Bluethroat

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Bluethroat
White-starred Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica cyanecula) in splendor

White-starred Bluethroat ( Luscinia svecica cyanecula ) in splendor

Systematics
Order : Passerines (Passeriformes)
Subordination : Songbirds (passeri)
Family : Flycatcher (Muscicapidae)
Subfamily : Schmätzer (Saxicolinae)
Genre : Luscinia
Type : Bluethroat
Scientific name
Luscinia svecica
( Linnaeus , 1758)

The bluethroat ( Luscinia svecica , syn .: Cyanecula svecica , Cyanosylvia svecica ) is a songbird species from the flycatcher family (Muscicapidae). It is named after the striking blue color of the throat and front breast, which the male shows in the breeding dress. Depending on the subspecies, there is a central white or red "star" on this ground. The ten subspecies are therefore divided into two groups, the white-starred and the red-starred bluethroat (tundra bluethroat). In some subspecies, however, the star is missing.

The bluethroat colonizes bush or reed-covered biotopes mostly in very humid locations and feeds mainly on insects. It occurs in large parts of the Palearctic and has also inhabited part of northern Alaskan beyond the Bering Strait . In Europe, the range is highly fragmented and the species is threatened in many places by a lack of suitable habitat.

The bluethroat is a migratory bird. The European Bluethroat overwinter in southern Spain, North Africa , south of the Sahara and in South Asia , with the White-Stared Bluethroat being more of a short- or medium-range migrant and the Red-Stared Bluethroat being a long-range migrant .

description

Appearance and dimensions

Males in resting dress
The female sometimes completely lacks the blue color of the throat. This is particularly typical for females in the first winter.
The reddish outside of the tail is the best feature in all clothes.
Male of the red star bluethroat in splendid dress
Bluethroat

The bluethroat is a slender, long-legged songbird, with a body length of 13-14 cm, about the size of a robin and thus somewhat smaller than the closely related nightingale . The wing length in the male is on average about 78 mm, the tail length 54 mm. In the female, the wing length is 74 mm, the tail length is 52 mm. Both sexes weigh 16 to 18 g.

The upper side is predominantly dark gray-brown, the rump and upper tail-coverts are tinted a little warmer. A beige stripe over the eyes clearly stands out from the dark dashed parting . The reins and ear covers are dark gray-brown and have lighter dashes. The sides of the body are pale beige, the back of the breast and belly are whitish and the coverts under the tail are cream-colored. The two-tone sides of the pile are the best feature in all clothes . The two central control feathers are brown, the basal half of all outer ones is rust-red, the terminal half is black-brown. The also black-brown hand and arm wings have light hems. On the dark brown upper wing coverts there are reddish brown hems. The lower wing is brown. The dark horn-brown to black-brown beak is lively lemon yellow on the inside. The feet and legs, like the beak, are dark horn-brown, the barrel is reddish translucent. The iris is black-brown.

male

The chin, throat, beard and upper breast of the male in the breeding plumage are silky glossy and vivid blue. The blue throat markings are also highly reflective in the ultraviolet spectrum, which apparently has a decisive influence on the choice of mate of the females. Below the throat, in the middle of the blue coloration, lies a kidney-shaped spot - called a "star" - which, depending on the subspecies, is rust-red (red-starred bluethroat) or white (white-starred bluethroat), varies in size or may be absent. The blue throat patch is bordered by a dark border towards the belly, followed by a beige band and a rust-red chest band that ends at the belly. The throat patch and chest band can be interspersed with light feather hems. The blue coloration is less pronounced in the resting dress, the chin and throat are wedge-shaped white with a narrow, blackish-brown streak of beard.

female

In the breeding and resting robe of the female, the blue areas of the male are light beige and contrast with the dark streak of beard, which is also visible in the resting robe of the male. The chest band is darkly cloudy to dashed. In some females, the clouds are interspersed with pale blue. The rust-red band towards the belly is only indicated.

Youth dress and first winter

In the youth dress the upper side is black-brown with a wedge-shaped, rust-beige spot, the upper tail-coverts are reddish-brown. The throat, chest and abdominal sides are beige with dark tips, the belly and the underside of the tail are whitish.

In the first winter, the resting plumage resembles the plumage of adult birds, but in the male the white and black areas are more extensive, the blue is limited to the beard and the rust-red band is less pronounced. In the female, the white areas are more extensive, a blue coloration is at most very weakly indicated. The dark and rust-red chest bands are just as weak.

Mauser

The juvenile moult is a partial moult in which only the small plumage is moulted. It is found in the subspecies L. s. svecica between mid-July and September, at L. s. cyanecula from the end of June. The adult birds molt their entire plumage from mid-July and are therefore almost unable to fly for a short time in early August. This full moult lasts between 42 and 45 days. In the winter quarters, a partial moult takes place between the end of February and the end of March, which is limited to the chin and throat plumage and the sides of the head.

voice

The song of the bluethroat is powerful, but, unlike other species of the genus, does not carry very far. It is melodic and harsh and can contain many elements of other types or imitated mechanical sounds. Particularly characteristic is the introduction of the stanzas, which begins with a hesitantly lined up djip-djip-djip or zri-zri-zri , which then becomes faster and stronger and leads to a mostly longer passage of melodic, flute-like, pipe-singer-like, rough or hard clinking sound sequences . Since the number of woven-in imitations of other species is usually very large and these are very diverse, it is often difficult to hear the species-typical sounds. The repertoire of imitations reflects the composition of the bird world in the vicinity of the breeding site and can also change from day to day in the composition.

The alarm call - a cane singer-like, rough, sometimes clicking rack or track - is harder than the corresponding call of the nightingale. It is sometimes paired with two syllables as hüi-dack with the gently whistling call ( huid , iht or si ). In addition, there are series of calls - for example djüp-djüp-djüp - which are similar to the introduction to the song stanzas and are also uttered when excited . An excited cheek or a strongly frequency-modulated chiit can also be heard.

behavior

The bluethroat is active during the day and at dusk. The greatest singing activity of Central European birds begins at dusk and lasts until after dark. In the mornings, the singing sometimes starts in the dark and then usually continues into the morning hours. It is presented from exposed waiting areas. Sometimes the male undertakes singing flights, flying in a flat arc to a control room. It usually starts from a different angle, sometimes from the ground. The intensity of singing and singing flights is greatest after the arrival of the females and before the eggs are laid. After that, the male is almost completely silent. Males that still sing at a later point in time have not been mated. But even if the clutch is lost, the singing activity can start again later. The early silence of the song, the fact that males do not stimulate each other through song (as with nightingale and sprout) and that the female is attracted by the song suggest that this is not used to delimit territory, but only to attract partners .

The Bluethroat is not shy, but lives very hidden. The escape distance is between 10 and 30 m. On the ground, it moves similar to the nightingale or robin. It stands stretched out with its chest stretched out, its tail stilted and wings hanging slightly. The locomotion takes place mostly hopping, rarely walking with a few steps. Sometimes the quick hopping over long distances seems like the bird is running. When excited or sometimes seemingly unmotivated, the tail is set up and spread, whereby the red sides of the tail become visible. The bluethroat moves quickly and skillfully like a swirl in the branches or reeds .

The flight is fast and arc-shaped and usually takes place close to the cover in open terrain. Obstacles are mostly flown around, not over. When landing in cover, the tail is often fanned out briefly, then the bird quickly changes location with a few jumps.

distribution

The distribution of the bluethroat is trans-Palearctic , but has large gaps in Europe. It extends from the northern edge of the Strauchtundra south to the steppe zone and some southern Palearctic mountain ranges. In the Nearctic there is a small colonization occurrence in northern Alaska .

In Western Europe, the occurrence is limited to some mountains on the Iberian Peninsula and some small, disjoint sub-areas in France , especially a 10 km wide strip along the Atlantic coast (subspecies L. s. Namnetum ). There are larger areas in the Benelux countries , north of the Alps in Germany and Austria and along the Danube in the Hungarian region . The more or less closed area stretches from northeast Germany and Poland eastwards. In Fennoscandia , the distribution is limited to the high mountains of Norway , northern Sweden , northern Finland and the Kola peninsula and is connected to the closed area along the coast of the White Sea . Its northern border runs eastward between 70 and 72 ° north to the Chukchi Peninsula , to Kamchatka and northern Alaska. In the south, the sometimes very disjoint distribution there extends to the mountainous regions of the northwestern Caucasus , the Zagros , the Pamir , Tian Shan , Altai , Tannu Ola and Changai . In Yakutia the species occurs only in the north and otherwise very locally. Possibly there is too much competition here with the ruby throat , which has its main focus here. Occasional breeding attempts of the red-starred bluethroat were made in northern Scotland.

hikes

Bluethroat in the Indian winter quarters

The subspecies differ significantly in their migration behavior. While L. s. svecica is a real long-distance migrant, L. s. cyanecula and L. s. namnetum rather short to medium distance migrants. The same applies to the Asian subspecies, whose wintering areas partly coincide with those of L. s. svecica overlap.

The main wintering areas of L. s. svecica are located on the Indian subcontinent and reach up to around 20 ° N, occasionally there is evidence as far as Sri Lanka . To the east there is evidence as far as southeastern China and, exceptionally, as far as Japan . The western extension of the area extends in the north to the eastern Mediterranean . South of the Sahara, this subspecies winters as far as West Africa, although most of the birds are concentrated in the east. The directions of pull can be quite different and z. B. in birds breeding in Finland scatter from southeast to south-southwest.

The subspecies L. s. cyanecula overwinters mostly south and southwest of the breeding area. The majority can be found in North Africa , in the oases of the Sahara and south of the same. To the east, hibernators were found up to the Persian Gulf . Most of this subspecies is concentrated in West Africa, east to Nigeria . Individual birds can also be found in the Mediterranean area.

At L. s. namnetum the migratory routes are the shortest, this subspecies overwinters in southwest Portugal and in the Maghreb . L. s. volgae also forms a transition in migration behavior: in winter, these populations can be found in northeastern Africa and southwestern Asia. The subspecies L. s. pallidogularis and L. s. kobdensis overwinter in Southwest and South Asia, L. s. saturatior in South Asia. The winter quarters of L. s. abotti are located in northern India, which L. s. przevalskii in east China.

The subspecies differ little in migration phenology . The breeding sites are usually cleared in the second half of July. However, until they migrate, which mainly takes place from mid-August and September, the molting birds still stay in habitats rich in cover, such as reed beds. The subspecies L. s. svecica can then also be found outside the mountainous breeding areas in the lowlands. The migration from the breeding areas is completed by the beginning of October at the latest. In Central Europe, homecoming usually begins at the end of March, and unusually early returnees sometimes reach southern Germany in the first third of March. The passage in Central Europe will be completed by mid-May at the latest.

Geographic variation

Distribution during the breeding season and subspecies of the bluethroat
Male of the red star bluethroat

There is a noticeable variation in the coloration of the central throat spot in the adult males. The ten subspecies are therefore divided into two subspecies groups: the white-starred bluethroat ( cyanecula group), which is mainly to be found in the south and west of the range, and the red-starred bluethroat ( svecica group), which occurs more in the north and east . Populations in between vary greatly and sometimes also show a red star with a white base. In some populations of the cyanecula group (e.g. L. s. Magna ) the star can be completely absent. Other features such as the size and coloring of the top vary only slightly.

Cyanecula group

Sometimes the Spanish populations are also classified as azuricollis subspecies .

Transitional populations

Svecica group

  • L. s. svecica ( Linnaeus , 1758) - Scandinavia and northern Asia as well as northern Alaska, since the 1970s also in some Central European mountains
  • L. s. pallidogularis ( Zarudny , 1897) - lowlands from Kazakhstan and eastward to the Tien Shan and Pamir
  • L. s. saturatior ( Sushkin , 1925) - Altai , northwestern Mongolia and mountains of Central Asia
  • L. s. kobdensis ( Tugarinov , 1929) - Western Mongolia, south of the Altai Mountains west to Lake Saissan and in Western China ( Xinjiang )
  • L. s. przevalskii ( Tugarinov , 1929) - Central China ( Qinghai to the Nan Shan and east to the Djungarian Gate and the Ordos Plateau )

Systematics

The bluethroat has long been placed in its own genus Cyanecula or Cyanosylvia and the subspecies are often described as separate species. Later it was sometimes classified in the genus Erithacus and finally in the genus Luscinia , which consists of several superspecies and some independent species. One such species is the bluethroat, which is also classified in a monotypical subgenus Cyanosylvia , the status of which - like the phylogenetic relationships within the genus in general - has not been fully clarified.

The phylogenetic relationships within the species were examined in 1998 and 2003. It was found that based on the comparisons of haplotypes, only a rough separation into a northern and a southern group can be determined and these must have developed within the last 15,000 years. The geographical variation of the phenotype and the division into subspecies were not supported by the genetic findings.

habitat

The subspecies L. s. cyanecula inhabits moist locations with willow bushes.
The subspecies L. s. namnetum sometimes breeds in bushy salt flats on the French Atlantic coast.
The subspecies svecica breeds in humid, bushy locations in fells and tundra.

The Bluethroat colonizes wet locations that offer a combination of sparse vegetation and good cover. The latter does not have to be thick bushes like the nightingale , but correspondingly dense stands of old reeds or tall perennials are sufficient. Proximity to water is not absolutely necessary, but such biotopes are preferred in many places.

In the primary habitats of the subspecies L. s. cyanecula are two very short-lived stages of succession of fen and river silting. On the one hand, this is the plant community of the willow - alder -Gebüsches ( Frangulo-Salicetum cinereae ) in which thickets of gray and ear-grazing transitional stage from reeds represent the alder. On the other hand, these are the basket Weidenbusch ( Salicetum triandro-viminalis ) in the basket- and Salix triandra form along watercourses bushes with a species-poor herb layer, and the fracture willow woods ( Salicetum fragilis ) in the bushes from breakage , silver or purple willow at flowing waters or oxbow lakes to the alluvial forest.

In the cultivated landscape, where these stages are mostly absent due to water regulation , the bluethroat is dependent on biotopes that are created briefly by human intervention and then overgrown with bushes or reeds. This can be dredging and backfilling in gravel pits, on river banks, quarry ponds or fish ponds. In the agricultural landscape, reed-covered drainage ditches, roadsides, wet fallow land and ruderal areas are also settled. In the marshland of the North Sea coast (Netherlands, Belgium and Germany), the species has been successfully colonizing rapeseed fields with reed-covered ditches and dry ditches in polders for several years . On the French Atlantic coast, the bluethroat breeds in silting and shrubbery salt pans . In Spain, dry, stony mountain slopes are used as breeding habitats.

The subspecies L. s. svecica breeds in Scandinavia in the swampy bush forests of the bog birch ( Betula tortuosa ), in swampy locations with scrub from willow and birch in the fells and tundra , in dwarf shrub heaths and on the waterways and bog edges of the coniferous forest zone. In the European mountains, where this subspecies has occurred since the mid-1970s, raised bogs , bog heaths and Kleinseggenriede are populated with at least 50% mountain pine cover - for example in the Giant Mountains , the Tatras or the Central Alps . In the Alps, the red star bluethroat also breeds in block slopes with alpine shrubs that border on spring meadows or wet gullies . The altitude distribution there is between 1300 and 2100 meters above sea level.

On the train, all European subspecies can be found in bushes and reeds at river mouths, rice fields or bodies of water.

For Central Europe, essential breeding areas are designated in the Salzburg region . The white-starred bluethroat can be found in the European protected area Weidmoos, the red-starred bluethroat in the Hundsfeldmoor in Obertauern.

Settlement density

During the breeding season the space requirement of the subspecies L. s. cyanecula between 0.24 and over 2 ha. In favorable, densely populated habitats, breeding densities between 5 and 6 breeding pairs / 10 ha are achieved, for example in a silting zone with subsequent scrub forest on the Lower Rhine . In the neighboring reed beds the density was 1.4 bp / 10 ha. For L. s. svecica , similar data can be found with 4.5–5 bp./10 ha in moist mountain birch forest on the edge of dwarf birch moorland and, on the other hand, 0.8–1.5 bp./10 ha in drier birch forest. The space requirement of L. s. namnetum seems to be smaller with areas from 1.3 ha. In the Loire estuary, densities of up to 8 bp / 10 ha were achieved.

food

The bluethroat mainly gathers its food on the ground and in the herb layer. It consists largely of insects such as two-winged birds , beetles , small grasshoppers and dragonflies . In addition, there are spiders , worms and small snails . Unlike the nightingale and sprout, ants hardly belong to the range of prey , woodlice , centipedes and millipedes are only very rarely eaten. From late summer berries and fruits are occasionally added.

Reproduction

Bluethroat usually has a monogamous seasonal marriage, sometimes bigyny . In the subspecies L. s. cyanecula , second broods take place, L. s. svecica only breeds once.

Sexual maturity is reached at one year, but not all of the previous year's males seem to breed or occupy a territory. During the breeding season, several males are sometimes found in unfamiliar areas or singing for a day in unsuitable habitats.

The males arrive in the breeding area over a period of more than two weeks, the females follow two to two and a half weeks later. In bad weather, the establishment of the territory can take up to a week. In the northern populations, arrival and territorial formation are usually faster. Sometimes areas of the previous year are reoccupied.

Courtship

Courtship and pairing take place immediately after the females arrive. The courtship sometimes has quite aggressive features, some behaviors are similar to those of agonistic behavior . In contrast to the nightingale and sprout, which lack this, the male's flight of imposing is described, which is conspicuous and buzzing. If a female is approached, this often leads to pursuit flights, in which the female usually escapes from the area. If it returns, the process can repeat itself.

Another part of the advertising is the display behavior , in which the male clearly shows his colored parts by ruffling the throat and chest feathers, erecting the head and neck, flapping his wings and lifting the fanned tail. With intense singing, the yellow interior of the beak is clearly visible. In addition, the courting male sways back and forth. The female is courted, sung about on the ground or from a branch and sometimes pursued.

Later, the female signals her willingness to mate, but still behaves aggressively towards an approaching male. This tries to reduce the distance with half-loud singing and by presenting the throat field, and flies over the female with whirring wings. After the male has extended his floor ballet, the female finally calls for mating with chirping in a stretched out posture with an erect tail and vibrating wings.

Nest building

The nest is built exclusively by the female on the ground or near the ground. It is well hidden in the vegetation, and is also often installed in small cavities or depressions - for example on erosion edges or in roots. The nest is cup-shaped and measures between 11 and 14 cm in outer diameter and 7-10 cm in height. The hollow is about 6 cm deep. The nest of svecica consists of dry stalks and leaves of the grasshopper and, more rarely, moss. At L. s. cyanecula , blades of grass, pieces of reed or cattail leaves and reed panicles are used, as well as finer plant fibers and hair for the hollow.

Brood and young rearing

Bluethroat eggs Luscinia svecica svecica ( Museum Wiesbaden Collection )

The clutch consists of 4–7, usually 5 or 6 eggs. These are dark olive-green, shiny and mostly monochrome, more rarely cloudy or speckled rust-brown. The dimensions are approximately 19 × 14 mm. The incubation takes about two weeks ( up to two days shorter with svecica ) and is carried out by the female. It begins after the last egg has been deposited ( also earlier with svecica ).

The nestling period is between 13 and 14 days. Both partners feed it. The young people who have flown out remain in their parents' territory for at least a month.

Breeding success and life expectancy

In a study in Finland, the breeding success in two examined years was around 75% in each case, despite unfavorable weather in the second year. Most of the losses were due to predators , which in this case were hooded crow , merlin , weasel, and ermine . An investigation on a L. s. namnetum population resulted in a significantly lower breeding success of 46.2%. In addition to predators, which are composed of marten-like , vipers , field mice and corvids , the harsh Atlantic weather was probably also the cause.

The oldest ringbird at 8 years and 9 months was caught in Sweden. One bird lived to be 11 years old in captivity.

Inventory development

The population development for the subspecies L. s. cyanecula has probably been negative overall since around the 19th century, as suitable habitats were less and increasingly fragmented. Locally and temporarily, however, anthropogenic influences can also have a positive effect, as they create suitable, but often very short-lived, succession stages, so that in many places the populations fluctuated strongly. The species increasingly disappeared from large parts of Central Europe and could almost only survive in larger river plains. In the 1970s an inventory low was finally reached. The bluethroat was the epitome of an endangered species of bird. However, the trend has been positive again since the 1980s. Stable occurrences were able to establish themselves in the Netherlands, among others, which led to a strong spread in the 1990s, which was felt as far as Denmark and southern Germany. In 2001, a nationwide survey in Lower Saxony showed that the species has surprisingly large populations here, especially in the marshland on the North Sea coast. It was able to conquer rapeseed fields with reed-lined ditches as a secondary habitat and thus breeds successfully in the agricultural landscape.

Short-term population increases and decreases, the clandestine way of life and the early cessation of singing as early as May make a comprehensive recording of the species difficult. In Germany the population is estimated at 7,000–8,300 breeding pairs (2005). The inventory trend from 1980 to 2005 was positive. Since the 1950s and 1960s, the population has increased in France, southern Central Europe and Romania.

The causes of danger today are, on the one hand, the expansion and reconstruction measures on bodies of water and in large river landscapes, which largely destroy the silting zones and fen areas that are important for the species. On the other hand, an important factor in the cultural landscape is the clearing of drainage ditches, drainage via underground pipe systems or uncontrolled mowing of reeds. The reed stocks, which offer the species suitable breeding opportunities in the cultivated landscape, are thereby eliminated.

The population of svecica has probably remained relatively constant since the 1970s. The pan-European population of the bluethroat is estimated at 800,000–2,500,000 breeding pairs, of which around 95% are made up of this subspecies. The breeding birds of Scandinavia and Russia make up the largest part of this. The Swedish stock is estimated at 140,000–250,000 bp, the Finnish stock at 100,000–200,000. In Scandinavia there was probably a slight area expansion. In connection with this, there have also been occasional attempts at breeding in northern Scotland. Since the mid-1970s, the Red Star Bluethroat has populated some European mountains, such as the High Tatras, the Giant Mountains, the Alps and the Ukrainian Carpathians.

The world population of the bluethroat is estimated at 30-100 million specimens and is considered not to be endangered (“least concern”).

History and naming

Red-starred bluethroat

Like the nightingale and sprout, the bluethroat was popular as a housebird in historical times. In contrast to the former, Christian Ludwig Brehm placed it in his “Handbook for the Lovers of House and House Birds” in 1832 as “Second Class Singers”, but also emphasized the great ability to imitate. It was mainly caught on the train with blow nets and liming rods .

Other names for this species were Spiegelvogelchen, Wegflecklein, blue catfish, blue-headed or blue-goitre, blue-throated singer, shield nightingale, water nightingale or carl's bird.

literature

  • UN Glutz von Blotzheim , KM Bauer : Handbook of the birds of Central Europe . (HBV). Volume 11 / I: Turdidae / Erithacinae. AULA-Verlag, ISBN 3-923527-00-4 .
  • Egon Schmidt: The Bluethroat. 3. Edition. Lutherstadt Wittenberg 1988 (The new Brehm Library No. 426)
  • T. Krüger: Distribution, population and choice of habitat of the bluethroat (Luscinia svecica cyanecula) in Lower Saxony 2001: Results of a nationwide survey. In: Ornithological Reports Lower Saxony. 34, pp. 1-21, 2002
  • J. Hölzinger (Ed.): The birds of Baden-Württemberg. , Vol. 3.1 Songbirds. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-8001-3493-4 .

Web links

Commons : Bluethroat ( Luscinia svecica )  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Bluethroat  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jay Withgott: Taking a Bird's-Eye View ... in the UV , BioScience, No. 50, October 2000, pp. 854-859, bioone.org
  2. ↑ Singing example. Retrieved June 24, 2018 .
  3. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 217 (see literature)
  4. ^ A b L. Svensson, PJ Grant, K. Mularney, D. Zetterström: Der neue Kosmos-Vogelführer , Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-440-07720-9 , p. 260
  5. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 218 (see literature)
  6. ↑ u. a. from Jean C. Roché : The Birds' Voices of Europe on 4 CDs - calls and songs of 396 bird species , Kosmos-Verlag, ISBN 3-440-07030-1
  7. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 219 (see literature)
  8. ↑ J. Merilä, J. Sorjonen: Seasonal and diurnal patterns of singing and song-flight activity in Bluethroats (Luscinia svecica) , The Auk 111 (3), pp. 556-562, 1994
  9. ^ A b M. Flade: The breeding bird communities of Central and Northern Germany: Basics for the use of ornithological data in landscape planning , IHW-Verlag, Eching 1994, ISBN 3-930167-00-X
  10. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 206 (see literature)
  11. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 255, p. literature
  12. ↑ z. BCL Brehm: Handbook for lovers of house and house birds , 1832
  13. ↑ Luscinia svecica in the Avibase
  14. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 100f, s. literature
  15. ↑ S. Questiau et al .: Recent divergence between two morphologically differentiated subspecies of bluethroat (Aves: Muscicapidae: Luscinia svecica) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequence variation . In: Molecular Ecology , 7, pp. 239-245, 1998 and RM Zink et al .: Recent evolutionary history of the bluethroat (Luscinia svecica) across Eurasia . In: Molecular Ecology , 12, pp. 3069-3075, 2003
  16. ↑ a b c Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 257f (see literature)
  17. ^ F. Runge: The Plant Societies of Central Europe , Aschendorff Verlag, Münster 1990, ISBN 3-402-04383-1
  18. ↑ a b c Krüger 2002, p. literature
  19. ^ A b R. Meijer, K. Štasný: Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica) in WJM Hagemeijer, MJ Blair: The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds - their distribution and abundance , T & AD Poyser, London 1997, ISBN 0-85661-091 -7
  20. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 227f (see literature)
  21. ↑ Bluethroats occur in both breeds in the state of Salzburg on the portal of the state of Salzburg accessed on February 28, 2020
  22. ↑ a b Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 258 (see literature)
  23. ↑ a b Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 228 (see literature)
  24. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim (see literature), p. 230f.
  25. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 236 (see literature)
  26. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 259 (see literature)
  27. ↑ a b Glutz v. Blotzheim, p. 230f, s. literature
  28. ↑ Glutz v. Blotzheim, pp. 252f, s. literature
  29. ↑ Birds in Germany 2009 (PDF; 7 MB) Publication of the DDA
  30. ↑ Factsheet at birdlife.org
  31. ^ Birdlife Species Account
  32. ^ A b J. G. Krünitz : Oeconomische Encyclopädie , 1773-1858, s. Economic encyclopedia online
  33. ^ Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon, 1905
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on August 10, 2010 in this version .