robin

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robin
Erithacus rubecula melophilus

Erithacus rubecula melophilus

Systematics
Order : Passerines (Passeriformes)
Subordination : Songbirds (passeri)
Family : Flycatcher (Muscicapidae)
Subfamily : Cossyphinae
Genre : Erithacus
Type : robin
Scientific name of the  genus
Erithacus
G. Cuvier , 1800
Scientific name of the  species
Erithacus rubecula
( Linnaeus , 1758)

The robins ( Erithacus rubecula ) is a bird art from the family of flycatchers (Muscicapidae). It inhabits North Africa , Europe and Asia Minor as well as the Mediterranean islands. Its diet consists mainly of insects , small spiders , worms and snails . Its singing begins about an hour before sunrise and can be heard most of the year until dusk. The species is currently considered harmless.

Due to its often low flight distance , its appearance and its frequency the robin is a special popular figure . In the legends of Christ , it comforts Jesus in special moments and when he is dying. It is also associated with Christmas as the unofficial national bird of Great Britain . It played an important role in the discovery and scientific recognition of the magnetic sense .

description

The robin is round in shape with long, thin legs. The orange-red throat , forehead and front chest are easy to recognize and allow easy identification. Feet and iris are dark brown, the beak is black-gray to brown-black. There are three to four beard bristles above the beak corners. The size is about 13.5 to 14 centimeters. The wingspan is 20 to 22 centimeters, and the body weight is usually 15 to 18 grams.

features

By fluffing the robin seems much rounded.

The orange-red coloration of the adult birds extends from the forehead and throat to the front chest and also includes the sides of the head and neck; the spot is most pronounced on the chest. The orange color on the forehead is less clear and lined with ash gray. The top is olive brown, but in spring it turns gray due to wear and tear on the outer feather edges. The white underside is bordered by the light olive brown sides of the body. While the upper tail-coverts are yellow-brown in color, the under-tail coverts are cream-colored. The control feathers are dark brown with a yellow-gray outer flag border. Hand and arm covers are large with auburn tips. The under wing-coverts are grayish white to light brown in color.

In about half of the adult birds, the large central arm covers have a small yellow point on the outer flag, which can be limited to the lightening of the shaft tip. These yellow lace spots do not represent remnants of youth clothing, nor do they indicate any age or gender difference. They are found both in the nominate form and in other geographic subspecies of the robin. There is no sexual dimorphism in the robin .

Robins with a particularly pronounced wedge-shaped forehead pattern

The dark brown, cream-colored spotted plumage of the young birds is without red. The olive-brown upper side has light-yellow spots and blackish ends. The reddish creamy yellow underside also shows black feather hems. The yellow pointy spots can be found on the outer flag. The feet are pinkish yellow. Within four months, i.e. from the beginning of September, the bones of young birds become pneumatized, that is, hollow, air-filled bones are formed. The annual dress of the young birds is the same for males and females. The nestling is colored pale red. The underside is dark red, the down on the crown and shoulders are black. They are 10 to 11 mm long. The spherical, black eyeball is 4.3 mm in size. The beak is light flesh-colored and the beak bulges yellowish. The inside of the beak and the pharynx are lemon yellow and without tongue points. The feet are flesh-colored.

Mauser

The entire molt takes a period of 80 to 90 days. If the moult sets in late, it lasts 60 to 70 days. The full moult of the annual to perennial birds takes place from the beginning of June / beginning of August to the end of July / end of September. The moulting of all feathers takes place approximately between the change of the first and the tenth hand swing, so that the moulting state of the hand swing can serve as a reference value for assessing the growth of the remaining feather parts. The juvenile moult, a partial moult, sets in from the sixth to seventh week of life and lasts about 55 days. Depending on the hatching date, it takes place from mid-June to the end of September.

The robin tends in danger or alarmed by animals to scare Mauser . In most cases, the control feathers are thrown off, which have a growth period of 25 days during the regular moult.

Similar species

The main difference between the robin and the male of the miniature flycatcher is its size, the orange-red forehead and the lack of white markings on the base of the tail. The young birds differ from young black redstart by their dark brown instead of rust red tail. They differ from young nightingales in that they have a lighter underside and a reddish-brown tail as well as their smaller size and volume.

Voice and singing

Calls and communication

Robins on a song waiting room

The robin is most often noticed by its alarm and disturbance call, the "Schnickern" or "Ticksen". It is a series of bold, rapidly repeated "zik" elements. The bird warns of the presence of air with a stretched "Ziih", and in the event of an attack also with the trilling alarm call "Zib". If he recognizes an owl in his vicinity, the warning call "Ziib" sounds. Adult birds maintain communication with one another with the voice feeler call “Dib”, and on the move with a sound that sounds like “Trietsch”. Aggression is expressed through beak valves (instrumental sounds).

Calls also play an important role when rearing boys. Since the nestlings do not move when the nest is shaken, only a softly chattering feeding call from the adult bird triggers the unlocking of the beaks. From the seventh day onwards, the young birds make chirping begging sounds. Fledging boys beg with a loud "Zit".

Singing and singing behavior

Singing at dawn
Robin sings

The song of the robin is extremely variable with 275 proven, continuously changing motifs . It is performed with a stretched chest that emphasizes the red, usually from a high singing tower. It starts about an hour before sunrise and can be heard for a good time after sunset, but mostly around dusk. Robins sing all year round, with the exception of the moulting season. The singing activity of Central European birds increases in spring; in winter it decreases noticeably in the overwintering specimens. In contrast, birds from north and north-east Europe sing intensely even in mid-winter when it is not too cold. While the female sings less often during the breeding season, the male's singing curve increases significantly with the search for a partner. Once a couple has formed, the male temporarily stops singing almost completely.

The Revieranzeigensang is usually introduced with pearly pure notes and trills and falls slowly towards the end; high metallic tones are often inserted in between. Often, indistinct imitation phrases are inserted into the 2.5 second long stanzas . For people, the Reviergesang has a lovely and melodious melodious effect. If the robin is extremely aroused, it shows its will to escalate by drowning out or disturbing singing. The vocal pattern changes to an almost continuous, low vocal amplitude , which is referred to as “chirping”. This chant response between territorial neighbors usually changes over time in such a way that less and less attention is paid to chirping. The courtship song is aimed at females who may pass the area. However, it abruptly subsides when a mating occurs. If, however, the separation takes place again immediately, it can sound again in its old strength within hours.

Especially when the risk of copulation by a foreign male is highest, the mated territory owner amplifies the song to show intruders his presence, attention and aggression. It increases the singing again when the nest is ready and the clutch is complete. If the intruder remains in the singer's territory, the opponents can sometimes reach a volume of 100 decibels . Most of the time, the loser stops singing, stays in the area in silence for a short while, and then leaves.

Foreign voices are more often disturbed and drowned out than the neighbors' singing. The increased humidity and fog after precipitation encourage singing activity, but heavy rain makes the birds fall silent. The robin sometimes sings in the middle of the night, especially when the moon is shining brightly or when there is a source of lighting (street lamps, windows) nearby. It also sings when it is put in a dark pouch during the ringing procedure or when it experiences a solar eclipse . Nocturnal singing by urban robins in places that are noisy during the day suggests that they sing at this quieter time so that their message can be more clearly picked up by the environment.

The female sings quieter and less often than the male during the breeding season, but also defends its winter territory with violent singing. The robin can individually recognize the voices of its fellow species. Even young birds can imitate the voices of other birds. As good mockers, you can hear imitations of the following birds in their song: great tit , blackbird , pied flycatcher , blue tit , fir tit , crested tit and willow tit , chaffinch , chiffchaff , fitis , dunnock , goldhammer , skylark and blackcap .

distribution and habitat

Distribution of the robin in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East

The robin is distributed in the boreal , temperate and Mediterranean zone of the western Palearctic , that is, in North Africa , Europe and Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean islands. It is absent in northern Scandinavia , Iceland , the Crimean peninsula and some areas of Spain , partly also on the French Mediterranean coast. It is rarely found in the Caucasus , Transcaspia and western Siberia . In warmer parts of the range, i.e. in western, southern and central Europe as well as on the British Isles, the robin is a resident bird . In Western and Central Europe, however, some specimens of the population migrate as short-distance migrants and partial migrants in the winter half-year over short and medium distances.

The robin populations in northern and eastern Europe are migratory birds that winter in the Mediterranean and Middle East . They move out in October and return in March. The passage peak is in Switzerland, on Lake Constance, in Northern Germany and in Eastern Austria at the end of September / beginning of October. After that, the catch numbers decrease continuously until the beginning of November.

The robin originally lives in alluvial forests , deciduous , mixed and coniferous forests , as long as the herb layer is not too dense and there is a rich soil fauna. It can also be found in the bushes , hedges, and undergrowth . It often lives in an area close to water. The robin prefers shady and relatively humid areas to dry and hot areas. In the mountains it can be found up to an altitude of 2600 m. Parks, cemeteries , trees and gardens are also part of his habitat.

Way of life

Food and subsistence

European robin with meal beetle larva in its beak

The robin feeds mainly on insects , small spiders, and small earthworms . In addition, it eats fruits and soft seeds , including robin bread , berries ( e.g. whitebeams ), daphne and privet . About 80 percent of the berry seeds ingested retain their ability to germinate. During the breeding season, the food is composed almost exclusively of animal components. In late summer, autumn and winter it is supplemented by plant-based food. During the migration period, however, the proportion of plant-based food strongly decreases.

To search for food, the robin moves forward in small leaps on the earth, rarely taking short steps. It can reach insects by turning over and reading the leaves, less often from trunks or branches, or by hunted from high seats and then pushed down. The robin also likes to take prey when food animals are exposed or frightened by other animals, or when other birds drop them from trees. Small stones are taken up to aid digestion, indigestible parts like chitin are choked out as bulges in elongated balls.

In winter, the robin often feeds on bird feeders, where it prefers fatty foods such as fatty foods and grains. In addition, urban robins try to reach food stored in the open. According to observations, they tear apart aluminum foil to get milk or butter . Robins have been observed successfully catching aquatic insects in shallow waters .

Activity, comfort behavior

The robin is normally active during the day and at dusk, but sometimes also nocturnal. Its activity begins an hour before sunrise and usually ends an hour after sunset. The robin usually spends the night individually, usually hidden in thick bushes; in severe winters, however, it also visits chicken coops, dovecotes and the like. It rarely sleeps in human dwellings, on lamps or the like.

The robin follows the gardener in search of food with a short escape distance of up to 0.5 m.

The robin likes to bathe in all seasons. In the morning it washes the plumage, flapping its wings on leaves that are wet from dew or rain, and then shaking and cleaning itself vigorously. It also makes use of the technique of leaning , by picking up individual ants with its beak and pulling them through their plumage. When sunbathing, it crouches with its beak open, mostly on the ground, but also lying on branches. In the evening, people prefer to bathe on shallow banks or at drinking troughs. In winter, the robin bathes on the ice if necessary.

The robin avoids areas without vegetation whenever possible. It therefore flies directly towards some hiding place just above the ground. Due to its short escape distance, it dares to approach larger animals up to one meter, which it actively seeks out because there are often insects in their vicinity. Pätzold suspects that the adult birds are already introducing their young to large animals.

The robin is a night migrant and, after being caught in the Alps, shows its highest migratory activity before midnight. Early morning incursions occur in robins. This means that in the first twilight swarms suddenly drop out of the sky from a great height. Only a little above the ground the flight is diverted to the horizontal and the next cover sought. Ornithologists therefore almost exclusively catch the robin in the early morning hours. According Paetzold it may at night in moon light or go near artificial light sources to insect hunting.

Territorial behavior

Approach to the nest box

In winter, males and females occupy separate territories ; During the breeding season they usually live as a pair of territories in one area. In many cases, the female gives up her autumn territory in January to mate with the neighboring male. Often, however, it is actively looking for a more distant partner. There are regular cases in which couples break up again after a few days to weeks. The intensity of aggression used to defend the territory can vary from region to region. In Central Europe, many specimens behave strictly true to their location all year round. An intruder simply looking for food is often tolerated. In some cases, groups are also accepted that follow a pig burrowing in a strange territory . Every other bird, whether conspecific or not, is vigorously driven away at the bird feeder.

The robin 's territorial behavior is very pronounced. Aggression against rivals is initially expressed in the Reviergesang. If this is unsuccessful, the defender raises his tail, spreads his wings and puffs himself up so that he arouses the intruder with the orange-red plumage between the forehead and the rear breast. If neither of the opponents gives in, they both claw each other and try to hold the opponent on the ground and poke his eyes out. Such fights usually last 30 minutes, but can sometimes take hours to resolve. These sometimes bitter clashes can even result in the death of the rival. In the breeding season, mated males leave their territory more often when the female enters her fertile period. The willingness to attack is significantly higher in mated males, as neighboring males seem to try to mate unsupervised females.

Because there are more males than females in the population, about 20 percent of the males remain without a partner. Non-breeding males, some of which do not establish a territory, often have shared sleeping places. The groups are usually made up of a few, but sometimes up to 35 robins, who spend the night deep in the bushes. In some cases, the sleeping communities are also made up of district owners. In this case, the group breaks up long before sunrise to return to areas that are sometimes miles away.

The settlement density is around four breeding pairs on ten hectares . In the deciduous forest it is in the middle field with four breeding pairs on ten hectares, in the needle-dominated mixed forest even 6.6 breeding pairs can be measured on ten hectares. In the forest with mossy depressions, 2.6 breeding pairs can be found on ten hectares. The settlement density in arable land with 0.6 breeding pairs per ten hectares does not come close to these values. The settlement density, for which values ​​of 0.38 hectares and 14.29 hectares per breeding pair - on average 2.5 hectares per breeding pair - were determined, is largely independent of the area size, which is between 0.024 and 0.1 hectare in Central Europe. In the case of high settlement densities, the districts are directly adjacent to one another. According to Pätzold, the size of Central European districts is on average 600 to 700 square meters. He found the smallest area in a garden with 240 square meters. In the Dresdner Heide he found the largest area with 1000 square meters.

Breeding biology

European robin in Nederlandsche Vogelen 1750

The robin reaches sexual maturity in the first year of life. It leads a monogamous brood marriage. In Western, Southern and Central Europe, migrating males only find a female half as often as overwinterers. Laying begins in the first half of March at the earliest, but in Central Europe mostly in April. Two to three annual broods are possible, with third broods being a rare exception. The breeding season thus extends from mid-March / early April to July / August.

Pair formation and courtship

After a female has left its territory in winter, it flies into the territory of a male chosen by it and seeks its proximity. Initially, the female encounters the defenses of the male, who tries to intimidate her by showing off. In addition, it shows its red breast with its head raised and rocks its body back and forth. In addition, it tumbles to the side with its tail up and lets hear a violent singing. The female then shows infantilism in order to calm the male by begging , but also by trembling the tail and wings. With its head bowed, it lets you hear soft singing until it finally flies into the bushes. This ritual is often repeated for days. After the showmanship has subsided and finally stopped completely, the couple defend their territory together.

The courtship is initiated by the female "begging for food". It makes a sharp sound and trembles its wings. It now confronts the male by crouching slightly with its head stretched forward and trembling wings hanging down, its tail slightly upwards to the side. The more the inclined position is carried out, the greater the willingness to copulate . To do this, the male jumps up with ruffled head feathers without transition, keeps his balance with flapping wings and performs the brief mating, which is also carried out independently of the feeding ritual. The courtship takes place several times a day both shortly before and during the nest building and until the last egg is laid.

Nest building

Clutch with six eggs
Ground nest of the robin
Clutch, Coll. Wiesbaden Museum

The nesting place, which is protected against rain, is determined by the female, who builds on it most intensively in the first two days. The open, bowl-shaped nest is mostly located in depressions in the ground, in half- caves on embankments , in the roots on the ground, under scrub or in hollow tree stumps. Occasionally it is created in tree hollows, wall holes or other caves. In a study in the Rhineland , 74 percent of the soil nests were in embankments, 22 percent on the ground and four percent in cans and pots. In investigations in Switzerland, 73.7% of the nests were on the ground, of the 86 nests above the ground, 22% were on tree trunks up to six meters high, 31% in walls up to four meters high, 21% in Nesting aids up to 7.5 m high and 14% on buildings. Above all, dry leaves , moss , stems, stalks and fine roots are used to build nests . The nest is padded with animal hair , plant wool and feathers . It has a diameter of about 13 cm and a height of about 4.5 cm; at a depth of about three centimeters, the diameter of the nest hollow is about five centimeters. Depending on the size, the weight varies between 16 and 44 grams. The nest building period is four to five days. During this time, the male sings from a high song observatory located above the female. The robin does not use the same nest again for its second brood.

The robin also often uses old nests of blackbirds , song thrushes , goldhamers , wood warblers and other birds. It also accepts niche nest boxes with two oval entry holes (32 × 50 mm²), which do not hang too high and are vibration-free. In addition, nests are built in cans, pots, buckets, watering cans or shoes at rubble sites and on rubbish tips.

Egg laying and brood care

Nest with young birds

The eggs are laid at dawn. The oval to short oval eggs have a matt sheen, are reddish-cream-colored and densely rust-brown or rust-reddish speckled or cloudy. The spotting can intensify towards the blunt pole and form a wreath. If the eggs are cloudy, they appear almost a single color, light rusty red. The eggs of the subspecies are largely similar, but those of Erithacus rubecula superbus usually have a pale blue-greenish basic color. The average size is 20 mm in length and 16 mm in diameter. The fresh weight is 2.34 g, the shell weight 0.135 g. The eggs cannot be confused with those of any other European bird species. The eggs of the miniature flycatcher may be somewhat similar, but they are much smaller. The clutch size increases in the distribution area depending on the length of daylight from south to north. In Central Europe it is five to seven eggs; usually six eggs are laid.

During the laying period, the clutch is camouflaged with leaves by the female breeding alone. During the 13 to 15 day long breeding period, it sits very firmly and persistently on the nest. During the breeding pauses of usually three to five minutes, the male feeds it outside of the nest to hide the location of the clutch. If the female is chased away from the nest, it flies away immediately. In a few cases, enticing could be observed. A cuckoo near the nest is fought heavily.

The size of the area is not decisive for the breeding success of the robin, but the nature of the ground cover. The breeding success of the robin's ground nests is around 27 percent. Clutches and young birds are endangered by the brood parasitism of the cuckoo, but also threatened by jays , magpies , crows , especially jackdaws , mice , rats , weasels , martens , badgers and squirrels , foxes , but also tawny owls and buzzards .

Development of the young birds

Newly flown out robin
Slightly older young robin

The blind cubs usually hatch in four to six hours between 5 a.m. and 9 a.m. The female then carries the eggshells away and drops them up to 30 m away from the nest. In the first days hudert the female the hatchlings , while it is supplied from the male with lining, which it then passes on. The young birds are threatened by ground beetles and snails . After the fourth day, the female slowly stops huddling and the male feeds the young directly. At first, the female also swallows the feces of the young, which is later simply carried away by the adult birds. After six days, the eyes of the fledglings open, and on the seventh they clearly begin to beg . From the first to the sixth day, the adult birds defend the young and attack significantly larger animals themselves. From about the ninth day onwards, the female no longer spends the night on the nest. From the tenth day, the young birds can leave the nest in the event of disturbances. An undisturbed nestling period usually lasts 12 to 15 days.

After leaving the nest, the still flightless young birds hide on the ground, where they are provided with food by the adult birds for some time. The male often still feeds the young of the first brood, while the female is already breeding on the second clutch. From the 13th day onwards, the male often sings to the young birds from a distance of four to six meters in order to influence their song. Flown out young also beg other bird species, up to the size of a blackbird , for food. However, adult robins feed too young blackbirds, song thrushes , wrens , forest foliage singers , Fitissen , Grauschnäppern , tail , blue and great tits . From the 18th to the 22nd day the young take in food independently. As soon as they are completely independent, they are expelled from the breeding ground of the adult birds. They are at risk from cats, birds of prey , especially the sparrowhawks , owls , especially the tawny owl , jays , magpies , crows , jackdaws, but also from mice, rats, weasels , martens , badgers , squirrels and foxes .

In nature, the robin has an average life expectancy of 1.25 years, taking into account the low survival rate of the nestlings. Annual birds can usually reach an age of three to four years. The highest age confirmed by ring finds is 17 years and three months for an animal ringed in Poland.

Systematics

External system

In 1951, Wetmore arranged the genus Erithacus after the genus Luscinia . The genus of the redstart ( Phoenicurus ) followed by far the closest relatives Bluethroat and Nightingale . The three genera were classified in the thrush family (Turdidae). With Bernd and Meise, the thrushes form a separate family (Turdidae) under the parent flycatcher family (Muscicapidae) in 1959 . Later Glutz followed the proposal for the Holarctic bird fauna of Voous in the systematic order . It places the robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) in the subfamily Erithacinae and the family Turdidae.

Biochemical studies using the DNA - hybridization , however, make a change of families required that a reorganization of the system passerines concerns (Passeriformes). Therefore, the robin is classified in the flycatcher family (Muscicapidae).

Internal system

The robin ( Erithacus rubecula ) shows certain variable characteristics within its continental range, but does not form discrete populations that could be assumed as subspecies. Therefore, the species according to the "Integrated Taxonomic Information System" (ITIS) is monotypical, that is, there are no subspecies.

However, if subspecies are assumed by some researchers, these subspecies are mainly characterized by stem populations formed on islands and in mountainous regions. Thus, from a source eight subtypes ( Erithacus rubecula rubecula , E. r. Balcanisus , E. r. Witherbyi , E. r. Melophilus , E. r. Tataricus , E. r. Valens , E. r. Caucasicus , E. r. hyrcanus , E. r. sardus ) and two species ( Erithacus rubecula , Erithacus superbus ) recognized. A source from 1964 assumed eight subspecies ( E. r. Caucasicus missing, E. r. Superbus. Integrated), in 1959 Vaurie recognized Erithacus r. balcanicus. still as the ninth subspecies.

Canary robin

A Canary robin in Tenerife

The Canary Robin ( Erithacus superbus ) shows a dark, strong red color of the breast and a whiter underside. It populates the mountains of Tenerife and Gran Canaria. In addition, his singing has a different structure or is a local dialect : Compared to the nominated form, the stanzas are shorter; they seem solemn and far more melodic. Since the birds of Tenerife and Gran Canaria differ genetically well, the latter is called Erithacus (r.) Marionae . However, this taxon is not yet recognized as valid by many sources.

Data from studies of both mitochondrial cytochrome b and vocalizations indicate that the canary robin ( Erithacus (r.) Superbus ) in Tenerife and Gran Canaria has distinct characteristics and probably separated from mainland birds two million years ago. The populations of the western Canary Islands are younger ( Middle Pleistocene ) and only now begin to diverge genetically. In addition, the birds from Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be distinguished genetically, so that the latter is called Erithacus (r.) Marionae ; a thorough comparison between E. (r.) superbus and E. (r.) marionae has started. Initial results suggest that the birds of Gran Canaria have about 10 percent shorter wings than those of Tenerife.

Existence and endangerment

Inventory development

The worldwide distribution area of ​​the robin is estimated at 10,200,000 km². Africa alone has an area of ​​900,000 km². According to the IUCN , the large global population includes around 150,000,000 to 350,000,000 individuals. Therefore the species is classified as not endangered (LC).

The European breeding population accounts for more than 75 percent of the global distribution. It is very large with more than 43,000,000 pairs. While it was stable between 1970 and 1990, there were declines in Sweden between 1990 and 2000 . However, these could be compensated by increasing populations in France and the United Kingdom , so that the European population as a whole recorded a slight increase. Since the population as a whole is stable, the robin is consequently classified as safe by the IUCN.

In Germany, the robin is classified as not endangered in the Red List. The population in Germany is estimated at around 2.8 to 3.4 million breeding pairs, making the species the sixth most common breeding bird species.

Since the 1970s, the population has tended to increase in general, also due to protective measures. Nevertheless, it goes back in the Harz and other places. According to Oelke, this decline is caused by the effects of acid rain ; the acidification destroys the structure of the forest floor on which the robin depends. Nevertheless, the population is largely stable.

In Austria, the bird is classified as not endangered in the Red List. The population is estimated at 700,000 to 1,400,000 breeding pairs in 2008. In Carinthia , the population is between 70,000 and 140,000 breeding pairs.

In Switzerland, the robin is listed as not endangered on the Red List. The population was around 450,000 to 650,000 breeding pairs in the years 2013–2016.

Hazard and protection

The size of the brood population is largely determined by the severity of the winter. Hard winters with prolonged cold spells can lead to drastic stock drops in the region, as cold and lack of forage cause great losses. According to Pätzold, the loss is 50 percent in normal winters and up to 80 percent in very severe winters.

Robins as a traffic victim

The main threat to the robin populations in Central Europe comes nationally and in the long term from the clearing of the open landscape through the intensification of agriculture , land consolidation and increasing development. Furthermore, robins suffer significant losses from the use of insecticides , which are exacerbated by herbicides and fertilizers. In addition, thousands of robins are still hunted in southern Europe every year .

The robin is a protected species in Germany according to Section 10, Paragraph 2, No. 5 and No. 11 BNatSchG . Due to the decline in the population in the 1970s, it was included in the warning list of endangered species , although the population is relatively high in absolute terms. It was Bird of the Year in 1992 because it is one of the species that can best tell about forest dieback. Since it is presumably very much dependent on the structure of the forest floor, it can benefit from the following protective measures: This includes leaving fallen leaves and undergrowth in commercial forests and restoring or preserving richly structured, hedge-rich cultural landscapes. In addition, a more natural design of garden cities and parks can encourage more settlement in urban areas. The mostly high breeding losses in hedge habitats can be reduced by maintaining or creating wide vegetation fringes as a buffer zone against predators .

Robin and human

Etymology and naming

Robin by Nikolaj Peters, 1794

In 1758, Carl von Linné called the robin Motacilla rubecula . The Latin word "rubecula" represents the reduced form of "ruber" and means "red". The current scientific generic name "Erithacus" is an old, indeterminable bird name that Pliny used.

The robin's name highlights the color of the breast and throat. The oldest German name is Old High German "rotil" or "rotilo", from which the New High German Alemannic word "Rötele" is based, which was used as early as the 16th century. The large number of German-speaking names proves how well-known and popular the robin is. The following names are used in individual areas to this day or were used earlier: Rotkehlchen (-sänger), Rothkehlein, Rotkehle, -kelle, -kelchinn, kelchyn, kalinden, Rothkehligen, Rottkälken, Rötkelchen, Radkelchen, -kelken, Kahlrötchen, Kalredchen, Roth -, Rottbrüstlein, Rotbrüstchen, -brüst (er) le, -brüstel, -brüstli, -brust (lein), -brüstler, -brüsteli, -prüstlein, -böst, -bosk, Routbröstchen, Rodboß, -börstken, -borstje, Belbostje ("yellow breasts"), Gülbük ("yellow belly"), Bruströsteli, Rotkröpfchen, -kröpf (r) l, -kröpfle, -kropf (f), -kröpfflin, -kropfflin, Rottkröpflein, Rothkröpf (e) l, Rothälseli, -gügger, -kätchen, -katel, -bart, Routschatzla, Rökle, Rekli, (winter) -Rötelein, winter, forest, Krätschrötele, Waldrötlein, -rötchen, red-breasted, red-throated singer, Baköfelchen. Almost all foreign names of the robin refer to the red breast. While the robin in British English "Robin" called the Americans use this term for the spread there instead, rotbebrustete Robin . The robin bears the name “Rouge-gorge” in French, “Pettirosso” in Italian, “Petirrojo” in Spanish, “Pisco de Papo Vermelho” in Portuguese, “Rödhake” in Swedish and “Roodborst” in Dutch.

Mythology and cult

Robin on a postage stamp of the Deutsche Bundespost (1957) for nature conservation

Among the ancient Germanic and Celtic tribes of Europe, the robin was considered to be the bearer and bringer of the sun . In the Teutons and in later Swiss sagas it was ascribed to the red-bearded god Thor , because it was the red color of his lightning bolt. In general, the ethnic groups related everything that resembled fire in color to the god who ruled this force of nature for the benefit of people. In addition to the robin as a symbol of fire and lightning, the common redstart , bullfinch and goldfinch were seen as sacred animals. Depending on the context, they should protect against lightning and fire or attract them. Where robins and redstart nests were birds sacred to Donar , people believed that Donar looked after their house and farm. It was considered a great sacrilege for someone to destroy a robin's nest. It was also believed that a robin nest near the house would bring peace to it and that married couples would live there in happiness and peace. According to an old farmer's rule, which was still believed until the beginning of the 18th century, it rains when robins take shelter in caves.

The robin, as a "pure" bird, plays an essential role in the legends of Christ . In addition to the Dutch legend, there is a Swedish version of Selma Lagerlöf called The Robin . Both traditions tell of how Jesus hung on the cross in pain and torment and saw a small, monochrome brown bird in the forest in the distance. Bitter tears ran from his eyes when he saw the sharp, prickly thorns that pierced Jesus' head. It then flew to the cross and loosens a thorn from the crown. A drop of blood was sprinkled on his chest. According to an English folk tale, the robin sings something to Jesus who is dying on the cross at his side so that he can better endure the suffering. It is marked with the blood of the wounds.

In the Scottish folk tale Robin Redbreast's Christmas Song , a robin and a wren get married . This is what Robert Burns ' children's story The Marriage of Robin Redbreast and the Wren is about . It is also associated with Christmas in the UK . In the traditional children's fairy tale Babes in the Wood , it covers the bodies of the dead children.

The robin was Britain's most popular bird. That was what determined the readers of the Times in the early 1960s. However, the UK government does not recognize it as an official national bird. For a number of years, the robin was the logo of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds .

The English football clubs Bristol City and Swindon Town are nicknamed "The Robins", which is derived from their red jersey color.

Research object

The robin played an important role in the discovery and scientific recognition of the magnetic sense . The Frankfurt researcher Wolfgang Wiltschko was able to prove in the 1970s that the robin can maintain its orientation both without a view of the night sky and without sight marks. Since in experiments with Helmholtz coils the bird in the octagonal cage with radial rods predictably changes its choice of direction in the artificial magnetic field , it probably measures the angle at which the magnetic field lines intersect the earth's surface ( angle of inclination ). Since then, in addition to the sun and star “compass”, the “magnetic compass” has been discovered in all migratory birds examined . Research has shown that there is a receptor for changes in direction of the magnetic field in the optical system , whereas the nasal system can perceive the slightest changes in the magnetic flux . Robins orientate themselves significantly in their migration direction under blue, turquoise and green light. They show themselves disoriented under yellow and red light.

Using high-frequency fields, it was possible to show that the inclination compass of birds is based on a radical process and that the location of the light-dependent magnetic compass is located in the right eye. Under certain artificial lighting conditions, however, behavioral responses were shown in experiments with robins that deviated from the normal migration orientation. It was found out that, beyond the pure activation of light, shape vision seems to play a decisive role for the robin eye. In addition, despite the absence of light, robins seek a preferred direction that is not subject to seasonal migration. The fixed direction is not based on an inclination compass and collapses after an anesthetic. Further investigations should clarify whether the assumption is correct that all non-compass answers analyzed so far are based on a second, magnetite- based mechanism. In addition to the intensity of the earth's magnetic field, these receptors also seem to generate directional information. However, according to the current state of research, the biological relevance of the fixed directions underlying them remains unclear.

Food and cage bird

Until about the mid-1920s, several thousand robins, bullfinches , thrushes and waxwings were caught in Europe at the time of the rise of the dohnen .

The robin was kept as a cage bird because of its powerful song and its trusting nature. The bird was a popular pet because it was cheaper and easier to care for than a nightingale .

The robin is still kept as an ornamental bird today. However, wild caught are illegal according to § 20 d BNatSchG .

Others

Rotkehlchen is a type of beer that was developed by the Friedrichshagener Bürgerbrauerei . Due to the change of ownership, the brewery has been part of the Radeberger Group since 2010 . A caramel-like malt gives the beer a special reddish color, which gives it its name. In addition, the application made use of the phrase “twittering of a robin”.

literature

  • Hans-Günther Bauer, Peter Berthold : The breeding birds of Central Europe. Existence and endangerment. Aula Verlag, Wiesbaden 1996, p. 328 f.
  • Hans-Günther Bauer, Einhard Bezzel , Wolfgang Fiedler : The compendium of birds in Central Europe. Volume 2: Passeriformes - passerine birds. Everything about biology, endangerment and protection. Aula Verlag, Wiebelsheim 2005, ISBN 3-89104-648-0 .
  • Einhard Bezzel: FSVO manual birds. BLV Buchverlag, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-8354-0022-3 .
  • Einhard Bezzel: The robin, observed by Einhard Bezzel. Naturbuch Verlag, Augsburg 1992, ISBN 3-89440-059-5 .
  • R. Brown, J. Ferguson, M. Lawrenze, D. Lees: Feathers, tracks and signs of the birds of Europe. Gerstenberg Verlag, Hildesheim 1988, ISBN 3-8067-2040-1 .
  • Hans Bub: characteristics and moulting of European songbirds. General part. (= The New Brehm Library. Volume 570). Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg 1985.
  • Hans Bub, Hans Oelke: Marking methods for birds. A global overview. (= Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Volume 535). Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg 1985.
  • Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim : Handbook of the birds of Central Europe. 11/1, passeriformes. Part 2: Turdidae - Schmätzer and related Erithacinae. Aula Verlag, Wiesbaden 1988.
  • Bodo Grajetzky: The robin. Time and energy conflicts - a small bird finds solutions. Aula Verlag, Wiebelsheim 2000, ISBN 3-89104-584-0 .
  • Oskar Heinroth : The birds of Central Europe. Volume 1, German publishing house, Frankfurt 1965.
  • David Lack : The Life of the Robin. Penguin Books, 1953.
  • Wolfgang Makatsch : The birds of the earth. Systematic overview. Duncker & Humblot Verlag, Berlin 1954.
  • W. Makatsch: The bird and its young. (= Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Volume 41). 1959.
  • W. Makatsch: The eggs of the birds of Europe. Volume 2, Neumann u. Neudamm Verlag, Melsungen 1974.
  • Günther Niethammer : Handbook of German ornithology. Volume 1–3, Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig 1937–1943.
  • Rudolf Pätzold : The robin. Erithacus rubecula. (= New Brehm Library. 520). Westarp Sciences, Aula Verlag, ISBN 3-89432-423-6 .
  • PR Rogge: A contribution to the moulting of the robin (Erithacus rubecula rubecula L.). In: Contribution to ornithology. 12, 1966, pp. 162-188.

Web links

Commons : European Robin ( Erithacus rubecula )  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Robin  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c P. R. Rogge: A contribution to the moulting of the robin (Erithacus rubecula rubecula L.). In: Contribution to ornithology. 12, 1966, pp. 162-188.
  2. ↑ Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, Kurt M. Bauer: Handbook of the birds of Central Europe . Volume 11/1: Passeriformes. Part 2: Turdidae. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1988, p. 43.
  3. ↑ Sound sample ( WAV ; 283 kB), spectrogram
  4. ↑ Sound example , ornithological station Sempach
  5. ↑ Torben Dabelsteen, Peter K. McGregor, Jo Holland, Joe A. Tobias, Simon Boel Pedersen: The signal function of overlapping singing in male robins. In: Animal Behavior. 53, 1997, pp. 249-256. (Weblink) ( Memento of the original from May 14, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 385 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.neomorphus.com
  6. ↑ a b Joe Tobias, Nat Seddon: Territoriality as a paternity guard in the European robin, Erithacus rubecula. In: Animal Behavior. 60, 2000, pp. 165-173. ( Web link ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. , PDF; 150 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.neomorphus.com
  7. ↑ a b Emma Brindley: Response of European robins to playback of song: neighbor recognition and overlapping. In: Animal Behavior. 41, 1991, pp. 503-512.
  8. ↑ a b c d e f Rudolf Pätzold: The robin. Erithacus rubecula. (= Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Volume 520). Westarp Sciences, Aula Verlag, ISBN 3-89432-423-6 .
  9. ^ RA Fuller, PH Warren, KJ Gaston: Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins. In: Biology Letters. 3, 2007, pp. 368-370, doi: 10.1098 / rsbl.2007.0134 .
  10. ↑ L. Jenni: L'activité ornithologique au col de Bretolet en 1977. In: Nos Oiseaux. 34, 1978, pp. 245-256; Autumn migration patterns of birds on the Col de Bretolet with special consideration of post-breeding season movements. In: Ornithol. Obs. 81, 1984, pp. 183-213.
  11. ↑ P. Berthold, G. Fliege, G. Heine, U. Querner, R. Schlenker: departure, resting behavior, biometrics and moulting of small birds in Central Europe. A brief presentation of catch data from the Mettnau-Reit-Illmitz program of the Radolfzell ornithological station. In: Vogelwarte. 36, special issue, 1991, pp. 1-221.
  12. ↑ a b F. Korner-Nievergelt et al.: Annual and diurnal occurrence of songbirds on the autumn migration in the Jura (Ulmethöchi, Canton Basel-Landschaft). In: The Ornithological Observer. Volume 104, Issue 2, June 2007, especially p. 115. (Weblink) ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bnv.ch
  13. ^ G. Niethammer: Handbook of German ornithology. Volume 1, Academic Publishing Company, Leipzig 1937.
  14. ↑ Peter Berthold: Animal and vegetable nutrition of omnivorous songbird species: food preference, yearly cycle of food choice, physiological and ecological importance. In: Journal of Ornithology. Volume 117 (2), 1976, pp. 145-209, Springer Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg. (Web link)
  15. ^ V. Dorka: The annual and daily migration pattern of short and long-distance migrants according to observations on the Alpine passes Cou / Bretolet (Valais). In: Ornithol. Obs. 63, 1966, pp. 165-223.
  16. ↑ a b c d Lutz Dröscher: Bird of the year 1992: The robin. In: Conservation Today. 1, 1992, pp. 26-31.
  17. ↑ 0.7 breeding pairs (BP) / 10 ha on average
    H. Oelke: Quantitative investigations - settlement density. In: Berthold, Bezzel, Thielke: Practical ornithology. Kilda Verlag, Greven 1974.
  18. ↑ 0.7 breeding pairs (BP) / 10 ha on average
    Lutz Dröscher: Vogel des Jahres 1992: Das Rotkehlchen. In: Conservation Today. 1, 1992, pp. 26-31.
  19. ^ 4 BP / 10 ha in the deciduous forest
    René Schmitt, François Muller: Breeding bird stocks in deciduous forests of Luxembourg. Investigations on four ten-hectare test areas. In: Regulus Wiss. Ber. No. 16, 1997, pp. 13-26, ISSN  1727-088X , (web link)
  20. ↑ 6.6 BP / 10 ha in the needle-dominated mixed forest
    P. Hochrathner: Ornitho-ecological analysis of the breeding bird fauna of the needle-dominated mixed forest in Wachtberg (Salzburg). In: Vogelkundliche Nachrichten OÖ. Conservation current. lll / l, 1995. ( Weblink , PDF; 1.4 MB)
  21. ↑ 26 BP / 1 km² - i.e. 2.6 BP / 10 ha - in the forest with muddy depressions
    Dietrich Sellin: Monitoring of breeding birds in the normal landscape - first experiences and results 2004. In: Orn. Newsletter Meckl.-Vorp. Volume 45, H. 2–3, 2005, pp. 113–121, ( Weblink ( Memento of the original dated February 1, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. , PDF; 68 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.uni-greifswald.de
  22. ↑ 6 BP / 1 km² - i.e. 0.6 BP / 10 ha - in the arable land
    Dietrich Sellin: Monitoring of breeding birds in the normal landscape - first experiences and results 2004. In: Orn. Newsletter Meckl.-Vorp. Volume 45, H. 2-3, 2005, pp. 113-121. ( Web link ( Memento of the original from February 1, 2012 in the Internet Archive )     Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. , PDF; 68 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.uni-greifswald.de
  23. ↑ a b c Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, 1988.
  24. ↑ a b c W. Makatsch: The eggs of the birds of Europe. Volume 2, Neumann and Neudamm Verlag, Melsungen 1974.
  25. ^ AR Hoelzel: Territorial behavior of the robin Erithacus rubecula: the importance of vegetation density. In: Ibis. 131, 1989, pp. 432-436.
  26. ↑ K. Hüppop, O. Hüppop: Atlas for bird ringing on Helgoland. Part 5, In: Vogelwarte. 47, 2009, p. 215.
  27. ^ A. Wetmore: A revised classification for the birds of the world. Smithson. Misc. Coil. 117, 1951, pp. 1-22.
  28. ↑ R. Berndt, W. Meise: Natural history of birds. A Handbook of General Special Ornithology. Volume 1, Franckh Verlag, Stuttgart 1959.
  29. ^ KH Voous: Atlas of European birds. English Ed. Thos. Nelson & Sons, London 1960.
  30. ^ KH Voous: List of Holarctic bird species. Passerines. In: Ibis. 119, 1977, pp. 223-250, 376-406.
  31. ^ CG Sibley, JE Ahlquist: The relationships of the "primitive insect eaters" (Aves: Passeriformes) as indicated by DNA-DNA hybridization. In: R. Nöhring (Ed.): Proc. 17th Intern. Ornithole. Congr. German Ornithological Society, Berlin 1980, pp. 1215-1220.
  32. ^ CG Sibley, JE Ahlquist: The phylogeny and classification of birds based on the data of DNA-DNA hybridization. In: Current Ornithology. 1, 1983, pp. 245-292.
  33. ↑ Hans E. Wolters: The bird species of the earth. Berlin 1975–1982.
  34. ↑ ITIS Report: Erithacus rubecula (Linnaeus, 1758)
  35. ↑ a b c d C. Dietzen, H.-H. Witt, M. Wink: The phylogeographic differentiation of the robin Erithacus rubecula on the Canary Islands revealed by mitochondrial DNA sequence data and morphometrics: evidence for a new robin taxon on Gran Canaria? In: Avian Science. 3 (2-3), 2003, pp. 115-131. Web link , PDF; 821 kB)
  36. ↑ ( Avibase Database: European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) (Linnaeus, 1758) (Species)
  37. ↑ Avibase Database: European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) (Linnaeus, 1758) (Superspecies)
  38. ^ HG Deignan, RA Paynter Jr., SD Ripley: Check-List of the Birds of the World. Vol X. In: E. Mayr, RA Paynter Jr. (Ed.): Check-List of the Birds of the World. A Continuation of the Work of James L. Peters. Museum of Comparative Zoology, 1964, p. 502 ff.
  39. ^ C. Vaurie: The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna. Passeriformes. HH u. G. Witherby, London 1959.
  40. ↑ Avibase Database: Rotkehlchen-superbus (Erithacus rubecula) (Koenig, 1889)
  41. ↑ a b H. H. Bergmann, B. Schottler: Tenerife robin Erithacus (rubecula) superbus - a species of its own? In: Dutch Birding. 23, 2001, pp. 140-146.
  42. ↑ Birdlife Factsheet: European Robin
  43. ^ Birds in Europe: European Robin
  44. ↑ The Red List of Breeding Birds in Germany - 3rd, revised version - Status: March 2003. P. 10. ( Web link ( Memento of the original from November 7, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. , PDF; 138 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nabu.de
  45. ^ Red list of breeding birds in Germany. Status: 2002
  46. ↑ cf. C. Sudfeldt, R. Dröschmeister, C. Grüneberg, S. Jaehne, A. Mitschke, J. Wahl: Birds in Germany. DDA, BfN, LAG VSW, Münster 2008, p. 7. (full text, PDF)
  47. ↑ a b c H. Oelke: Quantitative investigations - settlement density. In: Berthold, Bezzel, Thielke: Practical ornithology. Kilda Verlag, Greven 1974.
  48. ↑ Red List - Austria. Status: 1994
  49. ^ Red list of breeding birds in Carinthia. Status: 1999
  50. ^ BirdLife Carinthia: Robin. Erithacus rubecula ( Memento of the original from October 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.birdlife.at
  51. ↑ J. Feldner, P. Rass, W. Petutschnig, S. Wagner, G. Malle, RK Buschenreiter, P. Wiedne, R. Probst: Avifauna Kärntens - Die Brutvögel . Natural Science Association for Carinthia, Klagenfurt 2006.
  52. ↑ J. Feldner, W. Petutschnig, S. Wagner, R. Probst, G. Malle, RK Buschenreiter: Avifauna Carinthia - The guest birds. Scientific Association for Carinthia, Klagenfurt 2008.
  53. ↑ Classification of birds according to the Red List and according to the list of national priority species 2010
  54. ↑ Swiss Ornithological Institute - robins. Birds of Switzerland , accessed on January 4, 2019.
  55. ↑ List of the species occurring in Rhineland-Palatinate that are protected or are subject to the following EU directives: protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act § 10 No. 10 and 11, Habitats Directive (Annexes II, IV and V) or Bird Protection Directive (Art. 4) and the classification in the Red List of Rhineland-Palatinate and Germany is included for information. Scientifically sorted, p. 19. ( Memento of the original of July 31, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 183 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.osiris-projekt.rlp.de
  56. ↑ List of the species occurring in Rhineland-Palatinate that are protected or are subject to the following EU directives: protected under the Federal Nature Conservation Act § 10 No. 10 and 11, Habitats Directive (Annexes II, IV and V) or Bird Protection Directive (Art. 4) and the classification in the Red List of Rhineland-Palatinate and Germany is included for information. Sorted in German, p. 22. ( Memento of the original dated August 6, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 180 kB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.osiris-projekt.rlp.de
  57. ↑ Red List of Endangered Species: Erithacus rubecula ( Memento of the original from July 26, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.science4you.org
  58. ↑ Otto Fehringer: The birds of Central Europe. Part 1: songbirds. Winter Verlag, Heidelberg 1964.
  59. ^ Felix Dahn: Valhalla. Germanic sagas of gods and heroes. First section: sagas of the gods. in the Gutenberg-DE project ( archive version )
  60. ↑ Ludwig Uhland : The myth of the gate. Stuttgart, 1836.
  61. ↑ Ludwig Uhland: Writings on the history of poetry and legend. 6th volume, posthumously 1865-1873
  62. ^ JC Cooper: Symbolic and Mythological Animals. Aquarian Press, London, ISBN 1-85538-118-4 , p. 194.
  63. ^ Robert L. Feller (Ed.): Artists Pigments: A Handbook of their History and Characteristics. Vol. 1, 2 and 3, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC 1986, 1993 and 1997.
  64. ^ A b J. Kuoni: Legends of the Canton of St. Gallen. Dedicated to the St. Gallen people for their first centenary celebration. St. Gallen 1903 (web link)
  65. ^ A b E. Gattiker, L. Gattiker: The birds in folk belief. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1989, p. 589.
  66. ^ RSPB: Robin
  67. ^ Public Petition Committee of the Scottish Parliament. National Bird (PE783). 10 Nov 2004. Quoted from the Enterprise and Culture Committee Agenda (25th Meeting, session 2) on 31 Oct 2006 of the Scottish Parliament, (Weblink) ( Memento of the original from 5 June 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically used and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.scottish.parliament.uk
  68. ^ Wolfgang Wiltschko , Roswitha Wiltschko: The magnetic compass of European robins. In: Science . Volume 176, 1972, pp. 62-64, doi: 10.1126 / science.176.4030.62
  69. ^ Einhard Bezzel : FSVO Handbook Birds. BLV Buchverlag, Munich 2006, ISBN 3-8354-0022-3 , pp. 388-389.
  70. ↑ W. Wiltschko, R. Wiltschko: The effect of yellow and blue light on magnetic compass orientation in European robins, Erithacus rubecula. In: J. Comp. Physiol. A 184, 1999, pp. 295-299.
  71. ^ W. Wiltschko, R. Wiltschko: Magnetic compass orientation in birds and its physiological basis. In: Natural Sciences. 89, 2002, pp. 445-452.
  72. ↑ a b Katrin Stapput: Behavioral studies on the chemical magnetic compass in robins (Erithacus rubecula). Dissertation . Department of Biosciences at Johann-Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main, (D30), Frankfurt 2006, (Weblink A) , (Weblink B) (PDF; 5.2 MB)
  73. ↑ H. Dathe: Handbook of the bird lover. Volume 1: Basic information on keeping and care, about feeding and about hygiene and diseases of native and foreign birds. Berlin 1975.
  74. ↑ H. Dost: Native house birds. Your care and breeding. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart 1969.
  75. ↑ Berliner Bürgerbräu was simply too small in the end. In: Berliner Morgenpost. January 17, 2010.

Remarks

  1. ↑ According to Dost in Bub 1985, the males show a larger extension of the red breast flap, which is not gray but blue-green. The back is moss green, and often brownish-gray in females. In spring, the males can be recognized by their song and their protruding coccyx. In spring the beak is a monochrome blackish-gray, but in winter it is more brown-black in color. In summer and autumn, the inside of the upper bill has a blackish-gray end half. There are three to four beard bristles on each side above the beak corners. According to Heinroth 1965, the female is usually smaller, but colored like the male.
  2. ↑ According to Pätzold, animal nutrition is made up of the following components: ants ( Formicidae ), woodlice ( Isopoda ), aphids ( Aphidoidea ), amphipods ( Gammaridea ), hymenoptera ( Hymenoptera ), beetles ( Coleoptera ), reticulated flyers ( Neuroptera ), earwigs ( Dermaptera ), annelids ( Annelida ), butterflies ( Lepidoptera ), snails ( Gastropoda ), spiders ( Arachnida ), millipedes ( Myriapoda ), bugs ( Heteroptera ) and two-winged bugs ( Diptera ).
  3. ↑ Although Dietzen (2003) concluded that both the populations of Tenerife and Gran Canaria are independently descended from the mainland populations and that both should be considered either as two species or as subspecies of Erithacus rubecula , the data are not conclusive Result too. The alternative explanation that Tenerife was inhabited by the already distinct Gran Canaria robins has not been explored and the proposed model is based solely on a likely conclusion. Likewise, the method of exact molecular dating appears dubious as it presumes a molecular clock that may or may not be correct. The assumption that the ancestor of all robins in the coloration should resemble Erithacus superbus and not the birds of the continent is inferred from their completely speculative model of colonization and is therefore just as uncertain.