History of the Coastal Salish
The history of the coastal Salish , a group of Indian ethnic groups on the Pacific coast of North America connected by a common culture, kinship and languages , goes back several millennia. Her artifacts are very uniform from an early age and show a recognizable continuity that in some places goes back more than seven millennia.
In the area of today's coastal Salish , that is, in the broad coastal fringe of the Canadian province of British Columbia and the US states of Washington and Oregon , traces of human presence go back over ten thousand years.
The livelihood was provided by fishing, especially salmon , as well as hunting and collecting activities. Recent research shows that some groups as early as the 2nd millennium BC Moved to a peasant way of life with seasonally inhabited villages.
Already the first contacts with Europeans around 1775 decimated numerous groups to the greatest extent through introduced diseases, especially smallpox . Since the colonial powers Great Britain and Spain agreed to forego trading bases in 1790, the construction of forts began not on the Pacific coast, which can be reached by ship, but first on Columbia and further inland and only reached Vancouver Island over 50 years later. This gave the canoe as a means of transport and the trade trails created by the coastal inhabitants of great importance for the initially most important trade in otter and beaver furs . In return, the Indians received metal goods and weapons, which greatly changed the local hierarchies and the balance of power between the tribes.
While the northern part of the area inhabited by Salish fell to the British Hudson's Bay Company , the southern part fell to the USA in 1846 . They displaced the Indians to a much greater extent through settlement and forced them into reservations with military force . While in British Columbia each group that was understood as a "tribe" was given its own, albeit mostly very small, reservation , the USA set up larger reservations in which several tribes lived. Both states tried to forcibly assimilate the Indians , with the USA placing much more emphasis on mixing, privatizing the land and economic pressure. What they had in common was the attempt to wipe out Indian cultures through prohibitions and a corresponding school system . In the meantime, many tribes have succeeded in reviving their cultural heritage and enforcing self-government .
Introductory overview
The early history of the coastal Salish is predominantly archaeologically comprehensible, because written sources do not begin until the European discovery and use at the end of the 18th century. In addition, there are oral traditions and research on trees that show signs of processing, the so-called Culturally Modified Trees .
The semi-nomadic Salish on the coast lived mainly on salmon . No later than 1600 BC. A rural way of life developed with a corresponding transformation of the landscape. There were also large villages, which were sometimes inhabited in winter for centuries. The societies differentiated themselves into a dominant nobility , the general population and slaves , who were mostly prisoners of war and their descendants. In addition, there were slaves as a commercial object and the exchange in the form of ritual gifts within the leading groups. Similar to belonging to the nobility, the rank of chief was usually hereditary in certain families, but could be revoked.
The extremely rainy region produced temperate rainforests , which not only provided the material for the totem poles up to 50 m high , but also for the houses (plank houses early on), but also for food, clothing and blankets. Metal, on the other hand, was extremely rare.
The ocean-going canoes allowed military expeditions along the coasts, but also extensive trade. The fur traders and explorers from Europe also used the trade paths and well-known waterways . However, they also brought in unknown diseases that caused numerous tribes to disappear as the Salish were decimated by smallpox as early as 1775 . In addition, there was a particularly warlike phase, characterized by raids by the northern coastal peoples, which were exacerbated by European weapons technology.
In 1846, the United States and Great Britain divided the vast Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, cutting up traditional territories, kinship, and trade. The onset of colonization led to fighting, especially in Washington, such as the Puget Sound Wars . The establishment of Indian reservations in Canada led to an extreme dispersion of the residential areas, in the USA, however, several tribes were often merged, so that new connections, regarded as “tribes”, emerged.
While the Salish in British Columbia were able to take on an important economic role before they were ousted from most industries by legislation, they were often pushed into comparatively inhospitable regions in the USA. The two states also pursued different strategies of forced assimilation. These began with proselytizing in both states - against which their own spiritual forms developed as a reaction - led to bans on the most important cultural expressions, excluded all indigenous people from the right to vote and increased to the point where all children were forcibly sent to boarding-like schools, for which the Canadian government apologized in 2008. During this phase the population collapsed, most of the languages were lost and migration to the cities increased so much that the majority of the coastal Salish now live there.
The situation only changed with the changed legal situation, which the tribal representatives could enforce before the highest courts. Thanks to more open borders and the increasing prosperity of some tribes, but above all the growing awareness of common cultural values, there was a partial revival of the community of Salish groups. Many groups are still fighting for recognition as a tribe, as a precondition for even entering into negotiations for their sovereignty and their country. Tribal associations bundle their efforts, borders are marked, sovereignty rights are successively awarded.
While attempts were made in the USA for several decades to divide the tribal area into parcels and privatize it, the vast majority of Canadian reservations remained in tribal ownership. British Columbia has been trying to enforce this privatization in exchange for enlarged reserves since 1993 ( BC Treaty Process ), but so far only a few treaties have been concluded. Since 2007 it has been unclear whether this so-called BC Treaty Process can and should be continued.
Early history
The early history of the coastal Salish and their predecessor cultures can only be grasped archaeologically and later through oral tradition. At around 23,000 archaeologically significant sites in British Columbia, around 400 permits are issued annually for construction work. This is why conflicts very often arise, because the majority of the sources on the Salish story are - often not easily recognizable - underground or in shell middens, some of which are several meters high . It was not until 1995 that a tribe in British Columbia, the Nanoose , succeeded in gaining a say in dealing with archaeological sites. Despite research that was initially hardly funded, the results of the last few decades are remarkable. It looks similar in Washington. In 2003, an archaeological report found that there were 14,000 archaeological sites, from entire villages to trees that have been modified for cultural reasons ( Culturally Modified Trees ).
In the early phase of human settlement, the landscape was subject to major changes. Glaciers, melt water, fluctuating coastlines, a significantly lower sea level, tsunamis shaped this phase, and there were also uplifts and subsidence of the coastlines, which were triggered by the melting of the huge ice masses. With that, many artifacts should be gone for good. This probably explains at least in part why there are hardly any artifacts from the time before about 8000 BC. Can be proven, unless in places that have never been flooded. Artifacts from the 9th millennium BC were found on Dundas Island , at Far West Point . Chr.
One of the oldest sites in British Columbia was found near Namu . The region was established between 8000 and 3000 BC. Inhabited by groups who lived semi-sedentary or sedentary and processed coarse-grained cast stone into tools. Recent research suggests the use of watercraft.
Traditionally, the coastal Salish assume that they have always lived where they live today. Creation stories are widespread, often of animals in human form, of creators or ancestors of today's tribes. For this, the idea comes from a Transformer (transformer) , who created the landscapes, the animal and plant inhabitants, the foundations of the social order. In many cases they contain memories of the immigration period and of a great flood.
From the Milliken phase (approx. 7500 BC)
Accordingly, the Stó: lō belonging to the Salish also assume that they have always lived where they live today.
In fact, the Milliken phase (7500-6000 BC) is the oldest, archaeologically tangible phase. Their only place of discovery is 4 km above Yale . Blade-, egg- and crescent-shaped blades, burins , thin scrapers and soapstone are characteristic here. Argillite is the most common stone material, basalt , quartz and obsidian are rare . A few charred cherry pits are an indication of the time of year the eaters were here. Since this is also the time of the salmon migration , it can be assumed that the salmon migrations - which were not so extensive and extensive at the time - were already used for catching. Some pieces of obsidian come from Oregon, a region 600 km away - apparently there was extensive overland trade.
The Mazama phase (6000–4500 BC) - it is named after the largest known volcanic eruption that left what is now Crater Lake in Oregon - is also tangible at Yale, but also at Hope . Egg-shaped hand axes , planes and bipolar wedges appear as innovations . Microliths are detectable, i.e. tiny stone blades. Basalt displaced the argillites. Even in this phase, cultural differences between the north, which is more closely related to Alaska , and the south, which had contacts at least as far as Oregon, can be demonstrated.
The Eayem phase (4000–1100 BC) can only be reliably demonstrated in Agassiz . A house recess was found there (a so-called pit house ), the first evidence of permanent dwelling (around 3000 BC). New shapes such as projectile points , be they pinched or notched sideways, drills, points and whetstones appeared. The oldest village find (approx. 3000 BC) comes from the Paul Mason site in Kitselas Canyon on the Skeena River and shows signs of a non-hierarchical society. It was from 1200 to 700 BC. Continuously inhabited. These houses were already standing close together in rows, as we know it from the travel reports of European explorers and traders since the late 18th century. But the construction was even lighter, the differences in size small. The oldest figurative representations date from around 2500 BC. The oldest burial places go back to this time. Around 1500 to 500 BC The first war clubs, which were made of stone or whale bones, can be detected in the 2nd century BC.
The Baldwin phase (1100–650 BC) can again be found in Milliken, but also in Esilao and Katz (S x wó x wiymelh in the Chawathil area ), which belong to the Sto: lo. Their distinguishing features are micro-blades, small projectile points, mortars and pestles . There are jewelry works such as rings, earrings, pearls, pendants, but also figurative representations. This phase is considered to be the forerunner of the Marpole culture. Now there are also more ephemeral artifacts such as baskets, woven hats, ropes, mats, and remnants of boards. These materials were also used for intricate boxes used for storage and transportation, but most of all they dominated in food preparation and storage. Ceramics did not exist, clay was increasingly being displaced.
In addition, from around 500 BC BC for the first time to prove post houses , which were characteristic of the West Coast culture. Presumably, the rainforest , which had been favored for a long time, now provided trees of sufficient size, and above all, woodworking was technically advanced enough to process the giant trees. From 1000 AD at the latest, care was often taken not to kill the giant trees. The processing of stone sculptures can also be documented for the first time during this period; Fifty of these objects can be found in the Victoria Museum today.
On the south coast, from around 2500 BC. Until around 500 AD. Lip piercings can be found, but they disappeared there again, in contrast to the northern coastal areas, where they are still a tradition today. A kind of ear coil also lasted from around 1500 to 500 BC. The so-called Whatzits , soapstone objects , can possibly also be classified here, but their use is unclear. Strings of pearls and occasionally rings made of copper , a rare material that came from Alaska, were also used as jewelry . Such finds indicate a far-reaching system of trade contacts, the goods of which are likely to have served to satisfy special representational needs, which are probably connected with the emergence of a dominant class, the later nobility.
The Skarnel phase (350 BC to 250 AD) is noticeable through the disappearance of the microliths . Found sites are Esilao , Katz , Pipeline and Silverhope Creek .
The latest in the Emery phase appeared (250-1250) pipes up, probably around 500. Chr. Tobacco was smoked but only on the southern coast, rather chewed in the north. Tobacco was planted in gardens there, but horticulture evidently did not take place in food. At the same time, spindle whorls and other references to the manufacture of blankets, probably from the hair of dogs and mountain goats, appear . The former were mainly kept in the Gulf Islands like sheep in Europe.
Esilao phase (1250-1800). For this phase, which ended with the first contact with Europeans, small projectile points of certain types of attachment are characteristic. The huge clam heaps now provide numerous clues to the society behind them. They consist not only of mussels, but also of ash, stones broken by the heat of fire, animal bones and waste. On the entire coast from around 3000 to 2500 BC Prove stone and bone or antler techniques . From around 1500 BC A society based more on stockpiling seems to have developed, which was mainly dependent on salmon. The first permanent winter villages are from 1200 BC. Chr. Tangible, common large buildings around the birth of Christ.
On the lower Skeena River, in Kitselas Canyon, several phases can be distinguished, on the one hand the Gitaus phase , between about 1300 and 600 BC. In Gitaus and at the Paul Mason site . These are summer fishing camps. The Skeena-phase (1600-1200 v. Chr.), Which can be detected only in Gitaus has molded, machined at one end and lanceolate Bifaces on, a sort of both sides sharpened hand axes . Flint was paramount.
In the delta of the Fraser River the most important localities are St. Mungo , Glenrose and Crescent Beach . Mussels were clearly more important here, fish more important than game or marine mammals (especially salmon and the starfish ( Platichthys stellatus ), a species of plaice that occurs on almost all coasts of the North Pacific.) But game also remained of great importance, followed by seals .
Marpole Culture (400 BC to 400 AD)
Today's coastal Salish can be traced back to the Marpole culture . It was already characterized by the same social differentiation, from plank houses in which several families lived, from salmon catching and conservation, rich carvings of often monumental proportions and complex ceremonies.
Because of the paramount importance of salmon fishing, immigration from the lower Frasertal or the plateaus was assumed for a long time, but the Marpole culture seems to be regional. This culture is named after a place where it was found in what is now Vancouver , which was then on the coast, but which has since shifted further west due to the Fraser deposits. The village, located on a shell hill, was several hectares in size, the hill 3 to 4 m high. A height of complexity has been reached on the south coast. Permanent winter settlements can be proven, from around the birth of Christ also plank or long houses. The burial places show strong differences in status.
Barbed harpoons replaced the various types of articulated harpoons . The number of ornamental works, such as stone figures, clearly increased. An important place of discovery for the Marpole culture is Beach Grove , a winter village in the Fraser Valley. There are various hollows of houses that are large but not yet precisely measured. The children's graves are remarkably richly furnished, e.g. Sometimes with Dentalia , i.e. mussels, and above all with copper, which was extremely rare and valuable at the time .
Around 400 BC A society developed that preferred the individual acquisition of reputation. Between around 500 and 1000 AD, many South Salish groups are characterized by cairns . There are hundreds of them around Victoria and Metchosin . At that time there was probably still a society of rank or prestige. It wasn't until around 1000 that an elite monopolized not only the inherited and ascribed reputation, but also means of power and resources.
Societies around 1800
Traditional livelihoods, hunters, gatherers, farmers
As on the entire Pacific coast, the Salish tribes made a substantial living from marine animals, but unlike the Nuu-chah-nulth , they did not hunt whales. The salmon, which swam up the rivers every year to spawn, played a prominent role. Other fish such as herring and halibut , but also birds and game were on the menu. However, not everyone was allowed to hunt everywhere, because certain families had their reef nets and certain collecting fields, such as the horse clam , a species of mollusc ( Tresus nuttallii ). They were reserved for the "nobility" only. Similar rules applied to house building and hunting, but also to the collection of numerous plants, such as berries, grass, etc. So it could happen that family clans wandered according to the best harvest time of the plants, in certain areas "belonging" to them - Year for year.
It has long been known that the Salish were not just hunters and gatherers, but also farmers tied to a specific area who made migrations according to natural cycles. For example, they planted camas, an agave plant with blue flowers. Your onions taste like very sweet, baked tomatoes, some like pears too. The Salish used two types, namely the common camas ( Camassia quamash , also called Indian camas ) and the great camas ( Camassia Leichtlinii ). Cultivation and maintenance of the soil transformed the landscape over the centuries and gave it a park-like character. At the same time, the harvest was a good opportunity to make social contacts in the camps in the fields and to consolidate society through rituals.
The tree-poor zones, which were necessary for the cultivation of Camas and for the potatoes that were already taken over around 1800, were created through the targeted use of fire. The Garry Oak ( Quercus garryana ), a species of oak, was particularly important . It is common between British Columbia and California, but grows best around Victoria . Around 1800 this system covered around 15 km² in the area of today's city.
Seasonal hikes shaped the course of the year. During the winter at the rivers, larger groups came together. The most important ceremonies and celebrations took place from October / November to February / March. In the spring they went fishing to replenish the supplies they had used up. The fish was air-dried, smoked, eaten fresh, but never salted. Dried fish was also an important commodity. Roots, saplings and berries were also important sources of food.
In summer the collection continued, but now wood was also cut, from which not only house poles and planks, canoes, totem poles, weapons and tools, but also headgear and clothing were made. In addition, a white-haired breed of dog supplied the material for blankets, which Simon Fraser met in 1808. At the same time there were the so-called camp dogs who, like coyotes , guarded the villages and camps. In July and August, when the salmon migrated upriver, fishing was again the most pressing activity. In late summer we finally went back to the mountains.
This hike was based on a kind of spiritual calendar, the system of thirteen moons . It formed the time frame in which economic activities such as catching, searching, and harvesting were combined with ceremonial and educational aspects. In this way, places of residence, ceremonies and the right moments for teaching were assigned to each lunar month.
Hence, in order to keep disputes in check, the tribes claimed a traditional area which ensured them their survival on their annual circular walks. So these areas are dozens of small settlement chambers for a temporary nomadic life. In bad years, long-distance trade, which used the coasts as routes for large trading canoes, could save lives. In the opposite direction, camas, and later tomatoes or potatoes, could be exported to climatically unsuitable areas. The advantage of this way of life was that there were hardly ever any crop failures, and even if the harvest was lower in unfavorable years, it was possible to resort to the sea. In order to secure access to such areas, however, the principle of the kinship line applied, that is, certain areas or devices, such as fish traps, were only allowed to be used along a kinship line. As a result, the number of coastal Salish was extremely large, although it cannot be precisely measured. The explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark found in 1805 that the number of residents was no less than "in any part of the United States" ("in any part of the United States").
Other fruits were also grown and transformed the landscape, but until recently this was not recognized as a product of the peasant way of life. So the Cowichan Wapato roots brought to the Gulf Islands , so arrowweed . There were also large fields of wapato on the Columbia River . The wapatos, according to Clark on November 22, 1805, taste like Irish potatoes, and they are a useful substitute for bread. The Kwagewlth maintained gardens protected by stone walls with Pacific Silverweed (Potentilla pacifica) and clover fields at the mouth of the Nimpkish River . The Sto: lo regularly burned areas to allow berries to thrive. Other cultivated soils for growing cranberries (also known as cranberries), gooseberries , Rubus spectabilis , Rubus parviflorus (Thimbleberry), wild onions, strawberries, cow parsnip (Heracleum maximum, also known as Indian Celery or Pushki ), carrots, so called crab apples , blueberries, black currants, etc., whereby the boundaries between farm work, horticulture and simply keeping the area free for certain plants, for example by fire, or protecting a suitable area by stone walls are fluid.
George Vancouver , who had seen extensive Camas fields in the south of Vancouver Island and on the Puget Sound , reported nevertheless: “I could not believe that any uncultivated land was ever discovered that gave such a rich picture.” About this impression may have contributed to the fact that the population was quite thin because the smallpox had recently killed so many people. Nor the McKenna-McBride Commission hanging around 1913/16 the prejudice that only uncultivated land could be Indian country, and refused to beat the reserves in many places Gartenland.
Societies and hierarchies
Around 1800 the social hierarchy of the coastal Salish was much more pronounced than in the hinterland. In the process, it became more rigid from south to north. In addition to the leadership group that had the resources, there were the simple tribe members and slaves . Nothing escaped the concept of ownership. So not only objects, houses and people could be owned, but also trapping sites for salmon, such as places, rituals and ceremonies, songs and stories that not everyone was allowed to know. War was therefore primarily a means of acquiring wealth; B. in the form of slaves who created and maintained the livelihoods of the upper class. Nevertheless, they lived under one roof with their owners. In addition, they could acquire spiritual power.
Sometimes there were large settlements with more than a thousand residents. Usually several families lived in the houses who ran a common but divided household. These houses were decorated with symbols such as totem poles and painted house walls. The masks of the coastal peoples are just as famous. Often the lineages traced back to a common ancestor, who in turn appears in the ritual objects. So society was organized according to this particular type of family, not primarily according to tribes. The family relationships determined the family-bound dialect, but also the question of who worked together, who shared resources. This relationship extended well beyond the local house group and the village to other communities. The village, on the other hand, played a role in certain types of ceremonies.
However, while Tlingit , Haida and Tsimshian are referred to as matrilineal , the two-line relationship between father and mother prevailed among the Wakashan and Salish. Heredity could not prevail among the coastal Salish. In all Salish, the levirate (a male member of the deceased man's family marries his widow) and the sororat (a female member marries the corresponding widower) were used to secure relationships between groups linked by marriage. Relationships were always twofold and the marriage of blood relatives was prohibited. These extensive relationships were extremely important. Local relationships also existed in the family, the household, the local group and the winter village. The extended family is still an important emotional and economic basis today. Family solidarity is still the basis of political life.
The chiefs of the tribes were mostly men, but women were often the heads of their houses. Leadership depended on the ability to acquire and properly practice spiritual power and personal abilities. There was no formal, supra-personal authority. Related to this is the concept of redistribution, the redistribution of property primarily through the potlatch in the sense of an ostentatious and at the same time wealth-balancing gift. Therefore, the state bans in force until 1934 (USA) and 1951 (Canada) were an attack on one of the main pillars of Indian cultures.
trade
Trade played a role that was not entirely comparable to European trade. The trips served the exchange of goods, but also the establishment and consolidation of family relationships, which one could fall back on even after the relationship had been idle for a long time. The coastal Salish had opportunities to stay practically everywhere in the huge residential area, which in turn made trade easier. However, this knowledge was "private" and only belonged to one family at a time. The lower class was much more restricted regionally and had no such knowledge.
With Camas onions , which were 4-8 cm in diameter and could weigh more than 100 g, there was intensive trade, especially with the Nuu-chah-nulth , because the majority of the coveted fruits grew in the less humid and warmer south of Vancouver Island . Even before white settlers settled there, Indians were growing tomatoes and potatoes, which they probably got from the first forts of the Hudson's Bay Company . Even beans have occasionally been planted, but they were apparently not a commercial product.
Important commercial goods were also otter and beaver furs, oil and fat (especially the buttery fat of candle fish ), but also lumber for the plank houses and for the forts of the fur trading companies. There were also blankets, which z. Partly from the hair of goats, around the Juan-de-Fuca-Strasse also often from the specially kept dogs. Dogs were probably kept like flocks of sheep and provided white and dark fibers for blankets, mats, baskets and clothing, which were widely exchanged. With numerous trade contacts torn off, blankets became an important commodity, which the Hudson's Bay Company soon traded. They were also offered as a medium of exchange for the abandoned land when reservations were set up.
The robbery and looting expeditions of the tribes north of the Salish, especially the Haida , Kwakwaka'wakw and Tlingit , increased by the first fur traders and the steady influx of weapons , may have caused considerable damage to the trade in some years. Hardly any research has yet been carried out on the economic changes that the stolen people caused among the northern tribes.
Europeans and Americans
First contacts and mass deaths
The first contacts with Europeans took place with the southernmost Salish tribes. Here published in 1775 two Spanish ships, one of which, at least the Santiago under the leadership of Bruno de Hezetas , probably smallpox in the Quinault einschleppte. It is estimated that this catastrophic smallpox epidemic cost the lives of at least a third of the Indians on the Pacific coast. The Salish in today's USA were probably much higher, so high that they opposed the attacks of the initially less affected peoples could hardly defend the north. The disease flared up again and again, for example in 1790 when the visit of a ship led by the Spaniard Manuel Quimper to the Beecher Bay First Nation transmitted the disease; among the Lower Elwha Klallam alone, at least 335 were found at Tse-whit-zen in 2005 Skeletons. Overland trade soon played just as large a role in the expansion as it did in the transmission by the crews of the fur-trading ships. The inland Salish of the Flathead , Spokane and the Coeur d'Alene , who lived in the hinterland , suffered from a “major disease” from 1807 to 1808, but it was not until the epidemic of 1853 that it was possible to say with certainty that it was smallpox.
trade
A fur trader named Charles Barkley reached Juan de Fuca Street in 1787. The Spaniards Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores and the British George Vancouver came in 1792. The Lewis and Clark Expedition explored on behalf of the US government the American West, reaching lower Columbia and the Pacific in 1805; Simon Fraser, fur trader of the North West Company , drove down the Fraser River, later named after him, in 1808 and also reached the Pacific or the Juan de Fuca Strait. In 1811 the first fur traders settled on Columbia , and there were forts such as Fort Shuswap (1812-1813). The Hudson's Bay Company followed in the 1820s and built Fort Langley in 1827 . At that time, the northern tribes moved far south on extensive raids and, for example, attacked the Nanoose in the south of Vancouver Island in 1823 . In 1839 only 159 of them lived. In contrast, however, the largest Indian coalition founded in Western Canada joined forces, which comprised almost all coastal Salish on Vancouver Island. She was able to inflict a heavy defeat on the Lekwiltok and Comox units in the battle of Maple Bay near Duncan in 1840 . The coalition also intended to conquer Victoria, which was founded in 1843, but entered into negotiations. The short-lived association under the leadership of Chief Tzouhalem disintegrated. This is probably due to the fact that groups living further north, such as the Haida, intensified their war journeys between 1853 and 1862.
As usual, the local Indians helped - in the case of Fort Langley the Kwantlem , in the construction of Fort Victoria the Songhees . Some of the higher-ranking women married company employees. With James Douglas , the first governor of the Vancouver Island colony , this policy changed from around 1850. The rule should now be exercised by the British, who concluded treaties with 14 tribes (Douglas treaties).
Demarcation, division of tribal areas
The partition treaty between the British colony and the USA of 1846, which divided the continent along the 49th parallel, also divided some of the tribes. In April 1845, the number of these Indian inhabitants of the vast area was estimated at 140,000 in London. The tribes north of this line were now confronted with a completely different Indian policy than those south of it. Great Britain took all of the land as Crown Land and later established reservations . The tribes were divided into reserves according to their villages and an extremely fluctuating key that related families and land requirements (10 to 600 hectares per family), which extremely fragmented the land - to date there are over 1,700 reserves in British Columbia ( reserves) . The USA, on the other hand, set up a few large-scale reservations , sent several tribes to a reservation or occasionally forgot to assign reservations to the Indians. In addition, the reservations were often not in the traditional tribal area, tribes were arbitrarily recognized - or not - and, especially in Washington territory , the Indians were often deprived of their rights. This resulted in open wars, at the same time the regional government ignored instructions from the capital to better protect Indian rights. Consequently, even decades after the Treaty of Point Elliott (1855), numerous Indians lived outside the reservations. The same applied to other contracts of the time.
Mass immigration
But the number of settlers in the region was still extremely small, even though California was inundated by gold prospectors. In addition, there were the first settlers in Washington and Oregon. In 1850, a census recorded 1,049 white residents in what is now Washington, in 1860 there were already 11,594. With the gold rush on the Fraser in 1858, the population rose sharply further north. Thousands of mostly armed prospectors - mostly from California - combed the region and displaced or killed an unknown number of Indians. The "old settlers" quickly became a minority. This in turn forced the British colonial government to provide a counterweight. So they urgently encouraged immigration from Great Britain, whereby the Stó: lō and Tait in particular were crowded together even more, while others were deported to tiny, remote reservations.
Douglas had turned in the direction of reservation policy some time ago, as the first contracts with the tribes around Victoria and Nanaimo made this clear. In 1861, for example, he ordered the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works to take measures to demarcate the reserve. The expansion of the Indian Reserves should, however, be explained by the "natives" themselves. This comparatively mild Indian policy ended in 1864 with Joseph Trutch as Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works .
Such a mild Indian policy had existed in the USA at best until 1846 or 1855, that is, at the moment when the Hudson's Bay Company , which profited from the trading activities of the Indians, had to vacate the field in 1846, new interests came into the power game. The Oregon Territory or, from 1853, the Washington Territory was initially of little importance. But already the first settlers from around 1850 got into disputes with the indigenous peoples due to their land claims and reckless treatment. So far, they had mainly dealt with traders, some of whom had even married into their families. This system was quickly destroyed. Settlers' land claims were based on the Oregon Donation Land Act of 1850, a law that allowed virtually any settler to appropriate land of up to 320 acres per capita. During the five years of its validity, around 8,000 claims totaling 3 million acres were made to white settlers through this law. The Indians were easily expropriated.
In 1855 there were several contracts, but the conditions were so bad that the Yakima and the Puyallup rose against it. But massive use of troops suppressed the uprisings (1855-1858), which was close to extinction among the Chinooks . The Cowlitz reservation was simply sold (see Treaty of Point Elliott ). In addition, contrary to the custom of the local groups, “tribes” were formed that did not exist before. As Governor Stevens put it: "If you put them together in big bands, it is always within the power of the government to secure the influence of the chiefs, and through them to handle (manage) the people." Moreover, like his contemporaries, he was of the opinion that the Indians should be settled on reservations, let them fish and turned into farmers by local whites.
Epidemics and mission
Worse, however, were the epidemics that raged among the Salish , like the smallpox epidemic of 1775 . Perhaps in 1801, but certainly in 1824 and 1848, measles followed, followed by smallpox again in 1837 and 1853, and smallpox again in 1862 . Then there were the diseases unknown to the Indians and therefore all the more deadly, such as flu , sexually transmitted diseases and tuberculosis . Protective measures by some missionaries and doctors, such as 1853 and 1862, only helped occasionally. Numerous Salish survived around Victoria and in Puget Sound, but this time the north was helplessly exposed to the disaster. Nevertheless, the mission stations also benefited from these catastrophes, because the loss of cultural knowledge through the death of the shamans and medicine men , the elderly and healers, plus the belief in the weak power of their own forces, prompted many Salish to convert to Christianity.
The first missionary was Modeste Demers , a Catholic missionary who reached Fort Langley in 1841. With St. Mary’s an Oblate Mission arose on the Fraser in 1861 . Bishop Paul Durieu even managed to enforce a state of God among the Sechelt , although their number had slumped from around 5,000 to 200. In 1859 the Methodists in Hope joined them.
But also the southern Salish tribes in Washington were decimated by epidemics, some tribe disappeared forever, like the Snokomish . Catholics and Methodists evangelized as early as 1840 and 1850, but initially with little success. Mission successes were only achieved after the “ Indian Wars ”.
The competition of denominations led the Salish to new internal borders. The respective community leaders not only watched over the way of life of their pupils - for which they reinterpreted the Indian Watchman system and made it a control and punitive instrument - but were reluctant to see mixed-denominational marriages . This further weakened the kinship-based communication system of the coastal Salish, because the denominations and thus the tribes remained more closely together.
Reservation Policy and the Trutch System
British Columbia's Indian policy has always been more ruthless than that of the Ottawa government . This is partly due to the immigration of gold diggers from California, who, with their completely lacking awareness of injustice, drove even friendly tribes into the rebellion, as in the Fraser Canyon War - after all, it ended almost bloodless on the part of the Indians. While Ottawa had thought 160 acres of land per family was appropriate, the provincial government wanted to allow only 25. In 1875 an Indian Reserve Commission was set up to settle the land issue. The principle was to make an agreement with each individual “nation”. However, this meant that each individual, regardless of their relationship, was assigned to a “tribe”, which in turn as a whole was assigned an area, usually not a closed one, but a collection of specific points.
The reserves created in this way should be managed in trust and reduced or enlarged in accordance with the population development. In 1877 Gilbert Malcolm Sproat became the only Indian Reserve Commissioner , but in 1880 he was overthrown because he had given too much land. Peter O'Reilly followed him until 1898. The federal government repeatedly got into disputes with provincial politics and in 1908 the dissolution of the commission began. In 1911 the case should go to the Supreme Court, but the province refused to cooperate. On September 24, 1912, the McKenna-McBride Commission was set up. From 1913 to 1916 the commission visited the reserves. In the end, she recommended 54 reserve reductions totaling 47,000 acres , after protests the reduction was reduced to 35 affected reserves or 36,000 acres . The remaining 733,891 acres have been divided into over 1,700 lots .
Resistance under the Constitution
The Salish were the first to try to move more extensively on the initially unfamiliar political arena, within the three-tier system of government. In 1906 a delegation visited King Edward VII in Great Britain to campaign for their land claims. Lillooet chiefs met with Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier in 1912, but he lost the next election. In 1913 the Nishga petition followed in London , but from there it was not possible to intervene because the lower authorities based in Canada should have dealt with it first.
After seeing the failure, most of the tribes followed a policy of liaison with one another. In 1909 the tribes of the hinterland founded the Interior Tribes of BC and those of the coast founded the Indian Rights Association . From these organizations emerged in 1916 the Allied Tribes of British Columbia , which emerged as a counter-organization against the McKenna-McBride Commission. The potlatch was celebrated again in an ostentatious manner, but there were arrests, including those of chiefs from 1920. In 1923 two of their leaders, Peter Kelly and Andrew Paull, submitted demands to the government which for the first time revolved around compensation (2.5 million CAD ) then to increase the claim to 160 acres for the reserve size, as well as certain hunting and fishing rights. There was also educational and health aids. The government countered with the Great Settlement of 1927, which rejected all land claims. In addition, the Indians were explicitly forbidden to use lawyers to exercise their rights. This was in turn due to the fact that the highest competent court in London, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , recognized the pre-European rights as continuing until the contrary was determined. The government postponed the question from 1925, taking a long time before a parliamentary consultation, which was to take place in 1927. Parliament passed the said ban on hiring lawyers. Barely a year later, the Allied Tribes disintegrated .
In 1931 the tribes founded the Native Brotherhood of British Columbia , which published the monthly newspaper Native Voice . In addition, he worked for the Indian Homemakers' Association and the Confederation of British Columbia Indians . In 1947, as a by-product of a global development in favor of minority suffrage, the Indians were given the right to vote at the provincial level. In 1951 it was possible to enforce that cultural practices such as the potlatch were exempted from all prohibitions. The children were now allowed to go to public schools, legal assistance could be obtained, and the criminality of alcohol consumption and possession was lifted.
Since the Canadian government curtailed the possibility of appealing to the Judicial Committee in London, from 1949 only Canadian courts came into question. But at the beginning of the 1950s, Frank Calder of the Nisga'a began a new offensive with a view to land claims. Other groups, such as the Nuu-chah-nulth, also began to organize (1958).
In 1960 the Indians were given federal voting rights, but in 1965 the court in Victoria tried to enforce that in still undiscovered British Columbia, the law of 1763 was no longer valid. However, the Supreme Court refused. In 1969, British Columbia's Chief Justice Davey rejected the land rights of the Nisga'a, and in 1973 the Supreme Court ruled that the Nisga'a had the rights. While several provinces and the federal government recognized the land rights in principle, the province still refused. The ruling Social Credit Party , however, now brought up a new argument, namely that nothing had been paid for the assignment of these rights when joining the Confederation.
In the mid-1980s, 75% of the participants in a vote by the Vancouver Sun recognized the rights of the Indians. In 1988, the BC First Nations Congress was founded , chaired by Bill Wilson. From 1989 he held non-binding talks with raw materials companies, for which the government was soon ready. Unrest in other provinces has also led to blockades in British Columbia, especially among the St'at'imc . In 1992 the provincial government recognized both land rights and the right to self-government. In 1993, the Provincial Supreme Court even recognized legal claims, albeit limited, to non-reservation areas. Since then, contract negotiations have been ongoing for each individual negotiating group. Of the Salish, only the Tsawwassen have accepted a treaty so far , another has yet to be ratified, but the only one who has gone through the entire process is that of the Nisga'a.
Economic changes
The early fur trade put prestige, arms, and political power into fewer hands than before. Initially, those tribes had an advantage that were the first to benefit from the fur swap. But it also brought whites into their area and the risk of being hit by epidemics grew rapidly.
The coastal Salish on the lower Fraser River (and Puget Sound) were the first to be hit. The resulting farms also made it impossible for the Indian women to collect and dig. Then the increasingly industrial fishing, which the Canadian government assisted with restrictions on the Indians, destroyed the Salish fish trade. Buildings like the railway bridge over the Fraser even destroyed the fish ladder necessary for the fish and thus ended some of the massive fish runs . There were also dams. Lakes, such as Lake Sumas, were simply drained in the 1920s to gain farmland.
The Indians increasingly hired themselves as lumberjacks, sawmill assistants, and for a certain time even as miners in the coal mines and as seamen. Others worked in the fish industry, the men mostly as fishermen, the women gutting and packing. But the Chinese ousted them first in railway construction, then Japanese and Europeans in fisheries. The legislation prevented commercial fishing among the Indians. They were increasingly dependent on day labor, unskilled work and seasonal employment.
Industrialization by and with the Salish
Until then, Indians, which were even dominant until 1862, supplied the growing city of Victoria with building materials, labor and food. In 1859 over 2,800 Indians camped near the city, including perhaps 600 Songhees , 405 Haida , 574 Tsimshian , plus 223 Stikine River Tlingit , 111 Duncan Cowichan , 126 Heiltsuk , 62 Pacheedaht and 44 Kwakwaka'wakw . They had integrated the newcomers into their extensive trading system. They were so successful that even the protracted wars were largely avoided. To the Nuu-chah-nulth belonging Makah in northwest Washington founded in 1880 Neah Bay Fur Company Sealing and chartered the ship Lottie in Port Townsend . The Lottie was finally bought by Chief James Claplanhoo, three more schooners were purchased, finally the Discovery in Victoria. In 1886 Chief Peter Brown bought the schooner Champion .
When extensive coal was discovered, it was thanks to the "Nanaimo Coal Tyee" who asked the Hudson's Bay Company if they cared about the black mountain that burns. He himself had already shipped coal to Victoria from there. In 1852, Joseph MacKay, senior officer at Fort Nanaimo , was satisfied with the work the Indians were doing in the pits. Of the first 1,400 barrels that came to light, half were from them. Many of them also became members of the trade unions. In 1890, Nanaimo resident Thomas Salmon was sent to Ottawa to represent the Miners and Mine Laborers Protective Association . During the coal strike in Nanaimo from 1912 to 1914, Indians refused to work as strike breakers and ended up on black lists.
But most of the Indians worked in the fishing industry. While 1,500 to 2,000 were still working as fishermen and rowers around 1900, by 1929 there were already 3,632. Here, too, they took part in the first fishermen's strike in 1893. They were also involved in the formation of unions, such as the Squamish in 1912 when the International Longshoremen's Association was founded . They also took part in the dock strikes in Vancouver in 1923 and 1935.
Since the 1960s, numerous positions have been created in self-government through state funds. These positions were often held by women. In the meantime, many tribes are trying to make themselves economically more independent again by using their area for tourism after a large part of the natural resources has been used up or destroyed. Since 1993 they have also been allowed to operate limited salmon fishing on the Fraser for commercial purposes. However, the salmon stocks are falling massively, which is partly due to fish farming and partly due to climatic changes.
Gambling & Entertainment, Tourism & Culture (USA)
The coastal Salish in the USA experienced a different economic development. Initially strong impulses for self-organization came from the Californian Mission Indian Federation (1919–1965), which was replaced in 1972 by the Southern California Tribal Chairmen's Association . In the northwest, the tribes united to form the Northwest Federation of Indians , of which numerous representatives referred to the existing treaties.
The state's agriculture offered seasonal jobs, particularly during the harvest season. The important hops cultivation for beer production offered numerous employment opportunities in summer. The families often moved from one harvest to the next.
In 1934 the United States gave up its policy of weakening tribal associations and breaking them up into individual individuals. A major breakthrough was the California vs. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians from 1987, which strengthened the sovereignty of the Indians and prohibited the state from interfering in the important casino business (cf. Cahuilla ). These gambling venues have now developed into profitable entertainment venues that have shifted their original focus in favor of a comprehensive tourist and entertainment offer. Several coastal Salish tribes also maintain such casinos, such as the Muckleshoot or the Skokomish , the Tulalip , the Shoalwater Bay tribe, the Upper Skagit and, from 2009, the Snoqualmie .
Some strains also show enormous growth. The number of Puyallup on southern Puget Sound, which by 1850 only consisted of 50 survivors of severe epidemics, initially slowly increased again. The acquisition of land rights, sovereignty and economic independence not only attracted new residents to the reserve and its surroundings, but more and more people acknowledged their Indian origins. Today the tribe has more than 3,800 members again.
Revitalizing Spirituality
The Indian Shaker Church , which combines Christian and indigenous spiritual concepts, is based on the personal death and rebirth experiences of a coastal Salish from the Puget Sound named John Slocum . From there, the teaching launched in 1882 spread to British Columbia.
The winter spirit dance has been rediscovered since the 1950s and reached its first peak in the 1990s. There was a corresponding movement before the potlatch ban was lifted, but when the ban was lifted in 1951 it was allowed to go public again. Ten years later there were still only around 100 dancers, but in the 1990s there were often 500 or more dancers. A song and spirit helper introduces the necessary knowledge, rituals such as bathing in the wilderness, restriction to certain food, should strengthen the novice in his isolation from the environment.
Potlatches are now celebrated when someone is to be given the name of an ancestor or when a funeral is due in memory of a deceased person. Guests are invited from all over the Salish area. Sometimes everything in the house is given away.
The arts of carving, painting and weaving were also revived. Susan Point from the Musqueam has gained national fame. Then there is the canoe construction. Canoeing now attracts large numbers of tourists, but there are also competitions between tribes and clans.
Powwows , cross-tribal dance gatherings, have also grown in popularity. However, not all songs can be sung and played because they are tied to the seasons or certain ceremonies, often also to certain clans. These celebrations culminate each year in a large, cross-border meeting of all coastal Salish, the participants of which are received by the tribes in turn.
The preoccupation with culture and history has also made some known. Sonny McHalsie, a Stó: lō, has examined and documented numerous Halkomelem place names. He is employed by his tribe as a cultural specialist.
Aftermath: Mission, Residential Schools, Education
The repertoire of pre-European education included reciting oral tradition, which included family stories, history and genealogy, legends and myths. This task was incumbent on the elderly, but also took place through the instruction of the young women by the elderly in the menstrual huts, with shamans by a kind of mentor. Grandparents were very important here. Even as children, the "historians" of families and tribes were selected and taught.
The residential schools , whose primary goal was assimilation into the Canadian way of life , were closed in the 1970s and 1980s. Both the churches and the state have apologized for the prevailing conditions there and have launched a program of reparations. Tribes such as the Stó: lō Band on Seabird Island offer language courses and teach their children themselves. Language courses have been increasing rapidly since the 1990s, and the number of admissions to secondary schools and universities is also increasing. The First Nations House of Learning at the University of British Columbia made a significant contribution to this .
Recent history
1977 demanded Gitksan -Carrier Declaration "recognizes our sovereignty, recognizes our rights, we fully that your rights may recognize." In fact, 1982 was section 35 (1) of the Canadian Constitution , the claims of the original population ( aboriginals ) principle recognized and the relationship to the levels of government placed on a new basis. In the Delgamuukw Decision , the Supreme Court ruled that prior to 1867, indigenous rights had never been extinguished, and therefore have persisted since the founding of Canada. In addition, several court rulings held that the Indians have the right to introduce their children to their particular culture, with the territory being an integral part. Therefore, every decision that affects this country must be consulted with the tribe concerned. In 1997 the Supreme Court ruled that rights relate to rights to land, resources and the right to cultural traditions and political autonomy.
This decision relates, for example, to the fishing industry, which is Canada's fourth largest industry. A third of the values are generated in British Columbia alone. It was not until 1990 that Indian fishing law was recognized in the Sparrow decision , with priority over other economic claims.
In 1993, British Columbia responded by setting up the BC Treaty Commission . It should first clarify and, if possible, resolve overlaps in the land claims. At the end of the six-step process, there should be a contract. But opinions differ in the contract process. The number of objectors who believe that too many rights and titles are being given up is growing, but the first contracts are as good as signed. The Sechelt, however, signed the 1986 Sechelt Indian Band Self-Government Act . It remains to be seen whether they are more than a city administration.
For a long time, the Salish's politics were characterized by a certain small-scale structure, which was first broken by cross-border connections, but then also by representatives in the highest committees. The Musqueam candidate, Wendy Grant, narrowly lost the election as Grand Chief of the Assembly of First Nations .
One of the tribal councils that represent a larger group of Salish is the Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group, founded in 1993 . She represents the 6,200 members of the Chemainus First Nation, Cowichan Tribes, Halalt First Nation, Lake Cowichan First Nation, Lyackson First Nation and the Penelakut Tribe. They are concerned with 59,000 hectares of land that was sold to settlers in the 1860s and 268,000 hectares that were given in 1884 to build the Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway on Vancouver Island . Coal mining, forestry and other industries have left little of the original landscape. So there is only 0.5% of the tribal area primeval forest. Most of the reserves are smaller than 40 hectares. In the traditional tribal area there is only 48,000 hectares of Crown land , or 15%. 8,000 hectares of which are secured as parks and protected areas. Over 84% are privately owned, almost 200,000 hectares of which are in the hands of a few timber companies. But that is what the often poor communities fear most, that their members will gradually sell in the event of privatization.
In 1994, in accordance with the changed legal situation, there was the first opportunity to find practicable ways during the expansion of Victoria, the capital of British Columbia, as part of the Bamberton Town Development Project . Under the leadership of the Environmental Assessment Office , a coherent project was developed that should take into account the demands of the six affected tribes, i.e. the Malahat , Tsartlip , Pauquachin , Tseycum and Tsawout bands, and the Cowichan Tribes. The report outlined the traditional and current uses of the affected land, considered the importance for the named tribes. The experience gained from this led to the protection of various areas in the newly created city and in 1998 resulted in the participation of the Indians in the development of marine protected areas, such as B. Race Rocks . Since then, the teaching program at Lester B. Pearson College has not only included biological content, but also cultural aspects, in this case the Beecher Bay First Nations. The 13-moons system plays an important role again. In 2000, the Beecher Bay hosted a ceremony to which all those involved appeared. According to the rituals, the younger ones served as servants, namely the ancestors, for whose honor food was also burned.
In the Coastal Salish, the number of women working as councilors has increased from 11 percent to nearly 30 percent since the 1960s. The number of employees at the Stó: lō-Nation increased tenfold between 1990 and 1997 from around 20 to around 200. In the meantime, people also receive money for useful work that they have carried out for a long time without pay, such as care, instruction, care, landscape protection, etc. .
The situation south of the border with the USA is strongly characterized by attempts to participate in tourism and entertainment. Casinos and hotels have become important sources of income. The tribal areas are on the one hand much less sharply defined, on the other hand much more inhabited by non-tribal people. In addition, the trunks are often considerably larger. They aim mainly for self-government ( self governance ) and maintain their own political bodies, courts, law enforcement agencies, etc.
This historical legacy ensures that it is not easy to determine what a tribe is, even if the government has drawn up a seven-criteria catalog. Since only the tribes as a whole are allowed to operate casinos, and these in turn have proven to be enormously important providers of jobs, one or the other tribe tries to prevent tribes that are not (yet) recognized from being accepted by the state in order to keep competition away. So it is not just the state that is delaying and complicating the process.
Despite such contrasts, the coastal Salish see themselves as a cross-border, cohesive group that has been developing a program to restore and protect the natural environment since 2007. For this purpose, representatives of both Canadian and American Salish tribes gathered from January 24 to 26, 2007 and from February 27 to 29, 2008 in the reservation of the Cowichan in British Columbia and the Tulalip in Washington. These meetings have been taking place since 2005. Its participants feel responsible for the entire coastline, which is claimed by Salish tribes, and consequently call it the Salish Sea .
In view of the 2010 Winter Olympics planned for the Squamish and St'at'imc as well as other Salish tribes , part of the Squamish, especially the Native Youth Movement , are resisting the expropriation of the area they claim (“No Olympics on Stolen Land "). The leaders of the so-called four host tribes, the Lil'wat , Musqueam , Squamish and Tsleil-Waututh , however, support the Olympic Games and make a profit from it.
The ten Salish tribes that have applied for recognition but are not recognized in the USA include (as of February 15, 2007) in Washington the Steilacoom Tribe , the Snohomish Tribe of Indians (rejected in 2004), the Samish Tribe of Indians , the Cowlitz Tribe of Indians , the Jamestown Clallam , the Snoqualmie Tribal Organization , the Duwamish Tribe (rejected 2002), the Chinook Indian Tribe / Chinook Nation (rejected 2003), the Snoqualmoo Tribe of Whidbey Island . The Tchinouk Indians are not recognized in Oregon (rejected in 1986). The Mitchell Bay Band of San Juan Islands is also unrecognized.
literature
- Homer G. Barnett: The Coast Salish of British Columbia , Eugene: Oregon University Press 1955.
- David M. Buerge: Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest: An Introduction , University of Washington Libraries, undated
- Keith Carlson: The Power of Place, The Problem of Time: A Study of History and Aboriginal Collective Identity , Dissertation, Department of History, University of British Columbia, 2003.
- Keith Carlson (ed.): The Sto: lo in Canada's Pacific Coast History , Chilliwack, British Columbia 1997.
- Darren Friesen: Canada's Other Newcomers: Aboriginal Interactions with People from the Pacific , Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, 2006.
- Alexander Harmon: Indians in the Making: Ethnic Relations and Indian Identities around Puget Sound , University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
- Michael Kew: History of Coastal British Columbia Since 1849 , in: Handbook of North American Indians , Vol. 7: Northwest Coast, Ed. Wayne Suttles, pp. 159-168.
- Alan D. McMillan: Changing Views of Nuu-Chah-Nulth Culture History: Evidence of Population Replacement in Barkley sound , in: Canadian Journal of Archeology / Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22 (1998) 5-18.
- RG Matson, Gary Coupland: The Prehistory of The Northwest Coast , Academic Press, San Diego 1995.
- Robert J. Muckle: The First Nations of British Columbia. To Anthropological Survey , University of British Columbia Press, 1st ed. 2006, 2nd ed. 2007. ISBN 978-0-7748-1349-5
- Anita Pascoe, Recapturing the History and Rights of First Nations Peoples of British Columbia: A Political Analysis of Past and Present Relationships with the Dominion of Canada , probably from 2004 PDF, 1.2 MB
- Robert H. Ruby, John A. Brown: A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest , University of Oklahoma Press, 2nd ed. 1992. ISBN 0-8061-2479-2
- Paul Tennant: Aboriginal People and Politics: The Indian Land Question in British Columbia, 1849-1990 , University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver 1990.
- Coll Thrush: Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing-Over Place , University of Washington Press, 2007.
- Wayne Suttles: The Early Diffusion of the Potato among the Coast Salish , in: Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 7/3 (1951) 272-288.
Web links
- First Nations Digital Document Source
- Salish, Interior in: The Canadian Encyclopedia
- Aboriginals: Salish in: Multicultural Canada
- A Journey into Time Immemorial - Simon Fraser University virtual exhibition
- Language Revitalization in Vancouver Island Salish Communities: A Multimedia Approach - University of British Columbia Victoria’s multimedia approach to language teaching
- American Indians of the Pacific Northwest Collection , University of Washington Digital Collections
See also
Remarks
- ↑ On the meaning of slavery cf. Leland Donald: Aboriginal slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America , Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
- ^ M. Leland Stilson, Dan Meatte and Robert G. Whitlam: A Field Guide to Washington State Archeology , 2003, p. 14.
- ↑ See Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas , in: The American Journal of Human Genetics 82/3 (March 3, 2008) 583-592 or Renée Hetherington, Andrew J. Weaver, Álvaro Montenegro: Climate and the migration of early peoples into the Americas , Geological Society of America Special Papers 2007, 113-132.
- ↑ Farid Rahemtulla: Design of Stone Tool Technology during the Early Period (approx. 10,000-5,000 BP) at Namu, Central Coast of British Columbia , Diss. Simon Fraser University, Vancouver 2006.
- ^ Brian Thom: Coast Salish Transformation Stories: Kinship, Place and Aborigingal Rights and Title in Canada, Discussion Paper for the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Anthropology Society, Toronto 1998
- ↑ This and the following, according to Ryan Spady: Archaeological Impact Assessment. Sonora Enterprises and Woodbrook Aggregates' Proposed Gravel Pit Expansion Near Deroche, BC , February 2007.
- ↑ The micro blades fundamentally: Origin and Spread of Micro Blade Technology in Northern Asia and North America . G., ed Yaraslov V. Kuzmin, Susan Keates and Chen Shen, Vancouver 2007
- ↑ This phase is sometimes equated with the Mayne and St. Mungo phases.
- ↑ An example from the Anthropological Museum in Vancouver: University of British Columbia Museum of Anthropology ( Memento of the original from September 18, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ↑ Here is an example: Steatite Spindle Whorl, Milliken Site ( Memento of the original from September 18, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ↑ Cf. Platichthys stellatus (Starry flounder) on Fishbase.org (English).
- ↑ Fraser 119 et al. Cf. Barbara Huck: The hair of the dog: was it a sheep or a dog? .
- ↑ Unearthing Tse-whit-zen, Seattle Times 22-25. May 2005: [1] .
- ↑ S. Table Central Columbia River Plateau Epidemic History
- ↑ Pascoe note 110.
- ↑ The Illustrated London News, April 19, 1845, p. 243, col. 1, section The Oregon Territory
- ^ Reuben Ware: The Lands We Lost: A History of Cut-Off Lands and Land Losses from Indian Reserves in British Columbia , Vancouver: Union of BC Indian Chiefs 1974, 4f.
- ↑ Stevens' report from 1854 can be found here ( memento of the original from August 8, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF, 2.2 MB).
- ^ Rolf Knight, Indians at Work: An Informal History of Native Labor in British Columbia. Vancouver: New Star Books 1996, 186.
- ↑ In 2007, casinos across the United States had 670,000 employees. Sales were $ 25 billion, 7.7 of which in California alone. According to an article on SignOnSunDiego.com from December 17, 2007: [2] .
- ↑ See Suzanne Urbanczyk, Joanne Charlie, Brian Thom, Edna Thomas: Themes, thoughts, and theories on strategic planning for Hul'qumi'num language revitalization , University of Victoria1, Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group ( Memento of the original from 28 April 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ See the information on the homepage of the Stammesrat: Archived copy ( memento of the original dated December 2, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ↑ See Salish Sea .
- ↑ Cf. (PDF, 240 kB) List of Petitioners by State ( Memento of the original from May 13, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
