in the historicity of this delegation. What is certain is that an embassy from the Hasmonean Simon around the year 139 BC. Was sent to Rome to strengthen the alliance with the Romans against the Hellenistic Seleucids ( 1 Makk 15.15-24  EU ). The ambassadors received a warm welcome from the already established Jewish community in Rome. From the year 139 BC An edict of Praetor peregrinus Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Hispanus has also come down to us, in which he ordered the urban Roman Jews to return to their homeland. According to Monika Schuol , this expulsion contains indications that there had been conflicts between Romans and Jews before. The reason for the measure may be either one's own cult or missionary activity; Schuol thinks it is certain that the Jewish religion aroused interest in some of the residents of Rome, which is likely to have triggered the defense measure. Significantly more conciliation was shown in relation to the Jewish areas in Palestine on the edge of the empire than in relation to the Diaspora Jews living in the city of Rome and threatening the traditional order.

The number of Jews in Rome grew significantly at the beginning of the first century BC; many Jews came after the conquest of Jerusalem and the occupation of Judea by Pompey in 63 BC. To Rome, especially as prisoners and slaves . Some managed to be released and gain Roman citizenship ; most of them settled in the suburbs, first in the Transtiberinum and then also in the area of ​​the Campus Martius and the Subura . The Jews in Rome presumably viewed their community as an enclave in a foreign country, but were treated by the Roman authorities as collegium or thiasos , i.e. a recognized cult community. In 64 BC The special rights of the Jewish communities, like those of all other collegia, were abolished by a resolution of the Senate, but allowed again around 58 BC . Between 49 and 44 BC BC Gaius Julius Caesar had all collegia in the empire forbidden, but exempted the Jewish communities from it. Augustus renewed the prohibition of the collegia , but also the exception for the Jews. Under Caesar and Augustus in particular, the Roman Jews enjoyed relatively great freedoms; Caesar allowed them to change money and hold meetings; Augustus treated the Jews with special benevolence, as Philo of Alexandria wrote in the Legatio ad Gaium (156–158) around AD 41 and was otherwise confirmed: Augustus did not have them from Rome expelled or deprived of their Roman citizenship, did not affect their synagogues or prevent them from assembling to expound their laws, and if goods in kind happened to be distributed on a Sabbath, he would see to it that part was given to the Jews until the next Day was canceled.

The Jewish Quarter was built on the right bank of the Tiber , with the Jewish population reaching a peak at 10 percent of the total population. From Philons of Alexandria Legatio ad Gaium (156) it can be concluded that there were several synagogues in Rome by 40 AD at the latest. The names of at least eleven, possibly fourteen synagogues in Rome have come down to us from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. It is believed that the synagogue of Hebraei was the oldest in Rome, similar to the naming in Greek cities, in which the only synagogue was given this name; the synagogues with the names Agrippenses and Augustenses were - as long as the naming was carried out as assumed during the respective lifetime of the rulers - before 12 BC. ( Agrippa ) and 14 AD ( Augustus ) respectively .

While there were violent clashes between Jews and Romans in Palestine in the first century AD, the Roman Jews were also a "restless" part of the city population, against whom repression was repeatedly carried out. In the late republic , groups of people such as rhetors , fortune-tellers , followers of the Isis cult and Jews from Rome were occasionally expelled from Rome, but each time they were allowed to return a short time later. The expulsion of religious groups continued until the middle of the first century AD. In 19 AD Tiberius called 4,000 released Jews for military service and expelled the peregrine Jews from Rome and Italy ( Suetonius , Vita Tiberii 36), similarly in 49 AD Claudius (see Suetonius , Divus Claudius 25, 4, Cassius Dio , 'Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία, Book LX 6.6, Acts 18.2 EU ). Jews who were brought to Rome as slaves in large numbers during the Judeo-Roman wars were often either ransomed by members of the Jewish community in Rome or set free by their Roman masters.

One of the Jewish communities outside Rome was that of the port suburb of Ostia , which had existed since the 1st century BC. Is verifiable; archaeological remains of an ancient synagogue were found there in 1961, while in Rome no structural remains of the synagogue buildings of that time have been preserved and all conclusions are drawn from inscriptions and other texts. From these inscriptions Leonard Rutgers inferred a higher degree of assimilation and interaction with the non-Jews of Rome than previously assumed; For the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, it can be proven that the Jews of Rome spoke largely Greek and partly also Latin, but hardly any Aramaic or Hebrew. The influence of the Jews on the Romans, on the other hand, is seen to be rather minor. Although they used the decorative elements customary in the area, they hardly ever used their symbols and also hardly contributed to Roman symbolism (only indirectly via Christianity). But they adopted many Roman names, even if not the Roman naming system . Bernadette Brooten has pointed out a prominent - at least unusually visible - role of women in the diaspora communities.

Jews in Christian Rome

After Constantine recognized Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire through the Edict of Milan in 313, the situation of Jews in Italy deteriorated dramatically. Constantine the Great forbade the Jews from having Christian servants. In addition, it was forbidden for Christians to convert to Judaism, but Jews were encouraged to convert to Christianity. In the 4th century, after anti-Jewish campaigns from the clergy - especially lower and local clergy - riots broke out in Rome; the synagogues were set on fire. Pope Leo I spoke of the wickedness and blindness of the Jews in the 5th century, and bishops persecuted Jews into the 6th century. Only under the pontificate of Gregory I (590–604) were the Jews placed under protection, which his successors continued.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

In the Middle Ages, the situation of the Jews in Rome worsened significantly. In 1215 the church decided in the 4th Lateran Council under Pope Innocent III. (1198–1216) a number of restrictive provisions. One of these restrictions was the introduction of the yellow ring :

"Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times should be distinguished from other peoples in the eyes of the public by the way they dress."

During the Renaissance , on the other hand, the Jewish community in Rome experienced its cultural, especially literary, heyday. For the Jews of Italy, the 15th and first half of the 16th centuries were characterized by free personal and intellectual exchange with the Christian population and the adoption of elements of the majority culture, including the adoption of titles and family crests. The pressure to convert was low and the practice of religion declined. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, many Jews from Spain, Portugal and Provence immigrated to the Roman community (see Alhambra Edict ), so that the Sephardi made up the majority of Italian Jews at the beginning of the 16th century. From the 14th century onwards, Ashkenazim from the German-speaking area and Central and Eastern Europe had increasingly immigrated to the Italian communities that had been largely culturally independent . After the Jewish immigration from the Iberian Peninsula, a strong millenarian tendency developed among them , especially when the French King Charles VIII led the Italian wars . His invasion of Rome - accompanied by an anti-Jewish mood in the population - and the flight of the papal curia in 1495 was interpreted among the Jews there as a sign of a new era. Many Jewish Kabbalistic-Messianic writings referred to Rome as a reference point. Millenarianism received a second impetus in the Jewish communities of Italy as a result of the increasing repression by the Counter Reformation from the 1560s.

Modern times

Map of the ghetto (yellow)

In the early modern period, after this episode of freer development, the legal and spatial status of the Jews was severely restricted, even if in 1524 the papally recognized Capitoli of Daniel of Pisa created an autonomous municipal constitution - which, however, received fewer freedoms than, for example, Ancona's, where the Jewish community was economically more important. The double duty of protection in which the paternalistic government of Rome saw itself - spiritually by the Pope, secularly by the magistrate - namely in the protection of Jews recognized as citizens of Rome, but especially in the protection of Christians from the Jews, became strongly in the direction of the latter postponed. On the basis of the bull Cum nimis absurdum (1555), Pope Paul IV established the walled Roman ghetto on the banks of the Tiber between the portico of Octavia and the Marcellus theater , which Roman Jews had to live in and were not allowed to leave at night. One of the “extremely anti-Jewish provisions” ( Volker Reinhardt ) of this bull was that Jews were obliged to wear discriminatory external signs, to observe far-reaching professional bans and not to work in the homes of Christians. Contact between Jews and Christians should be kept to a minimum, which goes back to the idea that Jews, like heretics, are a source of infection from which Christians are to be protected. The early modern popes applied these rules to varying degrees; while Sixtus V (1585–1590) and, following him, Cardinal Montalto took Jewish doctors and merchants into their service, Pius V had all Jews with the exception of Rome and Anconas expelled from the Papal States ( Hebraeorum gens ) , and the remaining forced Gregory XIII. to attend a conversion sermon every Sunday. With his bull Antiqua Judaeorum improbitas of 1581 he placed the Jews under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition Authority of the Sanctum Officium in matters of faith ; attempts to achieve sovereignty over the Jews in the most remote areas failed because of the differentiation of the legal spheres. In practice, since the end of the 16th century, restrictions such as trade bans have mostly been implemented with little restriction, as the city was interested in a prosperous Jewish community, especially since Jewish merchants were in control of the important Levant trade of the Papal States via Ancona. And not a few Jews saw the development of their own culture, isolated from the majority society - also with regard to marriages and schools - positively. In one building of the ghetto there were five synagogues ( Cinque scuole ) according to their respective origins: one each from Italy, one from the Askenas, one from the Sicilian, one from Castile and one from Catalonia.

Street scene from the Roman ghetto, painting by Ettore Roesler Franz (around 1880)

The living conditions in the ghetto were poor. Due to its location, it was often inundated by the Tiber, Jews were forbidden to buy property, and the size of the ghetto was too small for the number of residents. In 1562 Pope Pius IV had the rents in the ghetto fixed, as they had risen sharply due to the limited space. Clement VIII established the Jus Gazzagà or cazacà for the ghetto residents in 1604, which guaranteed them a hereditary right of residence for life with a fixed rent that was never increased until the ghetto was dissolved. The often poor condition of the houses in the ghetto, which were continually increased, is also due to the fact that maintenance was not profitable because of this provision. As Innocent XI. Banned the Jews from running money houses in 1682 and restricted them to small textile and junk sales, the result was rapid impoverishment. The special legal status of the Jews (“Status hebraicus”) was made clear by the homage to be paid to the Roman magistrate, which symbolized the special relationship between subjects and protection. The Jews also played a role in the homage celebrations after an election of the Pope . Usually they furnished the path of the newly elected Pope from the Arch of Titus to the Colosseum with valuable carpets, and as a token of their loyalty they presented him with a copy of the Pentateuch , which the Pope had with the words “Your law is good, but you do not understand it because they old things have passed and everything has been made anew ”or“ Confirmamus, sed non consentimus ”(“ We acknowledge, but disagree ”). In addition, the Jews had to pay a financial tribute to the Roman city council and were an integral part of the - often ridiculous - rituals of Clement IX at the carnival celebrations . 1668 instead of the usual city course of the Jews.

During the Enlightenment, in its struggle against new political and intellectual ideas such as Freemasonry in the mid-18th century, the Curia intensified the pressure on Roman Jews with legal restrictions and house searches in 1753, during which Hebrew scriptures were confiscated. In contrast, Clement XIV. (1769–1774) relaxed the discriminatory policy towards the Roman Jews, while his successor Pius VI. 1775 issued the Editto sopra gli Ebrei in which all restrictive regulations were summarized and tightened; the historian Abraham Berliner called it "the blackest sheet in human history" at the end of the 19th century. In contrast, according to Thomas Brechenmacher , these provisions existed “only on paper”; He attributes the increasingly difficult situation in the ghetto to the general economic decline. After French revolutionary troops under Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the city in 1798, the Roman Republic experienced a period of legal equality ( emancipation of Jews ) around six months , which revived with the integration of the Papal States into the French Republic in 1808, through the restoration of papal rule At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, however, the old discrimination gave way again. The hope for civil liberties was with Pope Pius IX. larger, who shortly after taking office in 1846 lifted the obligation for Jews to attend conversion sermons, opened the ghetto gates and involved Jews in vigilante groups. In October 1847 he abolished the homage of the Roman magistrate and tribute payments by the Roman Jews and at the same time removed them from the special jurisdiction and from the carnival rituals. After the pope's brief loss of power during the revolution of 1848/49 , however, he switched to an anti-liberal and anti-Jewish policy. Catholic magazines such as Civilità Cattolica , founded in 1850, disseminated anti-Jewish propaganda, and child abductions such as that of the nine-year-old Jewish boy Giuseppe Coen, who was brought from the ghetto to a Catholic catechumenate facility in 1864 and whose parents were forbidden from any contact (on this practice, see the well-known Fall of Edgardo Mortara ). Advocates of an Italian national movement and visitors from foreign countries have been polemicized since the end of the 18th century against the living conditions of the ghetto Jews, described as disenfranchised and vegetating, "in confinement, dirt and stench", who in some travel reports are sometimes romanticized as a "peculiar museum relic" among the Eyes of the papacy were designated. In contrast, the historian Ferdinand Gregorovius endeavored in what is probably the most famous description of the ghetto from 1853 to provide a balanced and non-scandalous representation.

Great Synagogue of Rome , symbol of the rise of the Roman Jews to equal citizens

Only after the fall of the papal state to the Italian national state in the course of the Risorgimento in 1870 was the ghetto dissolved and many of the old buildings torn down; As a symbol of the newly won status as citizens with equal rights, the Jewish community erected the Great Synagogue on this site at the end of the 19th century, which was widely visible and surrounded by plenty of open space . Pope Pius IX, whose territory was reduced to the Vatican City , intensified his rhetoric against the Jews in the following years by taking up anti-Semitic stereotypes such as greed, supported by Cardinal Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano and until the beginning of the 20th century by the Catholic press. A slight improvement was achieved under Pius X , who condemned the pogroms in Russia in 1905 and received Theodor Herzl , but gave him no support for the project of a Zionist state .

20th century

According to the special census of the Fascist authorities of August 1938, around 13,000 Jews lived in Rome and, according to figures, most of them lived in Italy (although more in Trieste and Livorno in terms of population proportions). After about 45,000 Jews were recorded in Italy at the beginning of 1938, the communities shrank in the wake of the tightening of fascist politics from the late 1930s (see Italian race laws ); in January 1943 only 33,000 Jews were still living in the country, almost 6,000 had emigrated. The Vatican only campaigned for its own clientele, that is, for people in mixed marriages and baptized Jews, even if the aggressive anti-Semitism in Italy was not socially acceptable to the majority.

With the invasion of German troops and the occupation of Italy in autumn 1943, the policy of extermination was also implemented in Italy. In October and November 1943, the Security Police and SD, led by Theodor Dannecker, organized “Jewish actions” in several large cities, particularly against the Jewish population of Rome (see Dannecker's activities in Italy ). There, on October 16, 1943, 1,259 Jews were arrested and 1,023 of them were deported to Auschwitz . The Italian Social Republic , which existed from 1943 to 1945, worked against the Nazi authorities. Altogether about twenty percent of the Italian Jews were murdered, less than in France or the Netherlands. Many managed to hide, especially in institutions of the Catholic Church; In Rome, more than 4,000 Jews are said to have found accommodation in monasteries, rectories, convents and in the Vatican.

After the end of the Nazi regime and the Second World War , many of the surviving Jews in Europe came to Italy in the summer of 1945, especially because the situation there was less fatal than in other countries and ships went from there to Palestine. The UNRRA collected these approximately 25,000 refugees in three camps, one of which was in the Cinecittà in Rome. As early as November 1945, the Italian Jewish Displaced Persons elected a self-governing council consisting of 140 representatives, which met in Rome. A total of around 50,000 refugees were temporarily in Italy by 1948, of which only 2000 had stayed by the summer of 1950. The difficult conditions in the camps and the reserved policy of the British occupying power towards the refugees caused increasing criticism, especially when the Irgun carried out a bomb attack on the British embassy in Rome on October 31, 1946.

Memorial plaque at the place of deportation of the Roman Jews near the former ghetto

The Great Synagogue of Rome is a symbolic place in the history of the rapprochement between the popes and Judaism after 1945 . Before her, Pope John XXIII. on the morning of March 17, 1962, a Saturday , unannounced, had the roof of his car opened and blessed the Jews pouring out. Future Rabbi Elio Toaff later recalled that “after a moment of understandable confusion, the Jews surrounded him and applauded him enthusiastically. In fact, it was the first time in history that a Pope blessed the Jews, and this was perhaps the first real gesture of reconciliation. ”Pope John Paul II followed up on this gesture on April 13, 1986 when he was there as the first Pope ever to enter a synagogue and give a speech. The meeting ended with a hug from the Pope and the long-time Grand Rabbi Elio Toaff. According to the historian Georg Schwaiger, the event was “seen all over the world as an extraordinary sign of reconciliation”.

In the 1990s, the culture of remembrance changed to the National Socialist extermination policy in Italy. For the first time it was fully recognized that this policy was specifically directed against Jews, and voices from the Jewish community were increasingly perceived as specifically Jewish. The 1998 statement We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah by the Vatican Commission on Religious Relations with Judaism saw Elio Toaff and the author Tullia Zevi as an important step for the relationship between Jews and the Vatican, while younger Jewish voices saw the document for its inadequate reappraisal criticized the history. Amos Luzzatto , at that time President of the Association of Jewish Congregations in Italy, spoke out against the beatification of Edith Stein on the front page of L'Unità in 1998 and was skeptical of that of Pope Pius XII. who remained controversial for his reluctance towards the Nazi regime during his pontificate. In 2000, John Paul II visited Israel and included the persecution of the Jews in his confession of guilt for the Church . According to Thomas Brechenmacher, the relationship of the Catholic Church to Judaism had changed from the traditional dual protectorate to the “theological concept of an indissoluble fraternal bond through and before the same God” (see the declaration Nostra aetate of 1965). He saw the Holocaust as a catalyst for the slowly beginning thought process that also ended the church's policy of conversion pressure.

The Community of Sant'Egidio and the Jewish community of Rome have been commemorating October 16, 1943 annually since 1994. In 2002, in the presence of Mayor Walter Veltroni, a commemorative plaque was placed at the deportation site.

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ [1]
  2. ↑ However, Peter Richardson maintains an initial contact between the Jews and Rome through this mission and further contacts in 150 and 139 BC. At least for likely; ders .: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here p. 18.
  3. ^ On the ancient Jewish community in Rome, see Stefan Krauter: Citizenship and Cult Participation. Political and cultic rights and duties in the Greek Poleis, Rome and ancient Judaism (= supplements to the journal for New Testament science. Volume 127). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 2004, Chapter 5.2.5: Diaspora Judaism II: Jews in Rome , pp. 304-324, Chapter 5.3.4.1: Synagogue communities as associations or autonomous political structures - the example of Rome , pp. 370– 379.
  4. ↑ Monika Schuol: Augustus and the Jews. Legal status and interest policy of the Asia Minor diaspora. Antike, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 246.
  5. ^ Peter Richardson: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here pp. 18 f.
  6. ^ Peter Richardson: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here pp. 18 f.
  7. ^ Mary Beard , John A. North , Simon RF Price : Religions of Rome. Volume 1: History. Early Rome. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 1998, p. 230 ; Peter Richardson: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here p. 18.
  8. ↑ Harry Joshua Leon: The Jews of Ancient Rome. Hendrickson, Peabody, MA 1995 (first 1960), pp. 73 f .; Leonard V. Rutgers: The Jews in Late Ancient Rome. Evidence of Cultural Interaction in the Roman Diaspora. Brill, Leiden 1995.
  9. ^ Stefan Krauter: Citizenship and participation in cults. Political and cultic rights and duties in the Greek Poleis, Rome and ancient Judaism (= supplements to the journal for New Testament science. Volume 127). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 2004, pp. 370–372.
  10. ↑ Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum: Tiberius ( English ) penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved May 27, 2019.
  11. ^ Suetonius, De Vita Caesarum Claudius ( English ) penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved May 27, 2019.
  12. ^ Cassius Dio Roman History Book LX ( English ) penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved May 27, 2019.
  13. ^ Eve-Marie Becker : The Jewish-Roman War (66-70 AD) and the Gospel of Mark. In this. (Ed.): The ancient historiography and the beginnings of Christian historiography (= supplements to the journal for the New Testament science. Volume 129). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 2005, pp. 213–236, here p. 219 ; Mary Beard , John A. North , Simon RF Price : Religions of Rome. Volume 1: History. Early Rome. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 1998, p. 230 ; Wolfgang Speyer : What did antiquity mean by freedom? In: Martin Thurner (Ed.): Freedom. Foundation and development in philosophy, religion and culture (= Eugen-Biser-Lectures. Volume 3). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2017, pp. 49–89, here p. 69.
  14. ^ Peter Richardson: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here p. 19; L. Michael White: Synagogue and Society in Imperial Ostia. Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence. In: ibid., Pp. 30–67, here p. 31 f.
  15. ^ Peter Richardson: Augustan-Era Synagogues in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 17-29, here pp. 18 f.
  16. ^ Graydon F. Snyder: The Interaction of Jews with Non-Jews in Rome. In: Karl P. Donfried, Peter Richardson: Judaism and Christianity in First-Century Rome. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Cambridge 1998, pp. 69-90, here pp. 89 f.
  17. ^ Bernadette J. Brooten: Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue. Inscriptional Evidence and Background Issues. BJS 36. Scholars Press, Chico 1982. See also Ross S. Kraemer: Non-Literary Evidence for Jewish Women in Rome and Egypt. In: Helios. Volume 13, 1986, pp. 85-101.
  18. ↑ History of the Jews ( Memento of the original from October 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.zwst4you.de
  19. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa: Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397-402, here p. 397.
  20. ↑ Discriminatory Jewish laws. In: Bessarabia. Home of a German minority , private website, quoted there from Josef Wohlmut: Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils - Councils of the Middle Ages. Volume 2, Schönigh, Paderborn 2000, p. 265 f.
  21. ↑ Stephen Sharot: Jewish Millenarianism: A Comparison of Medieval Communities. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History. Volume 22, 1980, No. 3, pp. 394-415, here p. 413 f. For an example of the intellectual charisma of Jewish Kabbalah in Rome at the beginning of the 16th century see Brian Copenhaver, Daniel Stein Kokin: Egidio da Viterbo's Book on Hebrew Letters: Christian Kabbalah in Papal Rome. In: Renaissance Quarterly. Volume 67, 2014, No. 1, pp. 1-42.
  22. ↑ Anna Esposito: Gli ebrei aschenaziti a Roma nel primo Rinascimento. In: Sources and research from Italian archives and libraries . Volume 91, 2011, pp. 249-276, here p. 250.
  23. ↑ Michael Brenner : A Little Jewish Story. CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 126.
  24. ↑ Stephen Sharot: Jewish Millenarianism: A Comparison of Medieval Communities. In: Comparative Studies in Society and History. Volume 22, 1980, No. 3, pp. 394-415, here p. 405 f.
  25. ^ Attilio Milano: I "Capitoli" di Daniel da Pisa e la Comunità di Roma. In: La Rassegna Mensile di Israel. Seconda serie, Volume 10, 1936, No. 9/10, pp. 409-426; Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 31 f.
  26. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 39 f.
  27. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397–402, here p. 398. Paul IV had already had the Talmud burned as a cardinal . See Michael Brenner : Brief Jewish History. CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 126.
  28. ↑ Volker Reinhardt : History of Rome: From antiquity to the present. CH Beck, Munich, p. 70 (e-book edition).
  29. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397–402, here p. 398.
  30. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, pp. 32-34, 40, 42.
  31. ↑ Michael Brenner : A Little Jewish Story. CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 126.
  32. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 41 f. and 49.
  33. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, pp. 34 f., 37-39.
  34. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 45.
  35. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397-402, here p. 398 f. ; Abraham Berliner: History of the Jews in Rome. From the oldest time to the present (2050 years). Frankfurt am Main 1893 ( digitized version of the Frankfurt University Library), Volume 2, Part 2, p. 235.
  36. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 49.
  37. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397-402, here p. 398 f.
  38. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 39.
  39. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397-402, here p. 398 f.
  40. ↑ Thomas Brechenmacher : The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, pp. 46-49; Ferdinand Gregorovius : The Ghetto and the Jews in Rome (1853). In: ders .: Wanderjahre in Italien, Vol. 1. 2nd increased edition, Brockhaus, Leipzig 1864, pp. 54–128 ( digitized from Google books).
  41. ↑ On this symbolic dimension, see L. Scott Lerner: Narrating over the Ghetto of Rome. In: Jewish Social Studies. New Series. Volume 8, 2002, No. 2/3, pp. 1-38.
  42. ↑ Ulrich Wyrwa : Vatican ( Papal States ). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Hostility to Jews in the past and present. Volume 1: Countries and Regions. Saur, Munich 2008, pp. 397-402, here p. 399 f.
  43. ↑ Thomas Schlemmer, Hans Woller : The Italian fascism and the Jews 1922 to 1945. In: Quarterly books for contemporary history . Vol. 53, 2005, No. 2, pp. 165-201, here pp. 169 f. (PDF).
  44. ↑ Thomas Schlemmer, Hans Woller : The Italian fascism and the Jews 1922 to 1945. In: Quarterly books for contemporary history . Vol. 53, 2005, No. 2, pp. 165-201, here pp. 183 f.
  45. ↑ Thomas Schlemmer, Hans Woller : The Italian fascism and the Jews 1922 to 1945. In: Quarterly books for contemporary history . Vol. 53, 2005, Issue 2, pp. 165-201, here p. 193 f.
  46. ↑ Thomas Schlemmer, Hans Woller : The Italian fascism and the Jews 1922 to 1945. In: Quarterly books for contemporary history . Vol. 53, 2005, No. 2, pp. 165–201, here p. 195.
  47. ↑ Susanna Kokkonen: Jewish Displaced Persons in Postwar Italy, 1945–1951. In: Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. April 25, 2008 (English).
  48. ↑ Stefan Nacke: The Church of the World Society. The Second Vatican Council and the globalization of Catholicism. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-17339-9 , p. 340, note 50 .
  49. ↑ Address when visiting the Great Synagogue of Rome on April 13, 1986. In: Ansgar Koschel (Ed.): Catholic Church and Judaism in the 20th Century (= Religion - History - Society. Fundamental Theological Studies. Volume 26). Lit, Münster 2002, ISBN 3-8258-5507-4 , pp. 135–145 ( preview on Google books); Rolf Rendtorff, Hans Hermann Henrix (Ed.): The churches and Judaism. Documents from 1945–1985. 2nd Edition. Schöningh, Paderborn 1989, pp. 106-111.
  50. ↑ Kurt Cardinal Koch: Together to be people of God. Perspectives of the Jewish-Catholic dialogue from Nostra aetate to Benedict XVI. In: Elisabeth Zwick, Norbert Johannes Hofmann (ed.): Dialogue of Religions. An interdisciplinary approach. Lit, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-643-11657-4 , pp. 37–58, here p. 49 .
  51. ↑ Georg Schwaiger: Papacy and Popes in the 20th Century. From Leo XIII. on Johannes Paul II. Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-44892-5 , p. 411 .
  52. ^ Emiliano Perra: Conflicts of Memory. The Reception of Holocaust Films and TV Programs in Italy, 1945 to the Present. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main a. a. 2010, p. 210 ; Thomas Brechenmacher: The Vatican and the Jews. History of an Unholy Relationship from the 16th Century to the Present. CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 271. See Reinhold Boschki (responsible): We remember: A reflection on the Shoah. Documentation. In: Nostra Aetate , University of Bonn , February 11, 2011.
  53. ↑ Deportazione degli ebrei di Roma, una marcia per ricordare perchè “Non c'è futuro senza memoria”. In: La Stampa , October 14, 2016.