White Latin Americans

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For the white Latino population of the United States, please see White Hispanic and Latino Americans
White Latin American
"Latinoamericano blanco"
"Latino-Americano Branco"
Gisele BündchenFidel CastroShakira
Gael García BernalGabriela SabatiniRicardo Maduro
Gisele Bündchen · Fidel Castro · Shakira
Gael García Bernal · Gabriela Sabatini · Ricardo Maduro
Total population
White People
190 million – 203 million
33% – 37% of Latin American population
Regions with significant populations
 Brazil93M[1] or 103M[2]
 Argentina39M[2]
 Mexico9.9M [2] or 16.3M[3]
 Colombia9M[2]
 Cuba7.4M[4]
 Venezuela5.5M[5]
 Chile4.9M[6]
 Peru4.4M[2]
 Puerto Rico3.2M[2]
 Uruguay3.1M[2]
 Dominican Republic1.5M[2]
 Bolivia1.4M[2]
 Nicaragua1M[2]
All other areas1.1M[2]
Languages
Portuguese, Spanish, and other languages.
Religion
Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic, with a minority of Protestants); and other religions.

White Latin Americans[7] are the white population of Latin America. They are descendants of 16th to 19th century colonial-era settlers and of post-independence immigrants. The settlers were mostly Spanish and Portuguese, the post-independence immigrants were mostly Italian. Other large sources of immigrants were Spain, Portugal, Germany, Poland, France, Lebanon, and the British Isles. Smaller numbers came from various other European and Middle Eastern countries. The immigrants came principally in the late decades of the nineteenth and early decades of the twentieth centuries. Some twelve million people arrived in South America alone in this period, although many returned or re-migrated to other countries, including the United States and Canada. The largest group in the region,[2] white Latin Americans number approximately 190 million, or one-third of the total population of nearly 580 million in 2008.

History

Latin America

More than one and a half million Portuguese and Spaniards settled in their American colonies during the colonial period.[8][9] Small numbers of other Europeans also settled, usually as a reward for military service to Spain or Portugal.

For the region as a whole, the number of post-independence immigrants far surpassed that of settlers during the colonial period.[10] Argentina and Uruguay were "inundated" with European immigrants, so that in the early 20th century Buenos Aires had a larger proportion of European-born population than did New York City. Argentina received more than half of the 11-12 million immigrants to South America in this time.[10] In Brazil, the most populous country in the region, the effect was consequently not as great, but the number of immigrants was large, at more than 4 million.

Admixture

Since the European colonization, the evolution of Latin America's population is embedded in a long and widespread history of intermixing, so that many White Latin Americans have Amerindian and/or sub-Saharan African and/or Asian ancestry. However, intermixing is not exclusive to the region, of course, and the white race is nowhere a "pure race": pure races do not exist, and evidently never have.[11] For example, a 2004 study of White Americans, which showed that up to 30% of them have between 2% and 20% Sub Saharan African and or Native American admixture, similar to the ratio of white Latin Americans.[12]

Under the casta system of colonial Latin America, a person of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry would legally and automatically regain their limpieza de sangre (lit. "purity of blood") and be classified as criollo with others in that category (a designation denoting "pure" Spaniards born in the Americas), if they were of one-eighth or less Amerindian ancestry. These would be the offspring of a castizo (1/4th Amerindian and 3/4th Spanish) with a Spaniard or a criollo (who may himself have been mixed).[13]

In practice, many castizos did themselves also subversively purchase their Whiteness all over Latin America, for a steep price,[14] with relevant "probanzas de limpieza de sangre" records altered, consolidating themselves within the lawfully white population. Additionally, at least in the parts of Latin America under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (from the modern Southwest United States plus Florida, all of modern Mexico then down as far south as the southern border of modern Costa Rica, as well as Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic), officials in the late 16th century did actually decide "to grant limpieza certification to those who had no more than a fourth of native ancestry (called castizos)."[13]

Populations

The largest White population in Latin America is found in Brazil, with 93.1 million whites out of 190 million total Brazilians, a ratio of 49.7%.[1] The CIA figure is 53.7%, or 102 million.[2] Argentina, with a population of 40 million is 97% White, the largest percentage in Latin America, and indeed, in the Americas.

Brazil has the largest total population
of whites in Latin America, but not so
in terms of percentage of population.
File:Imagenchicos.jpg Argentina has the second largest
population of Whites in Latin America
and highest percentage, at 97%.
Mexico has the third largest
population of Whites in Latin America.
File:Peopleofuruguay.jpg Uruguay has the second largest
percentage of Whites
in Latin America, at 88%.
File:Kanymtv1.jpg Puerto Rico has the third largest
percentage of white population,
at 80.5%.

Mexico has the third largest White population, with over 16 million. The smallest White population in Latin America is in Honduras, with only 1% White, approximately 75,000 people. Chile, Costa Rica, and Guatemala have censuses which identify both Whites and Mestizos (people of mixed White and Amerindian ancestry) in one category, so the exact percentage of Whites in those countries is undetermined or unknown.

Country % local Population
(millions)
Brazil Brazil 49.7[1] 93 or 102
Argentina Argentina 97[15] 39
Mexico Mexico 9[16] or 15%[3] 9.8 or 16.3
Colombia Colombia 20[17] 8.9
Cuba Cuba 65.1[4] or 37[18] 4.2 or 7.3
Venezuela Venezuela 20[5] 5.2
Chile Chile 30[6] 4.8
Peru Peru 15[19] 4.3
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico 80.5[20] 3.1
Uruguay Uruguay 88[21] 3
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic 16[22] 1.5
Bolivia Bolivia 15[23] 1.4
Nicaragua Nicaragua 17[24] 1

Central America

Belize

Belize Belize

The exact percentage of white Belizeans is unknown because the Belizean census does not report separate numbers for whites and they are combined with the percentage of the people categorized as “other”, 9.7%. Most white Belizeans are descendants of criollos, the Latin American-born Spanish settlers (the first European settlers in Belize), who also made the mestizo majority in the country, and also Spanish refugees who escaped Franco’s rule. Since Belize has been a British overseas territory, few but significant number of pure-blooded descendants of British settlers appeared, even most British got out after independence. Other white settlers came, the most important are German Mennonites, white Americans, and Arabs from Middle East.

Costa Rica

 Costa Rica

The exact percentage of the white Costa Rican population is not known because the Costa Rican census does not report separate numbers for whites.[25] In its 2000 Census results, Indigenous, Black, and Chinese Costa Ricans combined for 3.8% of the population, while 93.7% were "other"; the remaining 2.6% gave no answer (numbers are rounded to tenths).[25] The CIA states that whites and mestizos are 94%.[26] There are figures for the white population by itself, such as 80%,[27] and 47%.[28] The white population is primarily of Spanish ancestry.[29] There are also significant numbers of Costa Ricans of Italian, Lebanese, German, Jewish and Polish descent. In contrast to its neighboring countries' populations, less mixing of the Spanish settlers and the indigenous populations occurred; therefore, a vast majority of Costa Ricans are either of Spanish or to a lesser extent of mestizo heritage.

El Salvador

 El Salvador

Of the total Salvadoran population, 9% is white.[30] They're mostly of Spanish descent, others of Italian, German, French, and Palestinian ancestry. The majority of the white Salvadorans are in San Salvador, Chalatenango, Northern San Miguel, Northern La Union, and Santa Ana.

Guatemala

 Guatemala

The exact percentage of the white Guatemalan population is not known because the Guatemalan census combines mestizos and whites in one category, where they make up a combined total of 59.4%. Whites are mostly of Spanish descent, but there are also those of German, English, Italian, and Scandinavian descent).

Honduras

 Honduras

Honduras contains the smallest percentage of whites in Latin America, with only 1% classified as white, or up to 75,000 of the total population. Of these, the majority are people of Spanish descent. [31]

Nicaragua

 Nicaragua

Main articles: Nicaraguan and Demographics of Nicaragua
Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua.

White Nicaraguans make up 17%, about 1 million, of the Nicaraguan population.[24] The majority of White Nicaraguans are of Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese and French ancestry. In the 1800s Nicaragua experienced several waves of immigration, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, mostly to the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Estelí, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant fourth generation Germans. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks. The Jews of Nicaragua are descendants of Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe.

Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, and Lebanese Nicaraguans with a total population of about 30,000.

Panama

 Panama

White Panamanians form 10% of the current population, up to 250,000,[32] with the Spanish being the majority. Other ancestries includes Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, Italian, Lebanese, Portuguese and Russian.

Mexico

 Mexico

Main article: White Mexican

White Mexicans are estimated between 9% and 15% of Mexico's population or around 10 to 16.3 million people.[3] The majority of White Mexicans have Spanish descent. However, many other non-Iberian immigrants (mostly French) also arrived during the Second Mexican Empire and during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the majority from Italy, Germany, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Lebanon and Israel.[33][34] White Americans and Canadians, Greeks, Romanians, Portuguese, Armenians, Poles, Russians, Ashkenazic Jews and immigrants from other Slavic countries,[34] along with many Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War also settled in Mexico.[35] White Mexicans are found in all regions of the country, but are most common in the western, central and northern states, especially in Sonora, Chihuahua and Baja California Sur.[36]

Caribbean

Cuba

 Cuba

Main article: Cubans
File:Henri and Maria Teresa of Luxembourg.jpg
Author Maria Teresa, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg

White Cubans make up about 65%[4][37] of Cuba's total population with the majority being of diverse Spanish descent, mainly from the settlers but also from the more recent influx of exiles from Franco's Spain. The ancestry of white Cubans comes primarily from Spain, with many others being of French, Portuguese, German, Italian, and Russian descent [38].

During the 18th, 19th and early part of the 20th century, large waves of Canarians, Catalans, Andalusians, Castilians, and Galicians emigrated to Cuba. Also, minor but significant ethnic influx is derived from diverse peoples from Middle Eastern nations such as Lebanon and Jews; however, not all Cuban Jews are from the Middle East, as many are Sephardic Jews. Between 1900 and 1930, close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after Castro's communist regime took power.

Dominican Republic

 Dominican Republic

Maria Montez

White Dominicans represent 16% of the total population,[22] with the vast majority being of Spanish descent. Notable other ancestries includes Italian, Lebanese, French, German, and Portuguese.[39][40][41] The government of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo made a point of "whitening" the racial composition of the country, rejecting black immigrants from Haiti and the local blacks as foreigners.[42] For example, he welcomed Jewish refugees in 1938 and Spanish farmers in the 1950s.[43][44]

Haiti

 Haiti

Most of the white Haitians are descendants of French settlers that settled on the Hispaniola, although most French stepped out of the nation after its freedom. The white community in Saint-Domingue numbered 32,000 in 1789.[45] There are also white Haitians that are descendants of Danes, Germans, Italians, Lebanese, Poles, Portuguese, Russians, and Syrians. The country has also small numbers of Haitians of Spanish descent, who are the descendants of the first settlers of the whole Hispaniola before French claimed Haiti.

Puerto Rico

 Puerto Rico

Main article: Puerto Rican people
Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico
Benicio del Toro

White Puerto Ricans of European, mostly Spanish descent, are said to comprise the majority. In the year 1899, one year after the U.S took control of the island, 61.8% of people identified as White. For the first time in fifty years, the 2000, United States Census asked people to define their race. One hundred years later, the total has risen to 80.5% (3,064,862), one percent more than reported in 1950.[46] One possible reason for Puerto Rico's high percentage of European-descent population is the fact that many of the Puerto Ricans of African or Native American descent left the island in waves of migration.

From the beginning of the twentieth century American observers remarked on the "surprising preponderance of the white race" on the island. One travel writer called Puerto Rico "the whitest of the Antilles". In a widely distributed piece, a geologist, wrote that the island was "notable among the West Indian group for the reason that its preponderant popula­tion is of the white race." In a more academic book he reiterated that "Porto Rico, at least, has not become Africanized.[47]

During the 19th century, hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, and Portuguese families, along with large numbers of immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America, arrived in Puerto Rico. Other settlers have included Irish, Scots, Germans, Italians, and thousands others who were granted land from Spain during the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with a certain amount of free land. After the United States took possession of Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War, White Americans began settling in Puerto Rico, continuing to the present day. Spanish refugees arrived in Puerto Rico during Francisco Franco’s rule in Spain.

South America

Argentina

 Argentina

Main article: White Argentine

White Argentines make up 97% of Argentina's population, or around 39 million people.[15] Whites are found in all areas of the country. White Argentines mainly are descendants of immigrants who came from Europe in the late 19th century. Most of these immigrants came from Spain and Italy. Other whites are Germans, Dutch, French, Scandinavians (mostly Swedes), Jews, Poles and other East Europeans, and Arabs.

Bolivia

 Bolivia

White Bolivians make up 15% of the nation's population, or up to 1.4 million.[23] The white population consists mostly of criollos, which consist of families of relatively unmixed Spanish ancestry from the Spanish colonists and also Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936—1939 Spanish Civil War. These have formed much of the aristocracy since independence. Other smaller groups within the white population are Germans, who founded the national airline Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, as well as Italians, Americans, Basques, Lebanese, Croats, Russians, Polish, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.

Brazil

 Brazil

Main article: White Brazilian

According to the 2005 census, White Brazilians make up 49.7% of Brazil's population, or 93.1 million people.[1] Figures in the CIA World Factbook put whites at 53.7%, or 102 million.[2] Whites are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the main concentrations are in the South and Southeastern parts of the country.

By the 1800s, close to one million Europeans had left for Brazil, most of them colonial settlers from Portugal. The immigration boom occurred between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, when nearly five million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, most of them Italians, Portuguese, Germans, Spaniards, Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Ashkenazi Jews. The country has also a large Lebanese diaspora among other Levant Arabs.

Chile

 Chile

The Chilean population is approximately 30% to 35% white, with predominantly white Mestizos further numbered at 65%.[6] These two figures are normally combined, so that Chile's population is classified as 95% white and white-Amerindian (mestizo) or (Castizo), 3% Amerindian, and 2% other.[6] Whites are mostly Spanish in origin (mainly Castilians, Andalusians and Basques). The more notable other groups are Italians, Irish, French, Germans, English, Scots, Croats, and Palestinians.

Colombia

 Colombia The white Colombian population is approximately 20%, or up to 8.9 million.[17] White Colombians are mostly descendants of Spaniards, but some are also of Italians, Germans, British, Lithuanians, French, Belgians, Polish, Portuguese, Ukrainians, Lebanese, Croatians, and Scandinavians.

The Colombian Paisa Region received a strong immigration wave from Spain (Basques, and others from Extremadura and Andalusia) during 16th and 17th centuries.

Ecuador

 Ecuador White Ecuadorians, mostly criollos, descendants of Spanish colonists and also Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936—1939 Spanish Civil War, account for 7%[original research?], or approximately 960,000,[48] of the Ecuadorian population. Most still hold large amounts of lands, mainly in the northern Sierra, and live in Quito or Guayaquil. There is also a large number of white people in Cuenca, a city in the southern Andes of Ecuador, due to the arrival of Frenchmen in the area, in order to measure the arc of the Earth. Cuenca, Loja, and the Galápagos attracted German immigration during the early 20th century, and the Galápagos also had a small Norwegian fishing community until they were asked to leave.

Paraguay

 Paraguay

Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations in South America. The exact percentage of the white Paraguayan population is not known because the Paraguayan census does not include racial or ethnic identification, save for the indigenous population,[49] which reached 1.7% of the country's total in the last census in 2002.[50] Other sources estimate the other groups. The mestizo population is estimated at 95% by the CIA World Factbook, and all other groups at 5%.[51] Thus, Whites and the remaining groups (Asians, Afro-Paraguayans, others, if any) combine for approximately 3.3% of the total population. The majority of whites are of Spanish descent with others being of Italian, German, or of other European descent.

Peru

 Peru

Main article: European Peruvian

White Peruvians represent 15% of the population, or 4.3 million people.[19] They are descendants primarily of Spanish colonists, and also of Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War, while many others descend from Italian, French (mainly Basques), Austrian or German, Portuguese, British, Russians, Croatians, Lebanese and Syrian immigrant families. The majority of the whites live in the largest cities, concentrated usually in the northern coastal cities of Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, and of course the capital Lima. The only southern city with a significant population is Arequipa. To the north Cajamarca and San Martín Region are also places with a strong Spanish influence and ethnic presence.

File:Natalia Oreiro in Martin Fierro Awards.jpg
Natalia Oreiro

Uruguay

 Uruguay

White Uruguayans represent approximately 88% of the population and are of prevalently European descent,[21] mainly Spaniards (both colonial settlers and refugees fleeing Spanish Civil War), followed closely by Italians, then British, Germans, French, Swiss, Russians, Portuguese, Poles, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, Dutch, Belgians, Croatians, Lebanese, Armenians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and Irish.

Dayana Mendoza

Venezuela

 Venezuela

Venezuela has no official race percentages; however, unofficial estimates put the white Venezuelan percentage at 20. The majority of white Venezuelans are of Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, German, and other European descent. Nearly half a million European immigrants, mostly from Spain (as a sequel of the Spanish Civil War), and from Italy and Portugal, entered the country and during and after the second World War.

Notable White Latin Americans

File:Carmenmonarcha.jpg
File:RickyMartin.jpg
File:Jorgeguinzburg.PNG
File:Cardlozano.jpg

Authors

Entertainers

Actors/Actresses

Musicians

Journalists

Models, beauty queens

Presidents and Political figures

Religious figures

Sports

See also

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Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c d "PNAD" (PDF) (in Portuguese). 2006. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Field Listing - Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
  3. ^ a b c "Mexico: Ethnic Groups". Encyclopædia Britannica. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ a b c "TABLA II.3 POBLACION POR COLOR DE LA PIEL Y GRUPOS DE EDADES, SEGUN ZONA DE RESIDENCIA Y SEXO" (in Spanish). CubaGob.cu. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  5. ^ a b "Venezuela". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-08-25. "...about one-fifth of Venezuelans are of European lineage". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d "5.2.6. Estructura racial". La Universidad de Chile. Retrieved 2007-08-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ The term "White Latin American" has been occasionally used for the commonalities of the different white groups in Latin America. For examples, see Repression: the recognition of human rights, page 15 excerpted from the book Cry of the People: The struggle for human rights in Latin America and the Catholic Church in conflict with US policy, by Penny Lernoux, Penguin Books, 1980, paper; or Globalization Dynamics in Latin America: South Cone and Iberian Investments, Mario Gómez Olivares, Department of Economy, ISEG/UTL, and Cezar Guedes, Departament of Economy, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro.
  8. ^ "L'emigració dels europeus cap a Amèrica" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  9. ^ "Presença portuguesa: de colonizadores a imigrantes". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  10. ^ a b "South America: Postindependence overseas immigrants". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-11-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ "AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race". American Association of Physical Anthropologists. 1996. Retrieved 2008-01-25.
  12. ^ "Backintyme Essays » Blog Archive » Afro-European Genetic Admixture in the United States".
  13. ^ a b Martínez, María Elena. "The Black Blood of New Spain: Limpieza de Sangre, Racial Violence, and Gendered Power in Early Colonial Mexico". History Cooperative. Retrieved 2007-08-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  14. ^ Frank W. Sweet. Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise And Triumph of the One-drop Rule. Backintyme. pp. 215–235. ISBN 0-939479-23-0.
  15. ^ a b "Argentina: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  16. ^ "Mexico: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  17. ^ a b "Colombia: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  18. ^ "Cuba; People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. ^ a b "Peru: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  20. ^ "Puerto Rico: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  21. ^ a b "Uruguay: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  22. ^ a b "D.R.: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  23. ^ a b "Bolivia: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  24. ^ a b "Nicaragua: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  25. ^ a b "Costa Rica: Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2000" (Microsoft Excel). Retrieved 2008-03-21.
  26. ^ "Costa Rica; People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-21. white (including mestizo) 94% {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) = 3.9 million whites and mestizos
  27. ^ "Where does it take place?". Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  28. ^ Afromestizo
  29. ^ Waibel, Leo (1939-10-01). "White Settlement in Costa Rica". Geographical Review. 29 (4): 529–560. doi:10.2307/209828. Retrieved 2007-12-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ "El Salvador: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  31. ^ "Honduras; People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  32. ^ "Panama; People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-21. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  33. ^ Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX
  34. ^ a b Los Extranjeros en México, La inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa?
  35. ^ Refugiados españoles en México
  36. ^ The Hispanic Experience - Indigenous Identity in Mexico
  37. ^ "Cuba; Ethnic Makeup". The Financial Times World Desk Reference. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  38. ^ Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba from http://www.cubagenweb.org
  39. ^ Origen de la población dominicana
  40. ^ Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad de Barcelona
  41. ^ Sitios patrimonio de la humanidad: San Pedro de Macorís, República Dominicana
  42. ^ Sagás, Ernesto. "A Case of Mistaken Identity: Antihaitianismo in Dominican Culture". Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  43. ^ Levy, Lauren. "The Dominican Republic's Haven for Jewish Refugees". Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 2007-12-08. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  44. ^ "...no hicieron Las Américas". El País. Retrieved 2007-12-08.
  45. ^ Slavery and the Haitian Revolution
  46. ^ Puerto Rico's History on race
  47. ^ Representation of racial identity among puerto ricans and in the u.s. mainland
  48. ^ "Ecuador: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  49. ^ Paraguayan Census form
  50. ^ II CENSO NACIONAL INDÍGENA DE POBLACIÓN Y VIVIENDAS 2002. Pueblos Indígenas del Paraguay. Resultados Finales
  51. ^ "Paraguay: People; Ethnic groups". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  52. ^ "FAST FACTS".
  53. ^ "Carmen Miranda's Bio at the Internet Movie Database".
  54. ^ "Schafik Giries Abdullah Handal"
  55. ^ "Schafik Giries Abdullah Handal"
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