Venezuela

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For other uses, see Venezuela (disambiguation).
    Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela[1]
República Bolivariana de Venezuela
Motto: [2]
Anthem: Gloria al Bravo Pueblo  (Spanish)
"Glory to the Brave People"
Location of Venezuela
Capital
and largest city
Caracas
Official languagesSpanish[3]
Demonym(s)Venezuelan
GovernmentSocial Democratlc republic
• President
Hugo Chávez Frías
• 
Jorge Rodríguez
Independence
• from Spain
July 5 1811
• from Gran Colombia
January 13 1830
• Recognised
March 30 1845
Area
• Total
916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) (33rd)
• Water (%)
0.32[4]
Population
• July 2007 estimate
27,730,469 (42nd)
• 2001 census
23,054,210
• Density
30.2/km2 (78.2/sq mi) (173rd)
GDP (PPP)2006 estimate
• Total
$176.4 billion (47th)
• Per capita
$7,165 (90th)
Gini (2000)44.1
medium
HDI (2004)Increase 0.784
Error: Invalid HDI value (72nd)
CurrencyBolívar[5] (VEB)
Time zoneUTC-4[6]
Calling code58
ISO 3166 codeVE
Internet TLD.ve
^ The "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela" has been the full official title since the adoption of the new Constitution of 1999, when the state was renamed in honor of Simón Bolívar.
^ Formerly "God and Federation" (Spanish: «Dios y Federación»).
^ The Constitution also recognizes all indigenous languages spoken in the country.
^ Area totals include only Venezuelan-administered territory.
^ On 1 January 2008 a new Bolivar, the bolívar fuerte (ISO 4217 code VEF), worth 1000 old Bolivars, is to be introduced.
^ In September 2007, Venezuela announced its intention to permanently move from UTC-4 to UTC-4.5.

Venezuela (pronounced /ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America.

The country comprises a continental mainland and numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea. It borders Guyana to the east, Brazil to the south, and Colombia to the west. Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, St. Lucia, Barbados, Curaçao, Bonaire, Aruba, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and the Leeward Antilles lie just north, off the Venezuelan coast. Falling within the tropics, Venezuela sits close to the Equator, in the Northern Hemisphere.

An independent country since 1821 and a former Spanish colony, Venezuela holds territorial disputes with Guyana, largely concerning the Essequibo area, and in the past with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. There was a Venezuelan Boundary Crisis in 1985. Today, Venezuela is known widely for its petroleum industry, the environmental diversity of its territory, and its natural features. Venezuela is considered to be among 17 of the most megadiverse countries in the world.[1]

Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[2][3] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas which is also the largest city. Other major cities include Maracaibo, Valencia, Maracay, Barquisimeto, Ciudad Guayana and the popular tourist city of Mérida. Venezuela is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Etymology

A palafito, similar to those seen by Amerigo Vespucci.

The name "Venezuela" is believed to have originated from the cartographer Amerigo Vespucci who, together with Alonso de Ojeda, led a 1499 naval expedition along the northwestern coast's Gulf of Venezuela. On reaching the Guajira Peninsula, the crew observed the distinctive stilt villages (palafitos) that the indigenous Añu people had built over the water. This reminded Vespucci of the city of Venice (Italian: Venezia), so he named the region "Venezuola",[4] meaning "little Venice" in Italian. In Spanish, the suffix -zuela is used as a diminutive term (e.g., mujerzuela, cazuela); thus, the term's original sense would have been that of a "little Venice".[5]

Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of Vespucci and de Ojeda's crew, states in his work Summa de Geografía that the indigenous population they found were called "Veneciuela", suggesting that the name "Venezuela" may have evolved from a native word.[6] The Vespucci story, however, remains the most popular and accepted version of the origin of the country's name. In English, the word Venezuela is pronounced as /ˌvɛnɨzˈweɪlə/. The Venezuelan Spanish is IPA: [beneˈswela].

History

Main article: History of Venezuela
Detail of Martín Tovar y Tovar's La Batalla de Carabobo

Human habitation of Venezuela is estimated to have commenced at least 15,000 years ago, from which period leaf-shaped flake tools, together with chopping and plano-convex scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela.[7] Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as "El Jobo"; according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC.[8] In the 16th century, when the Spanish colonization of Venezuela began, indigenous peoples such as the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Caribs, were systematically killed. Indian caciques (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro and Tamanaco attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but were ultimately subdued; Tamanaco himself, by order of Caracas' founder Diego de Losada, was also put to death.[9]

Venezuela was first colonized by Europeans in 1522, when it hosted the Spanish Empire's first permanent South American settlement[citation needed] in what is now Cumaná. Originally part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, most of Venezuela eventually became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada; portions of eastern Venezuela were incorporated into New Andalusia. After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela—under the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal involved in the French Revolution—declared independence on 5 July 1811. This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. However, a devastating earthquake that struck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan llaneros, helped bring down the first Venezuelan republic.[10] A second Venezuelan republic, proclaimed on 7 August 1813, lasted several months before being crushed as well.

Sovereignty was only attained after Simón Bolívar, known as El Libertador ("The Liberator") and aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821. José Prudencio Padilla's victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo on 24 July 1823 helped seal Venezuelan independence. New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia. Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador, and later become the second president of Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a new Republic of Venezuela; Páez became its first president.

Much of Venezuela's nineteenth century history was characterized by political turmoil and dictatorial rule.[11] During the first half of the 20th century, caudillos (military strongmen) continued to dominate, though they generally allowed for mild social reforms and promoted economic growth. Following the death of Juan Vicente Gómez in 1935 and the demise of caudillismo (authoritarian rule), pro-democracy movements eventually forced the military to withdraw from direct involvement in national politics in 1958. Since that year, Venezuela has had a series of democratically elected governments.[12] The discovery of massive oil deposits, totaling some 400 million barrels,[citation needed] during World War I prompted an economic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935, Venezuela's per capita GDP was Latin America's highest,[13] and globalization and heavy immigration from Southern Europe and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society.

The collapse of oil prices in the 1980s, and the huge public spending and accumulation of internal and external debts by the government and private sector during the Petrodollar years of the 1970s and early 80s, crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the government devalued the currency in order to face its mounting local and external financial obligations, Venezuelans' real standard of living fell dramatically. A number of failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government and society at large, has led to rising poverty and crime and worsening social indicators and increasing political instability,[14][unbalanced opinion?] resulting in three major coup attempts, two in 1992 and another in 2002. In the February 1992 coup, Hugo Chávez, a former paratrooper, attempted to overthrow the government of President Carlos Andrés Pérez as anger grew against the President's economic austerity measures. Chávez was unsuccessful and landed in jail. In November of that year, another unsuccessful coup attempt occurred, organized by other revolutionary groups in the Venezuelan Armed Forces and those that remained from Chávez’s previous attempt.[15] By 2002, the tables had turned, and Hugo Chávez, now a democratically elected president, was temporarily ousted from power by his opponents. The current president Hugo Chávez, who led the first unsuccessful coup in 1992, was elected as a reaction against the established political parties and the corruption and inequalities their policies created. Since coming to power, Chávez has attracted some controversy through his reforms of the Constitution, the implementation of his "Bolivarian Revolution," and his assumption, approved by the elected National Assembly, of powers to rule by decree.

Government

Main article: Government of Venezuela
The National Assembly, Caracas

The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and functions as both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and a president may be re-elected to a single consecutive term. The president appoints the vice-president and decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections.

The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the National Assembly or Asamblea Nacional. Its 167 deputies, of which three are reserved for indigenous people, serve five-year terms and may be re-elected for a maximum of two additional terms. They are elected by popular vote through a combination of party lists and single member constituencies. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single twelve-year term. The National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral, or CNE) is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Venezuela

There are currently two major blocs of political parties: the leftist Fifth Republic Movement (MVR) and its major allies For Social Democracy (PODEMOS), Fatherland for All (PPT), and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV); and A New Era (UNT) together with its allied parties Project Venezuela, Justice First, Movement for Socialism (Venezuela) and others. Following the fall of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958, Venezuelan politics was dominated by the center-right Christian democratic COPEI and the center-left social democratic Democratic Action (AD) parties; this two-party system was formalized by the puntofijismo arrangement. However, this system has been sidelined following the initial 1998 election of current president Hugo Chávez.

The voting age in Venezuela is 18 and older. Voting is not compulsory.[16] Most of the political opposition boycotted the 2005 parliamentary election. Consequently, the MVR-led bloc secured all 167 seats in the National Assembly. Then, the MVR voted to dissolve itself in favor of joining the proposed United Socialist Party of Venezuela, while Chávez requested that MVR-allied parties merge themselves into it as well. The National Assembly has twice voted to grant Chávez the ability rule by decree in several broadly defined areas, once in 2000 and again in 2007. This is a power frequently granted to the executive in Venezuela, and was a characteristic of previous administrations as well.[17][18][19]

Public health

Infant mortality in Venezuela stood at 16 deaths per 1,000 births in 2004, much lower than the South American average (by comparison, the US stands at 5 deaths per 1,000 births in 2006)[20].[21][22] Child malnutrition (defined as stunting or wasting in children under age five) stands at 17%; Delta Amacuro and Amazonas have the nation's highest rates.[23] According to the United Nations, 32% of Venezuelans lack adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas. [24] Diseases ranging from typhoid, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D are present in the country.[25] Only 3% of sewage is treated; most major cities lack treatment facilities.[26] 17% of Venezuelans lack access to potable water.[27] As of 1999, around 110,000 Venezuelans had HIV.[28] Dengue Fever are present in Venezuela; in addition, high incidence of the flatworm infestation Schistosomiasis are present in Venezuela.[29][unreliable source?]

Travellers to Venezuela are advised to obtain vaccinations for a variety of diseases including typhoid, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B and hepatitis D.[30] In a cholera epidemic of contemporary times in the Orinoco Delta, Venezuela's political leaders were accused of racial profiling of their own indigenous people to deflect blame from the country's institutions, thereby aggravating the epidemic.[31]

As had previous administrations, the government is attempting to create a national universal health care system that is free of charge. The current vehicle for this idea is Misión Barrio Adentro.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Venezuela
Soil from Venezuela and four other countries—Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru—liberated by the Venezuelan leader Simón Bolívar is buried at the Parque de las Cinco Repúblicas in Mérida.

Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and Western nations. Since 1998, however, relations between Venezuela and the United States have progressively worsened, resulting in the latter imposing military sanctions. Correspondingly, ties to various leftist-led Latin American and anti-U.S. Middle-Eastern countries have strengthened. Venezuela stresses hemispheric integration via such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas trade proposal and the newly launched pan-Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela was a prime mover behind the OAS's decision to adopt its Anti-Corruption Convention, and is actively working in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and energy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world based on strengthened ties among Third World countries.

Military

See also: Military of Venezuela

Venezuela's national armed forces include roughly 87,500 personnel spread through four service branches: the Ground Forces, the Navy (including the Marine Corps), the Air Force, and the Armed Forces of Cooperation (FAC), commonly known as the National Guard. As of 2005, a further 100,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new fifth branch, known as the Armed Reserve; these troops bear more semblance to a militia than the older branches. The President of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of the national armed forces.

Subdivisions

Main articles: States of Venezuela and Regions of Venezuela

Venezuela is divided into twenty-three states (Estados), a capital district (distrito capital) corresponding to the city of Caracas, the Federal Dependencies (Dependencias Federales, a special territory), and Guayana Esequiba (claimed in a border dispute with Guyana). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities (municipios); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes (parroquias). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions (regiones administrativas), which were established by presidential decree. Historically, Venezuela has also claimed all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River; this 159,500 square kilometres (61,583 sq mi) tract was dubbed Guayana Esequiba or the Zona en Reclamación (the "zone to be reclaimed").

Template:Venezuelan subdivisions

Geography

Main article: Geography of Venezuela
Monte Roraima, a tepui in Canaima National Park in southeastern Venezuela. The park lies atop the Guiana Shield; its Precambrian geological formations rank among the world's oldest.

Venezuela's mainland rests on the South American Plate; With 2,800 kilometres (1,740 mi) of coastline, Venezuela is home to a wide variety of beautiful landscapes. The extreme northeastern extensions of the Andes reach into Venezuela's northwest and continue along the northern Caribbean coast. Pico Bolívar, the nation's highest point at 4,979 metres (16,335 ft), lies in this region. The country's center is characterized by the llanos, extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. To the south, the dissected Guiana Highlands is home to the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall. The Orinoco, with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country; it originates in one of the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and the Apure are other major rivers.

Pico Bolívar in the northwestern state of Mérida.

The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, is home to several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela. The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Llanos region comprises a third of the country's area north of the Orinoco River. South of it lies the Guiana Shield, a massive two billion year old Precambrian geological formation featuring tepuis, mysterious table-like mountains. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Deltaic System, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean.

Though Venezuela is entirely situated in the tropics, its climate varies substantially; it varies from that of humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as 28 °C (82 °F), to glaciers and highlands (the páramos) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C (46 °F). Annual rainfall varies between 430 millimetres (17 in) in the semiarid portions of the northwest to 1,000 millimetres (39 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east. Most precipitation falls between May and November (the rainy season or "winter"); the drier and hotter remainder of the year is known as "summer", though temperature variation throughout the year is not as pronounced as at temperate latitudes.[11]

Flora & Fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Venezuela, Flora of Venezuela, National symbols of Venezuela, and List of birds of Venezuela
The iconic araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha), Venezuela's national tree.

Venezuela lies within the Neotropic ecozone; large portions of the country were originally covered by moist broadleaf forests. One of seventeen megadiverse countries and among the top twenty countries in terms of endemism, some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species are unique to the country; 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species are also endemic.[32] Venezuela hosts significant biodiversity across habitats ranging from xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest to coastal mangrove forests in the northeast.[11] Its cloud forests and lowland rainforests are particularly rich, for example hosting over 25,000 species of orchids.Template:Inote These include the flor de mayo orchid (Cattleya mossiae), the national flower.

The golden silk orb-weaver is among the more common of Venezuela's arthropods.

Venezuela's national tree is the araguaney, whose characteristic lushness after the rainy season led novelist Rómulo Gallegos to name it «[l]a primavera de oro de los araguaneyes» ("the golden spring of the araguaneyes"). Notable mammals include the giant anteater, jaguar, and the capybara, the world's largest rodent. More than half of Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in the Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco.[33] Manatees, Boto river dolphins, and Orinoco crocodiles, which reach up to 8 metres (26 ft) in length, are notable aquatic species. Venezuela also hosts a huge number of bird species, a total of 1,417, 48 of which are endemic.[34] Important birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers,Template:Inote and the yellow-orange turpial, the national bird.

In recent decades, logging, mining, shifting cultivation, development, and other human activities have posed a major threat to Venezuela's wildlife; between 1990 and 2000, 0.40% of forest cover was cleared annually.[32] In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected.[33] Venezuela is currently home to a biosphere reserve that is part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[35] In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks.[36]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Venezuela
File:Billete 50000 bolívares anverso.jpg
The Venezuelan 50,000 bolívar banknote featuring a portrait of José María Vargas.

The petroleum sector dominates Venezuela's mixed economy, accounting for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela, and in the surroundings of the Orinoco River where the biggest reserve of the country is located.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Venezuela and Languages of Venezuela
Caracas, Libertador Avenue

Some 67% of the estimated are Mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry); another 21% are white Latin American, mostly of Italian, Spanish, German, and Portuguese stock. Other important minority groups include Afro-Venezuelans (10%), and Asians (2%), who are of predominantly Arab and Chinese descent. Only 1% of Venezuelans are Amerindian. These groups were joined by sponsored migrants from throughout Europe and neighboring parts of South America during waves of immigration in the early 20th century; many were attracted again, by the mid-20th century economic boom. About 85% of the population live in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline.[37] Though almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco, only 5% of Venezuelans live there.

The national and official language is Spanish; 31 indigenous languages are also spoken, including Guajibo, Pemon, Warao, Wayuu, and the various Yanomaman languages. European immigrant communities and their descendants commonly use their own native languages. Nominally, 96% of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church.

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Venezuela and Heritage of Venezuela
File:Basilicachinita.jpg
Basílica de La Chinita, Our Lady of Rosario of Chiquinquirá Basilica, Maracaibo

Venezuela's heritage, art, and culture have been heavily influenced by its Latin American context. These elements extend to its historic buildings, architecture,[38] art,[39] landscape, boundaries, and monuments. Venezuelan culture has been shaped by indigenous, Spanish and Italian, and some African influences. Before this period, indigenous culture was expressed in art (petroglyphs), crafts, architecture (shabonos), and social organization. Aboriginal culture was subsequently assimilated by Spaniards; over the years, the hybrid culture had diversified by region.

Venezuelan art is gaining prominence. Initially dominated by religious motifs, it began emphasizing historical and heroic representations in the late 19th century, a move led by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Modernism took over in the 20th century. Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré, the kinetic artists Jesús-Rafael Soto and Carlos Cruz-Diez.

Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate indigenous societies; it was dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro. Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual. Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism.

The Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex in Caracas.
The joropo, as depicted in a 1912 drawing by Eloy Palacios.

Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitol, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge.

Indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified by the groups Un Solo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa. The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Typical musical styles and pieces mainly emerged in and around the llanos region, including Alma Llanera (by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolivar Coronado), Florentino y el Diablo (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), Concierto en la Llanura by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and Caballo Viejo (by Simón Díaz). The Zulian gaita is also a popular style, generally performed during Christmas. The national dance is the joropo. Teresa Carreño was a world-famous 19th century piano virtuosa.

Baseball is Venezuela's most popular sport, although football (soccer), spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team, is gaining influence. Famous Venezuelan baseball players include Luis Aparicio (inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame), David (Dave) Concepción, Oswaldo (Ozzie) Guillén (current White Sox manager, World Series champion in 2005), Cubs Ace Carlos Zambrano, Freddy Garcia, Andrés Galarraga, Omar Vizquel (an eleven-time Gold Glove winner), Luis Sojo, Miguel Cabrera, Bobby Abreu, Felix Hernandez, Magglio Ordonez, Ugueth Urbina, Víctor Martínez, Rafael Betancourt, and Johan Santana (a two-time unanimously selected Cy Young Award winner).

The World Values Survey has consistently shown Venezuelans to be among the happiest people in the world, with 55% of those questioned saying they were "very happy".[40]

See also


References

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  4. ^ Template:Harvard reference. p. 177.
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  6. ^ "Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos" (in Spanish). Instituto de Cultura Hispánica (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional). 1958: 386. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ^ Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of YUPArchaeology. Springer. pp. p. 91. ISBN 0-30646-158-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  8. ^ Kipfer 2000, p. 172.
  9. ^ "Alcaldía del Hatillo: Historia" (in Spanish). Universidad Nueva Esparta. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  10. ^ Template:Harvard reference. p. 103.
  11. ^ a b c "Country Profile: Venezuela" (PDF). Library of Congress (Federal Research Division). 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  12. ^ "Venezuela". The World Factbook. CIA. 2007-03-08. Retrieved 2007-03-13. From 1935 to 1958 Venezuela was ruled by military strongmen who promoted the oil industry and encouraged modernization and allowed for some social reforms. Popularly elected governments have held sway since 1959. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Template:Harvard reference. pp. 616–617.
  14. ^ Schuyler, George W. (2001). "Health and Neoliberalism: Venezuela and Cuba". The Policy Studies Organization: p. 10. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  15. ^ "Profile: Hugo Chavez". Retrieved June 5 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  16. ^ "Compulsory voting around the world". The Guardian. 4 July 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ "Historia de Venezuela en Imágenes. Capítulo VIII 1973 /1983. La Gran Venezuela". La experiencia democrática 1958 / 1998. Fundación Polar. Retrieved 2007-01-21.Template:Es icon
  18. ^ "El tema: Historia democrática venezolana". Globovisión. 2006-11-28. Retrieved 2007-01-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)Template:Es icon
  19. ^ "Ramón José Velásquez Mújica". Centro de Investigación de Relaciones Internacionales y desarrollo. 2006-09-21. Retrieved 2007-01-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)Template:Es icon
  20. ^ [1]
  21. ^ UNDP. Human Development Report 2006: Venezuela. Accessed 8 March 2007.
  22. ^ "Population, Health, and Human Well-Being—Venezuela" (PDF). EarthTrends Country Profiles. World Resources Institute. 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  23. ^ FAO. Venezuela. Accessed 20 September 2006.
  24. ^ Unicef. Venezuela. Accessed 20 September 2006.
  25. ^ Venezuela Guardian. Accessed 20 September 2006.
  26. ^ Appropriate Technology for Sewage Pollution Control in the Wider Caribbean Region, Caribbean Environment Programme Technical Report #40 1998 available online at http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/Techreports/tr40en/chapter5.html
  27. ^ UNICEF. Safe Drinking Water. Accessed 20 September 2006.
  28. ^ "Venezuela: 2004 Update" (PDF). WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheets. World Health Organization. 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  29. ^ Disease Risk Analysis: Traveler Advisory for South America
  30. ^ Venezuela Guardian. Accessed 20 September 2006.
  31. ^ http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=62-0520230310-2
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  33. ^ a b Template:Harvard reference.
  34. ^ Lepage, Denis. "Checklist of birds of Venezuela". Bird Checklists of the World. Avibase. Retrieved 4 May. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Peck, D (2000). "The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance: Venezuela". The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Ramsar Convention Secretariat. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
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  37. ^ "Coastal and Marine Ecosystems—Venezuela" (PDF). EarthTrends Country Profiles. World Resources Institute. 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  38. ^ "Coro and its Port". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1993.
  39. ^ "Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2000.
  40. ^ "Happiness Statistics By Country". Nationmaster.com. Retrieved 2007-06-21.

External links

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