Early Christian mosaics in Rome
The artistic direction of mosaics , which was often used in antiquity , gained special importance in early Christian art since the 3rd century .
Early Christian mosaics
Mosaics were a popular art form in ancient Rome. The term is derived from the Latin opus musivum ("work of the muses"), because in late antiquity grottos and nymphaea were decorated with mosaics as places of the muses. Walter Oakeshott has described the technique of mosaic art in Rome in detail.
As early as early Christian times , mosaics were placed in sacred buildings , especially in the apse and on the triumphal arch , in large basilicas also on the nave walls and in side chapels. The chancel in the apse, as the most important liturgical site in a church, is particularly emphasized by architectural means and is therefore also suitable for the highlights of the pictorial program, e.g. B. Christ as Pantocrator . The pagan cult image was replaced by the apse mosaic . The mosaics in the nave that have survived to this day could not be reliably verified for the 4th century; The 432 nave mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore are all the more valuable . If theological statements were difficult to capture in pictures, certain symbols were used. The mosaic artist was faced with the task of making the invisible through the visible at least imaginable and giving the believing observer a glimpse into the unearthly cosmos and into a heavenly world.
The motifs of the individual mosaics, the depicted people and symbols, but also the colors, orders of magnitude and numerical relationships could be taken from a canon of images developed over time that was largely closed to fashion influences and the zeitgeist. Today, this canon can hardly be understood without comment and causes problems even for experts. “No medium seemed better suited to the materialization of the immaterial than the mosaic, which particularly met the ideas of an aesthetic that saw in light the highest manifestation of beauty and the embodiment of the divine. … The scene of the apparition of God in the apse pictures is not a place on this side, but a place on the other, which is often shown to the viewer as an earthly paradise through a green meadow, blooming flowers, palm trees and the four rivers of paradise. "
Of the numerous mosaic representations in Christian sacred buildings, the early Christian mosaics in the city of Rome (without the floor mosaics) are to be described and interpreted here. Since the middle of the 4th century they have been the most splendid and elegant decorative elements for the interior of the church. To make it easier to assess these mosaics, they are classified into different time periods.
Third Century: The Beginnings
The first Christian mosaic dates from the end of the 3rd century and is in the vaulted ceiling of the Julier burial house in the Vatican necropolis under the Constantinian basilica of S. Pietro in Vaticano . On a gold background and framed by vines, Christ is depicted as the undefeated sun god ( sol invictus ) with a nimbus and a halo, as he stands steering a quadriga with galloping white horses. In his left hand he holds the globe; his fluttering cloak indicates the speed with which the team races from east to west into the sky. That it is about Christ and not about the sun god Sol (Greek Ἥλιος ) can be seen from the corresponding representations on the walls, where after the mosaic particles ( tesserae ) have fallen off, only the preliminary drawings can be seen: Good Shepherd and Fisherman and prophet Jonah, who is devoured by a whale (Jonah 1:15). These early Christian motifs, together with the vine tendrils, were meant to symbolize the hope of resurrection. The large hole next to the main scene comes from the excavators who accidentally rediscovered the Julier grave during the explorations from above.
300 to 550: Classical period
Constantina mausoleum
In the mausoleum Santa Costanza on Via Nomentana , which Constantina , the daughter of Constantine the Great , had built after 337, the oldest mosaics of Christian monumental architecture have been preserved, namely in the barrel vault of the gallery (around 350) and in both lateral apses (around 370).
Mosaics in the area around the mausoleum of Constantina, around 350
Grape harvest and press, around 350
traditio legis , around 370
traditio clavis , around 370
Dome with frescoes to replace the lost mosaics
a) In the walkway , eleven trapezoidal vault areas are decorated with mosaics in such a way that the Christian and neutral scenes are repeated in a similar way on each side (approx. 70% supplemented or renewed). It begins at the entrance with geometric ornaments and circular loop patterns as well as scattered compositions with branches, flowers, fruits, vases, birds, etc. In the transverse axis, motifs from the vintage appear on both sides: vine tendrils with putti and birds surround a bust that has not yet been clearly assigned , on both sides Grape harvest scenes with bullock carts full of grapes and with the grapes being pressed in the press house. The image motifs are composed of ancient, profane and biblical models.
b) Left apse with the traditio legis. In contrast to the mosaics in the gallery vault, the mosaics in the two side apses are clearly Christian motifs. In the south-eastern apse the handing over of the law ( traditio legis ) by Christ to Peter is depicted: Christ - with blue nimbus and gold-colored robe - hovers over the cloud-surrounded Paradise Mountain , from which the four Paradise Rivers (as a symbol for the four Gospels) spring (only three rivers remain). The right hand is raised high; with his left hand he hands over an open scroll ( rotulus ) to Peter, who has stepped up from the right and receives it in a reverent attitude in the puff of his robe. Peter seems to be holding the remainder of a shepherd's staff in his left hand, the upper half of which fell victim to restoration ; The heads of Christ and Peter as well as the Paradise Mountain were renewed and supplemented in 1843 (originally, Christ, like Peter, must have had long hair and a beard, as on the mosaic opposite). The writing on the scroll of law DOMINUS PACEM DAT (“The Lord gives peace”) was originally probably DOMINUS LEGEM DAT (“The Lord gives the law”). The Christogram is added to the scroll like an imprint of a seal. From the left Paul approaches with an acclamatory gesture. The palm trees on the edge of the picture are supposed to represent “trees of life” in the paradise garden; the buildings in front of it symbolize the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem . The lambs running from both sides to the middle probably represent the apostles . Christ is depicted in divine splendor and with a regal gesture based on the example of late antique imperial triumphal art. As ruler of the world, he steps down over a carpet of clouds to the two apostles ( theophany ), who receive the new law from his hand. The colored clouds form the dividing line between heavenly and earthly spheres . There is no scriptural passage in the Bible for the presentation of the law through Christ to Peter ; With this motif, for the first time in early Christian art, no biblical event is reproduced, but an image of Christ that goes back to theological considerations. The prototype of a tradito legis was perhaps the lost Constantinian apse mosaic of Alt-St. Peter.
c) Right apse with the traditio clavis. In the north-western apse Christ is depicted as the ruler of the world (Pantocrator ) enthroned on the sphere of the cosmos ( Sphaira ). He rests his left hand on the closed scroll of law; with his right hand he hands a narrow triangular object to Peter, who has approached from the left with his hands covered. According to the evangelist Matthew , the object presented must be the two keys to heaven (Mt 16, 19). Before the restoration, Petrus is said to have had gray hair and a beard. When the law is handed over, Christ is depicted standing, while he is enthroned on the globe when the keys are handed over. Both types of representation thus follow the models of the imperial court ceremony: the emperor stands at the representation ( adlocutio ), while he sits at the distribution of gifts ( largitio ). Both mosaics in the apses are surrounded by a partially restored fruit wreath.
d) Dome of the central room. The mosaic decorations in the dome of the mausoleum, destroyed in 1620 , have been described by visitors as the most artistic and beautiful in all of Rome. It was divided into twelve sectors by a tendril system within a lower and upper register, as can be seen from a colored copy by Francisco de Hollanda (1538) kept in the Escorial . Besides pagan motifs with a lakeside idyll, scenes from the Old and New Testament are shown in both registers.
San Pietro in Vaticano (St. Peter's Basilica)
Between 315 and 322 the memorial basilica of San Pietro in Vaticano , donated by Emperor Constantine, was built on the right bank of the Tiber , which was then demolished in 1592 when the new St. According to eyewitness accounts and traces, there were already mosaics in the apse and on the apse arch in the Constantinian building, which were probably initiated by Constantine I and carried out under his son Constans before 350. The nave of the basilica had no mosaic decoration, but was painted with frescoes .
a) Apse mosaic. The theme of the mosaic in the apse conche , which has been handed down through a colored tracing by Giacomo Grimaldi (Rome 1605), reproduces the original version from around 350, but contains some of the restoration under Pope Innocent III. Insertions made (around 1200): The figure of the Pope in full regalia and the personification of the Ecclesia Romana with the church flag (with two keys) next to the lamb in the lower register. According to the water color drawing from the end of the 16th century, the apse mosaic contained the following representations:
In the upper register, Christ is enthroned in a paradisiacal landscape above the mountain with the four rivers (cf. traditio legis in the mausoleum of Constantina) from which deer drink; above him a fan-like velarium with the hand of God. He has raised his right hand in a gesture of speech, while his left hand is resting on the book of the law. Next to him stand Peter (right) and Paul, each with his right acclaiming what is written on their scrolls (translated: “You are Christ, the Son of the living God” for Peter and “Christ is my life” for Paul). Next to Christ are the Greek initial and final letters of his name ΙC ΧC (= ΙHΣΟΥΣ ΧΡΙΣΤῸΣ); Next to the apostles, vertical writing with their names runs, in Latin towards the center and in Greek on the outside. The question of whether the apse mosaic depicts the Majestas Domini (as in the drawing by Giacomo Grimaldi) or whether the original version was a passing of the law (possibly also contained in the lower register) has not yet been finally decided . The widespread use of this motif in the 4th century speaks in favor of this thesis. B. the mosaic in the right side apse of the mausoleum of Constantina (around 370) and the relief on the lid of the ivory box from Samagher near Pula / Croatia, which was probably made in Rome in the middle of the 4th century; In this depiction, too, Christ hands over the law to Peter (right with cross-staff), while Paul acclaims on the left, palm trees on both sides, including the lambs frieze between the city symbols of Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
In the lower register you can see the empty throne ( Hetoimasia ) with the gemed cross (as an indication of the messianic expectation of salvation) and in front of it the divine lamb, again on the hill with the four rivers of Paradise, which has six lambs from the cities of Jerusalem ( left) and Bethlehem (right) are approaching. Jerusalem stands as the Jewish center for the Jewish Church ( ecclesia ex circumcisione ) and Bethlehem as the first place of homage by representatives of the Gentiles for the Gentile Church ( ecclesia ex gentibus ). The framing of the mosaic contains leaf elements in the rounding and below it a Latin hexameter with a praise of the basilica, the original version of which (later modified by Innocent III) was translated as follows: “Home of justice, house of faith and refuge of pious custom this church that you see and that is proud of the virtues of the father (Constantine I) and the son (Constantine), whom it honors as author in the same way as the father. "
b) Mosaic on the triumphal arch. No drawings or eyewitness accounts have survived for the mosaic on the triumphal arch, which was also lost; There is only the hint of Cardinal Jacobacci, who was a canon in St. Peter in 1503, that one could see Emperor Constantine on the triumphal arch, as he "showed the Redeemer and the Blessed Apostle Peter himself with golden letters" . Accordingly, next to Christ, the church patron Peter and the founder Constantine (with church model) were shown.
San Paolo Fuori le mura
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The so-called three-emperors basilica built between 384 and 395 above the tomb of the apostle Paul on Via Ostiense was - as the last of the imperial church foundations - richly decorated with mosaics, paintings and sculptures, but it was destroyed by fire for the first time in 441 and around 444 had been restored under Pope Leo I. The Pope Honorius III. Mosaics, which were thoroughly renewed before 1226, then existed until the major fire of 1823, in which only the triumphal arch mosaic remained in substantial parts. The nave of the basilica had no mosaic decorations, but was painted with biblical scenes under Pope Leo I, which were replaced around 1280 by murals by Pietro Cavallini - also no longer preserved .
a) Apse mosaic. The motif of the original apse mosaic in the version from approx. 444 has not survived; it was probably a Christ enthroned between Peter and Paul, comparable to the original mosaic in the apse of Alt-St. Peter. Today's apse mosaic, which was renewed in 1851 using individual parts of the medieval version, contains the following scenes: Christ is enthroned in front of a gold background - with a gesture of blessing and an open book as well as with a cross nimbus and monogram - between Paul and Luke (left) and Peter and Andreas (right ). All of them have raised their right hands in acclamation and hold open scrolls in their lefts. You stand on a strip of grass covered with flowers and birds. At the feet of Christ, Pope Honorius III. (in a small stature) thrown down to kiss the foot ( Proskynesis ). As in Alt-St. Peter is shown a fan-like velarium above Christ and a palm tree on each side. In the lower third, the empty throne with the gemed cross is shown here, but with the tools of the Passion as idiosyncratic ingredients of the Venetian mosaicists who worked around 1226 , the Pope Honorius III. 1218 had requested from the Doge of Venice , which explains the deviations from the Roman tradition and the Byzantine influences. In addition to the two angels as guardians of the throne, the twelve apostles are shown with gestures of acclamation and scroll, each standing between their vertically listed names and a palm tree. On the front wall of the apse there are said to have been mosaics with scenes from the life of the church patron.
b) Mosaic on the triumphal arch. The mosaics visible today on the triumphal arch go back to the foundation of Empress Galla Placidia (421–450) under Pope Leo I, as can be seen from the dedication inscription on the triumphal arch. After various restorations and the restoration after the major fire of the 19th century, the content has been preserved, but differs from the original in terms of style and details. In literature, the devastating judgment is that the style has changed completely; Originally, Christ would not have had such “grimaceous forms” and no “crippled hands”; the staff was also a cross staff . Only the theme has been largely preserved: above the apex of the arch, Christ appears in a half-figure with a nimbus from which nine rays emanate. He has raised his right hand to a gesture of blessing; with his left he shoulder a staff. The four apocalyptic beings float between brightly colored clouds against the golden background of the sky . In the lower half, the 24 elders with wreaths in veiled hands approach from both sides . The church patron Paulus (with sword) and Peter (with keys) are depicted on the arches.
Santa Pudenziana
Apse mosaic, around 410
Group with Paul
Group with Peter
Winged bull
The mosaic in the apse of the Santa Pudenziana basilica , which was created around 415, has retained its original monumentality despite the restrictive construction work of the Baroque period and extensive restorations. After the mosaics in the mausoleum of Constantina, it is the oldest preserved in a Roman sacred building and is one of the most important works of early Christian art. As an extension of the first subjects, Christ is shown here like an ancient philosopher teaching in the semicircle of the apostles. He is enthroned like an emperor oversized in the center of the picture and at the same time embodies the future judge of the world, here indicated by the gemstone cross (as a sign of triumph over death and its return on the last day) and by the four winged beings (human, lion, bull and eagle ) as an apocalyptic vision. Christ has raised his right hand in the teaching gesture and holds an open book in his left. Next to him sit the apostles arguing with raised hands (not all of them can be seen due to architectural interventions). Paul (left) and Peter are shown in half figure in profile. Behind them stand two women who hold golden laurel wreaths over their heads: with Peter for the conversion of the Jews (ecclesia ex circumcisione) and with Paul for his mission among the Gentiles (ecclesia ex gentibus). The semicircular portico, covered with gilded bricks, and the city in the background are intended to indicate the heavenly Jerusalem. The installation of a choir dome in the 16th century destroyed or covered parts of the apse mosaic; From a drawing by Alfonso Ciacconio from 1588 it can be seen that the two outer apocalyptic beings and the outer figures of the apostles, parts of the footstool in front of the throne and the spirit dove below, the Agnus Dei and the lambs processions from the city gates of Jerusalem and Bethlehem are affected . Particularly parts of the group of people gathered around Peter have been heavily restored.
San Giovanni in Laterano
Apse with window zone
Apse mosaic
Gem cross and middle group of people
Paradise rivers, deer, lambs and the Jordan River
Jacopo da Camerino (Franciscan) kneeling on the floor between Bartholomew and Matthew
The first Basilica of St. John Lateran , founded by Emperor Constantine in Rome, was built between 313 and 318 and was first consecrated to Christ the Redeemer in 324 ( Ecclsesia Sanctissimi Salvatoris ), under whose sign Constantine had defeated his rival Maxentius in 312 . It is not certain whether the Constantinian building was already adorned with an apse mosaic and what topic it contained. There is evidence that a mosaic was created in the apse around 430, which the consul Flavius Felix and his wife Padusia had donated and which was completed around 455 under Pope Leo I. The early Christian composition could be deduced from written sources and comparative studies: In the upper vault of the apse a bust of Christ was depicted, with a diaphanous nimbus and surrounded by clouds; Underneath, in front of a gold background, a large cross is said to have been seen, which by its shape was reminiscent of a palm trunk; apostles could have stood sideways. This image of Christ was venerated very early as the “Holy Face of the Redeemer”; therefore it was retained in all subsequent restorations. The entire mosaic was dismantled in 1291 under Pope Nicholas IV, together with the Constantine apse, and incorporated into the enlarged presbytery as a new version using old parts by Jacopo Torriti . During the second enlargement of the choir around 1884 under Pope Leo XIII. the Torriti mosaic has also been removed and replaced by a largely faithful copy. The current situation can be described as follows: Above the “Holy Face of the Redeemer”, where the hand of God with the laurel wreath was probably to be seen earlier, a cherub and four adoring angels float in the blue sphere of the sky between colored clouds . Under the bust of Christ, the dove of the Holy Spirit comes down from heaven and sends rays onto the mighty cross, in the middle of which the baptism of Jesus is depicted in a medallion . The four rivers of Paradise (Gion, Fison, Tigris and Eufrates), into which the rays emanating from the dove flow, arise on the hill under the cross; therefore the rivers are interpreted as the four gospels from which the deer and lambs (the believers) drink. The dividing rivers enclose the gem-studded walls of the heavenly Jerusalem, whose gate is guarded by a cherub with a sword and behind whose battlements the heads of the apostles Peter and Paul appear; behind it a phoenix with a ray nimbus sitting on a palm tree. A Jordan landscape with flowers, fish and water birds, putti in boats forms the lower end. In front of the gold background of the lower part of the apse stand (in large format) on the left Mary with Peter and Paul and on the right John the Baptist , John the Evangelist and Andrew (Apostle) ; in between, in a smaller format, Pope Nicholas IV (as client) as well as Francis of Assisi and Antonius of Padua . The remaining apostles are depicted in the window floor below the apse vault (from left): Judas, Simon, Jakobus the Elder. Ä., Thomas, Jakobus d. J., Philippus, Bartholomäus, Matthäus and Matthias. According to their importance, master Jacobo Torriti (with square measure and compass, between Simon and James) and his assistant Jacobo da Camerino (with hammer, kneeling between Bartholomäus and Matthew) line up. Next to Master Torriti is his signature: IACOBVS TORITI PICTO (r hoc) OP (us) FECIT (“Jacob Toriti, the painter, created this work”). Thus, both the Franciscan saints Francis of Assisi and Anthony of Padua as well as Pope Nicholas IV, Jacobo Torriti and Jacobo da Camerino, who also belong to the Franciscan order, are depicted on the mosaic. Under the window zone, Leo XIII. have a building inscription added in which he justifies the destruction of the old apse and the programmatic mosaic.
Santa Maria Maggiore
The from 432 under Pope Sixtus III. St. Mary's Church of Santa Maria Maggiore , built on the Esquiline , had rich mosaic decorations from the time of construction in the original apse and on the triumphal arch (the earlier apse arch) as well as on the nave walls and on the inner entrance wall. During the renovation in 1292, only the early Christian mosaics on the (today's) triumphal arch and in the central nave remained.
Pictures from the Old Testament on the right
Hospitality of Abraham
The sacrifice of Abraham
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a) Mosaics on the walls of the nave. In the central nave there are representations from the Old Testament above the pillars of the nave and below the windows: on the left side scenes from the lives of the patriarchs Abraham , Isaac and Jacob and on the right side scenes from the lives of Moses and Joshua ; the pictorial program begins on the left at the altar and continues on the right. Of the original 42 mosaic pictures, 30 are largely preserved today. It should be emphasized as a special feature that full images alternate with two-zone images. “The Old Testament nave cycle ... is the beginning of the development of a cyclical, pictorial church decoration. ... The designing artist obviously had to recreate the scenes according to the program given to him by the clergy and to do this he made use of traditional image composition and the wealth of forms that contemporary art offered him. At this point in time, there was no extensive Christian tradition for such visual art, certainly not even as illustrations of Bible manuscripts. ... The pictures are designed to convey a message, to clarify an idea or the message of the text behind it. ... The mosaics are of remarkable artistic and craftsmanship quality. "
The empty ruling throne of Christ, Peter and Paul, above the four apocalyptic beings
Left side of the triumphal arch
Right side of the triumphal arch
Annunciation to Mary
Presentation of Jesus in the temple
Tribute to the three wise men
Homage to the governor in Sotinen
Child murder in Bethlehem
The three wise men before King Herod
City of Jerusalem
City of Bethlehem
b) Mosaic on the triumphal arch. The largely preserved mosaics on the (today's) triumphal arch from around 432 are the continuation and climax of the Old Testament images on the nave walls. They contain scenes from the childhood story of Jesus to show the appearance of the new ruler on earth (apparition of the Lord / Epiphany) and the role of the Theotokos, Mary, as it was announced at the Council of Ephesus (431). The individual images are presented in four registers running from left to right in a thematic, not strictly chronological order:
1st row: Annunciation to Mary - Clarification of Joseph's doubts - Apocalyptic throne - Presentation of Jesus in the temple - Joseph's invitation to flee. The empty ruler's throne with the gemed cross and the seven-fold sealed scroll on the footstool are an indication of the completion of salvation history at the end of all days (Rev 4–5). Next to the throne, Peter and Paul acclaim as representatives of the Jewish and Gentile Churches, above them the four apocalyptic beings. The inscription naming the founder (German: "Bishop Sixtus dem Volk Gottes") is below the throne reserved for the judge of the world and above the medallion with the Christogram and the letters Alpha and Omega.
2nd row: Homage to the magicians from the Orient - arrival in Sotinen and homage to Aphrodisius.
3rd row: Child murder in Bethlehem - The magicians before Herod and the scribes.
4th row: Architectural metaphors of Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
Details are u. a. explained at Wilpert / Schumacher.
Santa Sabina
The by Pope Sixtus III. Basilica Santa Sabina on the Aventine , consecrated in 432, was originally decorated with a mosaic in the apse and with mosaic pictures on the inner entrance wall. On the apse mosaic Christ is said to have been depicted on the Paradise Mountain and below the procession of the lambs; this mosaic was painted over in the 16th century in the style of the time. On the front wall of the apse were early Christian depictions of Christ and his disciples between the cityscapes of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The mosaic on the entrance wall , which is still visible today , originally showed the female figures and the dedication inscription, Peter as the apostle of the Jews and Paul as the apostle of the Gentiles as well as the four evangelist symbols in the spandrels of the window arches. The two richly dressed women, with stoles and open books, standing in front of the gold background, represent the Jewish and the Gentile Church, as the inscription shows.
Lateran Baptistery (San Giovanni in Fonte in Lateran)
The baptistery next to the Lateran basilica is the oldest baptistery in Christendom and is considered the prototype of all baptisteries. Around 315, Emperor Constantine had a multi-storey baptistery built on a round floor plan for the Roman episcopal church, which Pope Sixtus III. from 432 it was converted into an octagon . At the same time, a vestibule was built for the main entrance at that time and equipped with mosaics. While the entire interior of the octagon was lost, the vestibule mosaic of the eastern side apse (around 440) was preserved. The mosaics of the chapels for John the Baptist and John the Evangelist, which were added to the octagon in the 5th century, and the chapel of the Holy Cross are also lost. Only the mosaic in the Oratorio di San Venanzio, which was added around 645, has survived (see below).
Floor plan of the baptistery with the extensions
Eastern side apse in the vestibule
upper half of the apse
left side
Detail with tendrils
Detail with cross
Mosaic in the vestibule. The originally open vestibule was converted into a chapel around 1154 while retaining the eastern apse with the mosaic from around 440, which is of inestimable value due to its age and its comparatively good state of preservation. It consists of ornamental motifs and symbolic signs: Eight green and gold tendrils grow upwards in a spiral shape from an acanthus bush on a deep blue background . In the upper part, in a semicircle with a fan-like velarium, a heavenly paradise is depicted, with the divine lamb and doves between flowers and tendrils. Below the frieze hang six gems and in the middle the point of the Holy Lance ; nine more gold crosses (three are lost) are in the blue stripe under the lawn. The mosaic at the entrance to the baptistery can be interpreted as follows: Entry into Christian life through baptism corresponds to entry into life on the other side through death.
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Sant'Agata dei Goti
In the apse of the Basilica of Sant'Agata dei Goti there was a mosaic from around 470, which was destroyed when the apse collapsed in 1589. The subject is known from historical descriptions and the drawing by Giovanni Ciampini: Christ enthroned on the globe, with a gesture of speech and the open book, surrounded on both sides by the twelve apostles, led by Peter (with key) and Paul (with scroll).
Santi Cosma e Damiano
This church of Santi Cosma e Damiano was built under Pope Felix IV (526-530) into the "Flavian Hall" belonging to the ancient Templum Pacis while retaining the interior, especially the precious wall cladding. The particularly high-quality mosaic pictures with Christian themes were added in the apse and on the front wall of the apse.
a) Apse mosaic. The mosaic in the - ancient - apse was created around 527 and is one of the most important works of art of the early Christian period in Rome. It has been largely preserved to this day, but was severely affected by the altar structure built in 1638 and the narrowing of the apse arch (1669) as well as by restorations. Pope Felix IV praises himself as the founder of the mosaic in the dedication inscription on the lower edge of the apse. The theme of the mosaic is the return of Christ as the judge of the world (Mt 24, 30): Christ hovers over a colorful carpet of clouds that connects heaven and earth from the heavenly sphere. The path of the clouds emerging from the blue of the sky widens downwards; the initially blue-white stripes of the cloud take on predominantly reddish tones (earthly dawn) and flow into one another. Christ, in full form and with nimbus, wears a tunic and a pallium ; he has raised his right hand in triumphant gesture and in his left he holds the scroll of the law. What is remarkable is the delicacy of the design, especially of the head of Christ; the dark flesh is lightened by highlights and hatching with a three-dimensional effect. From both sides, Peter (right) and Paul (left) lead the two church patrons, the medical saints Kosmas and Damian (with golden martyrs' wreaths in their hands) to Christ. Kosmas carries the red doctor's bag adorned with a cross; Damian's bag is only partially visible. St. Theodore (with a martyr's wreath), dressed as a Byzantine dignitary, approaches from the right edge , while Felix IV. As the founder with a model of a church in papal vestments is shown on the left . The composition is framed by two palm trees; on the left palm there is a phoenix with a ray nimbus as a symbol of immortality. All the people stand on a strip of green with flowers and stones next to the Jordan that is indicated by name . The lower end is a base frieze with the Christ Lamb on the Paradise Mountain and the twelve lambs.
An earthquake in 1600 caused the former campanile to collapse, and the apse mosaic was also partially destroyed. During the restoration initiated by Pope Urban VIII (1623–1644), the figures of Damian and the founder pope Felix IV in particular were completely renewed. Felix IV replaced the previous attributes tiara and key with the church model. In addition, the mosaicist at the time artfully incorporated the three typical bees from the coat of arms of Urban VIII in the (also destroyed) green strip with flowers between Felix IV and Damian, following the practice common at the time, in the works of art donated by Urban VIII to be inserted (as is the case with the coffered ceiling built into SS. Cosma e Damiano in 1632 ). This approach of the mosaicist must be seen against the background of the history of the papal coat of arms of this Pope, whose real name is Maffeo Barberini. The coat of arms of his family, which was originally called Tafani, had three horseflies (Italian: tafani ) in their (speaking) coat of arms. Because Urban VIII no longer regarded this coat of arms as befitting after his election as Pope, he quickly replaced the horseflies with bees in his papal coat of arms.
b) Mosaic on the apse wall. The mosaic on the front wall of the apse was probably created at the same time as the apse mosaic and not under Pope Sergius I (around 690). Since only the middle part has been preserved, the old condition is described here as it has been handed down through a drawing from around 1630. The apocalyptic lamb lies on the gem throne with the cross, in front of it the scroll with the seven seals. The whole thing is surrounded by a blue aureole , to which the seven (burning) candlesticks of the Apocalypse and two angels each connect to the right and left. Of the original four evangelist symbols, only the winged man of Matthew and the eagle of John have survived. Blue, white and red stripes of clouds can be seen on the golden background. The twenty-four elders were depicted in the spandrels, of which only a few can still be seen, hands covered with crowns.
550 to 750: Byzantine influences
San Lorenzo Fuori le mura
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The Basilica of Saint Laurentius Outside the Walls today consists of two different components: Around 580, under Pope Pelagius II, a three-aisled gallery basilica (with an apse in the west) was built directly above the tomb of the martyr Laurentius of Rome ("Pelagius Building"); At the beginning of the 13th century, Pope Honorius III. (1216–1227) demolish the previous apse and build a new three-aisled nave with vestibule and entrance in the west (“Honorius Building”) while at the same time relocating the presbytery with the main altar to the previous eastern part. The early Christian apse mosaic donated by Pelagius II was destroyed, while the mosaic on the former apse arch was preserved, but can only be seen today from the current choir section.
In front of a golden background, Christ is enthroned (with a nimbus of the cross) on the globe, his right hand raised and the staff of the cross in the left. From the left, Peter leads the church patron Laurentius (with book) and the founder, Bishop Pelagius (with church model) to Christ; from the right approach Paul with the martyr Stephen (with book) and the Roman guard Hippolytus (with martyr's crown in veiled hands), who was converted by Laurentius. With regard to the artistic design, it has been established that the figures of Laurentius and Pelagius are likely to be ascribed to a mosaicist of Byzantine court art. The city silhouettes of Jerusalem and Bethlehem are depicted in the arches; both cities and all persons have Latin names. The dedication inscription runs along the arch, on the underside a particularly carefully crafted garland of flowers, fruits and foliage.
St. Theodor on the Palatine Hill
In the rotunda San Teodoro al Palatino at the foot of the Palatine Hill, which dates from different construction periods, an apse mosaic from around 600 has been preserved in its composition, but has been severely impaired by restorations in the 17th century. This concerns above all the head and beard of Christ, the forehead and hand of Paul, the young martyr next to him, the lower part of the head of Peter and the forehead of Paul. The original version can be found in an anonymous pen drawing (around 1590) in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana .
In its arrangement, comparable to the mosaic on the apse arch in San Lorenzo fuori le mura, Christ is enthroned in front of a gold background on the globe, above him the hand of God with the laurel wreath between colorful strips of cloud. From the right, Peter (with a key) leads the church patron Theodor (with a patterned cape and martyr's wreath) to Christ, as well as on the left, Paul (with a scroll) a young martyr (with a wreath).
Sant'Agnese fuori le mura
Apse mosaic
Sant'Agnese
Sant'Agnese - detail
Pope Symmachus
Pope Honorius I.
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The gallery basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura (cf. S. Lorenzo fuori le mura) built over the tomb of the martyr Agnes of Rome contains a valuable apse mosaic that Pope Honorius I commissioned around 638. Shown is the titular saint between the two Popes Honorius I (left) with the model of the basilica he donated and Symmachus (498-514) (with book), who had the neighboring early Christian basilica of Sant'Agnese restored (perhaps it is also about Pope Gregory the Great ). The three figures stand side by side in front of the gold ground in a strictly frontal position and are not connected to one another by any compositional means, which creates a solemn effect and which is characteristic of the mosaics at the end of antiquity. The church patron takes the central position, which in older mosaics was always reserved for Christ or the Mother of God. The sword under their feet and the flames of the pyre are references to their martyrdom . At the top of the apse, between the apocalyptic clouds, the hand of God appears with the martyr's wreath. The lower end is a monotonous strip with a green-colored soil without vegetal elements. The round apse is framed by the garlands of flowers rising to the side and the foundation inscription of Honorius I with golden capitals on a blue background.
Santo Stefano Rotondo
The round building Santo Stefano Rotondo , erected over three concentric circles and consecrated around 480, is considered the greatest building of late antiquity, in which a representative claim of Christianity is already visible in the exterior for the first time. On the occasion of the transfer of the relics of the martyrs Primus and Felicianus from the catacomb S. Alessandro on Via Nomentana to this city church, Pope Theodor I (642–649) had the northern cross arm of San Stefano Rotondo expanded as a chapel and the attached apse with one Decorate mosaic. On this apse mosaic from around 649, below the bust of Christ ( Clipeus ), the gem cross (in place of a triumphant Christ ) is shown in oversize and above it the hand of God in the firmament . To the side, in front of the gold background, stand the titular saints Primus and Felicianus in tunic and chlamys with the sewn-on purple tablion in the style of Byzantine dignitaries. You stand on a strip of green meadow with brightly colored flowers and hold a scroll in your right hand. What should be emphasized is the skill with which the heads of the two martyrs are designed; they are treated individually and of great beauty.
Oratorio di San Venanzio
Pope John VII (640–642), who came from Dalmatia , had an oratory built in the corner between the vestibule of the Lateran Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte and the chapel of John Evangelista and the relics of Dalmatian martyrs buried in it under the altar. The mosaics preserved today in the apse and the apse wall with the Dalmatian martyrs from Salona were around 654 under his successor I. Theodor completed.
a) Apse mosaic. In the upper part of the apse, the bust of the blessing Christ floating on clouds between two angels can be seen; underneath Mary as Orantin , surrounded (left) by Paul (with book) and Johannes Evangelista (with book), Bishop Venantius (martyr of Salona) and Pope John IV (with model of the oratorio) and (right) by Peter (with keys and cross staff) and Johannes Baptista (with cross staff), Bishop Domnius (martyr of Salona) and Pope Theodor I (as the second donor).
Oratorio San Venanzio with apse wall and altar
Apse mosaic
Apse arch at the top left
City of Bethlehem
Apse arch at the bottom left
Apse arch on the top right
Apse arch at the bottom right
b) Mosaic on the apse wall. On the wall next to the apse, the remaining eight martyrs of Salona are depicted with their crowns, whose relics rest under the altar (from left): Paulinianus and Telius (soldiers of the palace guard), Presbyer Asterius and the highly revered Dalmatian Anastasius (in a gold-wrought pallium ) as well as Bishop Maurus and Deacon Septimus and the two officers Antiochianus and Gaianus. In the apse wall, pierced by four windows, are the four evangelist symbols between the city representations of Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
Oratorio John VII.
In the north aisle of Alt-St. Peter had Pope John VII set up a Lady Chapel on the rear wall of the facade around 706, which was also to serve as his own burial place. The splendid mosaics on the east wall showed a Maria Queen in the center with her hands raised in prayer and the founder pope, and on the sides scenes from the life of Jesus: In the upper register Mariae Annunciation and Visitation, Birth of Jesus and Annunciation to the Shepherds and Adoration of the Three Wise Men; in the middle register representation of Jesus in the temple and baptism in the Jordan, healing of the man born blind and the woman with blood and Zacchaeus in the mulberry tree; in the lower register, the raising of Lazarus, entry into Jerusalem and last supper, resurrection, crucifixion and anastasis .
Scenes from the life of Jesus and the apostles Peter and Paul
Details
Homage to the Three Wise Men, left half of the picture, around 706
Portrait of the founder John VII with a model of the oratorio
Only a few fragments of these mosaics have been preserved when St. Peter's Basilica was rebuilt; their subject matter is documented in a description by Giacomo Grimaldi from 1628. The most important preserved parts are kept today: Maria orans in San Marco (Florence) ; Donor picture of John VII (with model of the chapel) and washing of the newborn in the Vatican grottos ; Mary from the Nativity Scene in the Museo d'Arte Sacra di Orte (near Viterbo); Adoration of the Three Wise Men (left half) in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin .
Outlook on the time from the early medieval period (after 750)
Triclinium in the Lateran : mosaic in the former apse of the representative room of Pope Leo III. (around 800).
Santi Nereo e Achilleo : In the under Pope Leo III. The basilica, built around 815, has a mosaic on the apse arch that shows the Transfiguration of Christ.
Santa Prassede : The three-aisled pillar basilica from around 820 still has the comparatively well-preserved mosaics in the apse as well as on the apse wall and triumphal arch. In addition, Pope Paschal I had the Zeno Chapel, richly decorated with mosaics, built on the east side as the burial chapel of his mother Theodora around 820, which has been said to be the most important monument of the 9th century in Rome as a total work of art.
Santa Cecilia in Trastevere : Around 820 Pope Paschal I also built a new basilica in honor of St. Cäcilia donated with valuable mosaic furnishings. The mosaic in the apse is well preserved, while only remnants of the mosaic on the apse wall have survived after restoration work in the Baroque period.
Santa Maria in Domnica : This three-aisled columned basilica was also donated and furnished by Pope Paschal I (around 820). The mosaics in the apse vault and on the apse arch are described in detail by Walter Oakeshott.
San Marco : Around 830 Pope Gregory IV ordered the construction of a new building in place of the early Christian St. Mark's Church, which was threatened with decay. The mosaics in the apse and on the triumphal arch were made between 830 and 840.
San Clemente : In the new building of the Basilica of St. Clemens, important mosaics have been preserved in the apse and on the apse arch. Reference is made to the detailed illustrated descriptions by Wilpert / Schumacher and Joachim Poeschke.
Santa Maria in Trastevere : The new building of Santa Maria in Trastevere, built on the site of the early Christian church under Pope Innocent II, contains mosaics in the apse and on the apse arch, which were created around 1143, described and interpreted a. a. by Joachim Poeschke and Walter Oakeshott. The mosaic on the outer facade of the basilica, created after 1185, is shown by Walter Oakeshott on page 257ff. described. The complementary mosaics in the apse created by Pietro Cavallini around 1296 are dealt with by Joachim Poeschke on page 396ff.
Santa Francesca Romana : In this basilica, which was originally called Sancta Maria Nova, only the apse mosaic from 1161 has been preserved, but not the mosaic on the triumphal arch that was created at the same time.
Santa Maria Maggiore : For the new apse of the basilica built in 1292, the Marian theme of the old apse was adopted, but Jacopo Torriti adapted it to the changed ideas (1296).
literature
- Maria Andaloro: The Churches of Rome. A tour in pictures. Medieval Paintings in Rome 321–1431 . Zabern, Mainz 2008.
- Hugo Brandenburg : The early Christian churches in Rome from the 4th to the 7th century . Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2013.
- Walther Buchowiecki : Handbook of the Churches of Rome. The Roman sacred building in history and art from early Christian times to the present . 4 volumes, Hollinek, Vienna 1967–1997.
- Christa Ihm: The Programs of Christian Apse Painting from the Fourth Century to the Middle of the Eighth Century . Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 1992.
- Guglielmo Matthiae: Mosaici Medioevali delle chiese di Roma . Rome 1967.
- Walter Oakeshott : The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth centuries . Anton Schroll & Co., Vienna and Munich 1967.
- Joachim Poeschke : Mosaics in Italy: 300-1300 . Hirmer, Munich 2009.
- Erik Thunø: The apse mosaic in early medieval Rome. Time, network, and repetition . New York 2015.
- Joseph Wilpert , Walter N. Schumacher : The Roman mosaics of the church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century . Herder, Freiburg 1976.
Individual evidence
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, pp. 15–40.
- ^ Gérard-Henry Baudry: Handbook of early Christian iconography - 1st to 7th centuries , Freiburg 2010, p. 29ff. 81ff. 117ff. 153ff. 193ff. 217ff.
- ↑ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300 - 1300 , Munich 2009, pp. 9, 13.
- ↑ Paolo Liverani / Giandomenico Spinola: Die Nekropolen im Vatikan, Stuttgart 2010, p. 113ff. with illustrations.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, pp. 48ff. And 299ff.
- ↑ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300 - 1300 , Munich 2009, p. 54ff.
- ↑ Hans Georg Wehrens: Rome - The Christian sacred buildings from the 4th to the 9th century - A Vademecum. 2nd edition, Freiburg, 2017, p. 92ff.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, pp. 50f. And 300.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, pp. 52f. And 301f. with illustrations.
- ↑ Giacomo Grimaldi: Descrizione della basilica antica di San Pietro in Vaticano: Codice Barberini latino 2733 , fol. 158v – 159r, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
- ↑ http://www.restituzioni.com/opere/capsella-di-samagher/
- ↑ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300 - 1300, Munich 2009, pp. 15 and 42f.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, p. 62ff.
- ↑ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300 - 1300 , Munich 2009, p. 15f. and 42f.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, p. 61
- ↑ Hans Georg Wehrens: Rome - The Christian sacred buildings from the 4th to the 9th century - A Vademecum. 2nd edition, Freiburg, 2017, p. 125
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, p. 87
- ^ Claudia Angelelli: La Basilica Titolare di S. Pudenziana - Nuove Ricerche. Città del Vaticano 2010
- ^ Hugo Brandenburg: The early Christian churches in Rome from the 4th to the 7th century , Regensburg 2013, p. 148ff.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, p. 10f. and 24ff.
- ↑ Kristina Friedrichs: “Episcopus plebi Dei”. The representation of the early Christian popes , Regensburg 2015, p. 292f. and 322f.
- ↑ Maria Andaloro: The churches of Rome. A tour in pictures. Medieval paintings in Rome 312–1431 , Mainz 2008, p. 269ff.
- ^ Hugo Brandenburg: The early Christian churches in Rome from the 4th to the 7th century , Regensburg 2013, pp. 207f.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, p. 75f. and 316ff.
- ↑ See also Gerhard Steigerwald: The early Christian mosaics of the triumphal arch by S. Maria Maggiore in Rome, Regensburg 2016, pp. 33–160
- ↑ Hugo Brandenburg: The early Christian churches in Rome from the 4th to the 7th century, Regensburg 2013, pp. 191 and 327 with drawings of the original state of the apse arch and the entrance wall by Giovanni Ciampini (1690)
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, p. 38f. and 307f.
- ↑ Maria Andaloro: The churches of Rome. A tour in pictures. Medieval paintings in Rome 312–1431, Mainz 2008, pp. 165f. with a drawing of the original apse motif by Giovanni Ciampini, 1690
- ^ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300-1300, Munich 2009, pp. 94-107 with colored illustrations
- ↑ Hans Georg Wehrens: Rome - The Christian sacred buildings from the 4th to the 9th century - A Vademecum . 2nd edition, Freiburg, 2017, p. 286 with illustration
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, p. 15 with illustration of the old state
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 156f. with ill. 77
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 158f. with figs. 83, 85, 86
- ↑ Hugo Brandenburg: The early Christian churches in Rome from the 4th to the 7th century , Regensburg 2013, pp. 270-273 with illustrations
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century, Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 165f. with figs. 89–92
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, p. 94f. and 331f. with plate 110
- ↑ Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana , Vat. Lat. 8404, fol. 114r.
- ↑ Maria Andaloro: The churches of Rome. A tour in pictures. Medieval paintings in Rome 312–1431, Mainz 2008, pp. 25 and 41 with a drawing of the original apse motif by Giovanni Ciampini (1628) with identification of the parts still preserved today
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century, Freiburg 1976, p. 67ff. and 332ff. with plates 111a – 112.
- ↑ Hans Georg Wehrens: Rome - The Christian sacred buildings from the 4th to the 9th century - A Vademecum. 2nd edition, Freiburg, 2017, pp. 62–65 with images of the original condition.
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century, Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 211ff.
- ↑ Maria Andaloro: The churches of Rome. A tour in pictures. Medieval paintings in Rome 312–1431, Mainz 2008, pp. 295–306 with illustrations; Rotraut Wisskirchen: The mosaics of the Santa Prassede church in Rome , Mainz 1992.
- ↑ Hans Georg Wehrens: Rome - The Christian sacred buildings from the 4th to the 9th century - A Vademecum . 2nd edition, Freiburg, 2017, p. 230ff.
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century, Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 215f.
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 226ff. with illustrations.
- ^ Joseph Wilpert / Walter N. Schumacher: The Roman mosaics of church buildings from IV. - XIII. Century , Freiburg 1976, p. 82ff. and 337f .; Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300-1300, Munich 2009, pp. 206-219.
- ^ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300-1300, Munich 2009, pp. 220-231 and with colored illustrations; Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 264ff. and 269f.
- ↑ Walther Buchowiecki: Handbook of the Churches of Rome. The Roman sacred building in history and art from early Christian times to the present , vol. 3, Vienna 1974, p. 51f.
- ^ Walter Oakeshott: The mosaics of Rome from the third to the fourteenth century , Vienna and Munich 1967, p. 264ff.
- ↑ Joachim Poeschke: Mosaics in Italy: 300-1300, Munich 2009, pp. 378-395