Holocaust in the Netherlands

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Dutch Jews in Buchenwald Concentration Camp (February 28, 1941)
Memorial to the murdered Dutch Jews in the former Westerbork transit camp (2013)

The Holocaust in the Netherlands ( Dutch Holocaust in Nederland , Hebrew שואת יהודי הולנד) was the systematic persecution, deportation and murder of Dutch Jews by Nazi Germany during the occupation of the Netherlands during World War II . Of the estimated 140,000 people designated as “full Jews” by the National Socialists , around 101,800 died from murder, illness and exhaustion. Most of them were deported to the extermination camps in Poland to be murdered in the gas chambers there. These mass deportations began in the summer of 1942. From July 14th, the Jews were systematically brought east via the Westerbork transit camp , ostensibly for work in camps within Germany.

background

In the course of the Second World War, the National Socialists strove for supremacy in Europe and the elimination of people who were viewed as “inferior” or anti-subversive in the areas occupied by Germany. In addition to Jews, this classification also included " Gypsies ", homosexuals , Poles and Slavs . These people were murdered under the pretext of creating living space for the so-called Aryan race and the " destruction of life unworthy of life " justified by the Nazi ideology . Already in his propaganda pamphlet Mein Kampf known Adolf Hitler to these destinations and justified inter alia with the then widespread racial theory . The Holocaust represented the attempt to eliminate all European Jews, a mass murder which the National Socialists described as the “ final solution to the Jewish question ”.

Immigration until World War II

Due to the increasing repression against Jews in Germany in the years before the start of the Second World War, a considerable movement of Jewish people to the Netherlands began. It is estimated that between 35,000 and 50,000 people immigrated to the Netherlands during this period, the vast majority of whom came from Germany. This made the Netherlands one of the six most important countries of refuge before the start of World War II. For many refugees, however, the Netherlands was only a transit station; they left the country via the Dutch ports before the war began.

However, these refugees were not entirely welcome: after the annexation of Austria in March 1938, the number of refugees from the German Reich increased sharply. For fear of foreign infiltration and to avoid annoyance of the National Socialist neighboring state, the cabinet decided to turn away refugees at the border. By November 1938, only 800 Jews were granted entry permits for humanitarian reasons. After the November pogroms and the resulting wave of refugees , the Dutch government under Prime Minister Hendrikus Colijn again closed the border to Germany on December 15 for Jewish refugees, whom he described as "undesirable foreigners" (Dutch ongewenste vreemdelingen ). Colijn was opposed to the admission of further refugees not only for economic reasons, but also in order not to fuel the anti-Semitism that was also widespread in the Netherlands .

“Dat zeg ik in het belang van our Nederlandsche Joden zelf. In dezen tijd is geen grandson people volkomen vrij van antisemitisme, de sporen ervan been ook in ons land gevonden en wanneer men nu ongelimiteerd een stroom vluchtelingen uit het buitenland here zou binnen laten, zou het noodzakelijk gevolg de stemmingn in dat ervan zijd ten opzichte van de Joden een ongunstige kentering zou kunnen ondergaan. "

“I say that in the interests of our Dutch Jews themselves. In these times, not a whole people is completely free from anti-Semitism, traces of it can also be found in our country and if an unlimited flow of refugees from abroad were to be allowed in, the inevitable would be The consequence of this is that the mood in our own people towards the Jews would take an unfavorable turn. "

- Hendrikus Colijn

As a result of the wave of Jewish refugees in 1938, the initiative of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt led to the Évian Conference , which was attended by 31 other Western states and 24 aid organizations as well as the Netherlands. At this conference, consultations took place on the question of how to deal with the increasing Jewish migration from the German Reich. Despite the original humanitarian intention of the initiators, the Jews were increasingly viewed as a "problem" during the course of the conference, and they did not bring substantial help for the refugees. The Dutch representatives also emphasized here once again that the Netherlands did not see itself in a position to provide substantial aid. Only a role as a transit country for refugees is possible if their onward journey is sufficiently guaranteed. The main reasons given were high unemployment and the high population density in the Netherlands even without massive immigration. The National Socialist leadership of the German Reich took advantage of the poor results of the conference for their anti-Jewish propaganda. The NSDAP party organ Völkischer Beobachter commented on the events with the words: "Nobody wants them."

Eventually, however, the Dutch government was forced by parliament to relax immigration regulations. From the previously officially only 2000 people, the quota was increased to 7000 and finally up to 10,000 people. Ultimately, however, this was clearly exceeded anyway.

Reprisals during the German occupation

Woman with Jewish Star during a Raid in Amsterdam (June 20, 1943)

As general commissioner for security , Hanns Albin Rauter was responsible for the planning and implementation of anti-Jewish policy in the Netherlands . He was at the same time Higher SS and Police Leader North-West. The commander of the security police was Wilhelm Harster until September 1943 . The " Eichmannreferat " IV B 4 of the Reich Main Security Office was initially represented by Erich Rajakowitsch , who was replaced by Wilhelm Zoepf in January 1942 . The Amsterdam branch of the security police under Willi Lages gained special importance , as most of the measures against Jews were carried out here. In March 1941, the Central Office for Jewish Emigration was set up in Amsterdam , which later served mainly to coordinate persecution measures. Many orders also came from agents like Hans Böhmcker , who were directly subordinate to the Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands , Arthur Seyß-Inquart .

1940

The German occupiers began to take measures against the Dutch Jews almost immediately after the Dutch surrender on May 14, 1940. One of the first restrictions was the ban on identified Jews from participating in air raids. On October 11th, all officers were asked to provide evidence of their “Aryan origin”. Aryan was defined as anyone who, to the best of their knowledge, did not have a Jewish grandparent. This was followed on October 22nd by an ordinance by the German Reich Commissioner Seyß-Inquart, which laid down a more precise definition of the term “Jew”: a person with three or four Jewish grandparents was henceforth considered to be a “full Jew” (Dutch voljood ). Furthermore, people were defined as "Jews" who had two Jewish grandparents and who belonged to the Jewish religious community on or after May 9, 1940. The same classification included people with two Jewish grandparents who were married to a Jew on or after May 2, 1940. Around the same time, the appointment and promotion of Jewish officials was prohibited. In November they were finally released from their service. On November 26, the university professor Rudolph Cleveringa protested in a speech at the University of Leiden against the dismissal of Jewish colleagues. Inadvertently, he triggered a student strike, which ultimately led to the closure of the university by the German administration. Cleveringa herself was arrested by the Germans and held for about eight months.

1941

On January 10, 1941, all Dutch Jews were asked to register. Following the example of the registration of Jews in Germany, the occupiers wanted to include all Dutch Jews in a so-called Jewish card index. To be included in this, it was enough to have had a single Jewish ancestor. The registration was also not free of charge; one guilder had to be paid per person . The call for registration remained largely unopposed at the local administrative level. In the end, around 157,000 completed forms reached the central registration office in The Hague , the evaluation of which was communicated to the occupiers on September 5 by the management of the authority: a total of 160,552 registered Jews were staying in the Netherlands at this time, including 140,552 " full Jews " , 14,549 " half Jews " and 5,719 " quarter Jews ".

German Raid on Meijerplein in Amsterdam (February 22, 1941)

In the course of 1941 more and more discriminatory measures were adopted against Dutch Jews, which increasingly excluded them from public life. The Nederlandsche Kultuurkamer was set up with compulsory membership for all creative artists. Since Jews were excluded from membership, they could no longer practice the profession. Other examples were prohibitions for Jews to enter theaters, cinemas, swimming pools and parks. Cafés and other public places were obliged to put up signs or posters with the note “ Voor Joden verboden ” (in German: “Forbidden for Jews”). From August 8th, wealthy Jews were required to deposit their money, securities and valuables at the Bank Lippmann, Rosenthal & Co. Sarphatistraat in Amsterdam, which was taken over by the Germans and converted into a front company . Although those affected had the opportunity to access their property for the purpose of leading their lives, this was tantamount to expropriation and, from 1942, it finally applied to all Jews. The total value of the property deposited with the bank is estimated to be between 325 and 455 million guilders.

From February 22nd, the occupiers began to carry out systematic raids with the aim of tracking down Jews in hiding. The first of these searches took place in the capital Amsterdam and lasted about two days. A total of 425 Jewish men were arrested and deported to Buchenwald and Mauthausen . General Commissioner Rauter's justification for this raid was the unrest in the Jewish quarter of Amsterdam, which was triggered by a march on February 11 by around 40 men from the so-called Wehrabteilung , a subdivision of the National Socialist Movement , led by Hendrik Koot , who was injured and died three days later. During the year, the raids were extended to other large Dutch cities such as The Hague. A few days after the first raid, resistance began to rise against these measures, which culminated in the so-called “ February strike ”. This was brutally suppressed by the Germans by the evening of February 26th, at the end of which there were nine dead and 24 seriously injured. As a further reaction to the events of February 11, city commissioner Hans Böhmcker initiated the establishment of the Jewish Council of Amsterdam (Dutch: Joodsche Raad voor Amsterdam ), which was supposed to control and organize the Jewish community in the interests of the occupiers, while at the same time maintaining the illusion should be that the Dutch Jews still had rights. Historians David Cohen and Abraham Asscher , diamond traders and council chairmen of Amsterdam's Jewish community, were appointed chairmen . Initially only responsible for the city of Amsterdam, towards the end of 1941 the council was commissioned to appoint Jewish councils for the rest of the Netherlands as well. The first instruction that the council had to implement was the request to all Jews to surrender striking, stabbing and firearms in their possession. The Judenrat was forced to take part in the deportation of the Jews by not only calling for registrations but also passing on requests to report for “work in the east”. Most of these operations, however, concealed the deportation to the Westerbork transit camp and from there to an extermination camp. The Joodsche Weekblad was published by the Council from April 11, 1941 to September 28, 1943 as the only Jewish newspaper permitted . In Weekblad prohibitions and instructions were published of the German to the Dutch Jews, the Council was responsible for their compliance. The occupiers were satisfied with the work of the Jewish Council. In a communication to Seyß-Inquart dated October 2, 1941, Böhmcker was quoted as saying, “Thanks to Regulation 6/41, we now have all Dutch Jews in our pockets”. The aforementioned regulation 6/41 concerned the instruction passed on by the council regarding the reporting obligation for Jewish Dutch people.

Furthermore, in 1941 Jews began to be forced out of general professional life. For example, Jewish lawyers and doctors were only allowed to work for Jewish customers or patients. Jewish students were systematically expelled from non-Jewish schools.

From December onwards, all Jews who were in the Netherlands but did not have Dutch citizenship were obliged to submit a so-called application for departure (Dutch verzoek om emigratie ). In this a large number of personal data had to be given, some of which were not directly related to a potential departure. This application had to be made regardless of the actual intentions or possibilities of leaving the country.

1942

Persoonsbewijs with clearly visible stamped J in the upper right corner (between 1941 and 1943)
Jodenster (1942)

On January 23, 1942, the requirement for identification with an identification document (Dutch persoonsbewijs ) was introduced. This contained a photo, the person's signature and their fingerprint. Jews were also stamped a capital "J" in the upper right corner of the ID for easier identification. Furthermore, the instruction was issued that from May 3, 1942, all full and half Jews in the Netherlands had to wear the Jewish star (Dutch Jodenster ).

From around the middle of the year there was a new wave of repression against the Jews in the Netherlands. From May onwards, many Jews from the Amsterdam area had to vacate their apartments and were forcibly quartered with Jewish families who continued to live in the center of the capital. Their consent was not a prerequisite for this. At the beginning of the year, Jews had already started to be “evacuated” from rural areas of the provinces and resettled in the larger cities. Jews of German origin were taken directly to the concentration camps. The abandoned apartments were then cleared during the so-called " M-Aktion " and valuables and household items were confiscated. They were then sealed by the Dutch police. Furthermore, another order came into effect on June 30th which introduced a curfew for all Jews between 8:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. during which they were not allowed to leave their homes. They were also banned from using the Amsterdam tram. The ban on sitting on public benches in parks and streets, which came into force in September, represented a similar harassment. Since July 17, they were only allowed to do their shopping between 3:00 p.m. and 5:00 p.m. In addition, in September all Jews were definitively banned from studying.

1943

By the beginning of 1943, most of the reprisals against the Jews were in place. In May and June of this year, there were again large-scale raids in Amsterdam: on May 26, a total of around 3,000 Jews were picked up during searches. Less than a month later, on June 20th, more than 5,000 people were detained. The last major raid finally took place on September 29th, during which the chairmen of the Jewish Council and other Jews who had previously been deferred were deported. Subsequently, there were practically no Jews left in Amsterdam, at least outside of hiding places.

The measures of economic expropriation and political disenfranchisement of the Jews, also known as “de-Judaization” and “ Aryanization ” in their entirety, were considerably more successful in the Netherlands and ran more smoothly than in other occupied areas of Europe. Reichskommissar Seyß-Inquart was personally praised by Adolf Hitler for his dealings with the Jews in September 1941. In June 1943, a secret report sent to Seyß-Inquart by the commander of the Security Police and the SD described the de-Jewry in the Netherlands as "almost three-quarters resolved".

Deportations, Resistance and Collaboration

Jews in Westerbork shortly before deportation to Auschwitz (1943)

On May 19, 1941, the management of the German Reichskommissariat Netherlands , consisting of Arthur Seyß-Inquart and his four general commissioners, passed on the instruction that the Netherlands should be completely “ free of Jews ” in the future . The property of the Jewish population was to be confiscated by the General Commissioner for Finance and Economics under Hans Fischböck and used to finance the operation. So in the end the Jews should pay for their own deportation.

Before 1942, Jewish people in the Netherlands whose whereabouts were known were written to by the German administration with orders to go to various assembly points. These letters also threatened to be sent to a concentration camp if the instructions were not followed. Later, the occupiers completely waived these formalities; wherever Jews were found, they were placed directly under arrest. Especially in the Jewish districts of Amsterdam-Zuid and Amsterdam-Centrum , raids were carried out regularly from 1942 onwards.

Jewish labor camp

February 1, 1942 marked the beginning of the deportations of Jews to the Netherlands, which were initially taken to the so-called Joodse werkkampen van de Werkverruiming for labor service . These were labor camps spread across the country. Most of these camps had originally been set up by the Dutch authorities with the purpose of accommodating unemployed Dutch people and obliging them to do various jobs. After the surrender of the Netherlands, the German occupiers took over the camps and began to house Jewish prisoners there. The final evacuation of these labor camps took place on October 2, 1942, the total of 14,000 Jewish inmates were initially deported to the Westerbork transit camp and then further deported to the extermination camps in the east.

Mass deportations

Later, most of the arrested Jews were taken directly to the two central transit camps Westerbork (province of Drenthe ; Dutch Kamp W. ) and the much smaller Amersfoort (province of Utrecht ; Dutch De Boskamp ). A large number of people have already fallen victim to the conditions in the camps. Hunger, neglect, and diseases such as typhoid were rampant in the camps. In 1942, the Germans also began building the Herzogenbusch concentration camp (Province of Noord-Brabant ; Dutch Kamp Vught ), in which around 12,000 Jews were interned and around 750 people died by autumn 1944.

On July 14, 1942, the mass deportations of Jewish prisoners from the Netherlands to the extermination camps in the east began. From Westerbork alone, around 101,000 of a total of 107,000 Jews were deported from the Netherlands. To this end, until 1944 a train ran once a week on a specially laid out route eastwards, the main destinations being the concentration camps Auschwitz , Sobibor , Bergen-Belsen and Theresienstadt . The last of these deportation trains left Westerbork on September 13, 1944 in the direction of Bergen-Belsen. Only about 5000 of the Jews deported from the Netherlands returned alive after the end of the war. The National Socialists kept a precise record of the inmates of the camps, so that today almost all names, dates of birth and dates of death are known. The most famous victims who were smuggled through the Westerbork camp were the pupils Anne Frank , Margot Frank and the teacher Etty Hillesum , who became world-famous after their deaths through the diaries they kept. Westerbork was liberated by Canadian troops on April 12, 1945 , at which time there were still around 900 Jewish inmates in the camp.

Anne Frank (1940)
Margot Frank (1941)
Etty Hillesum (1930s)
Settela Steinbach in a wagon on the transport to the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp (January 1944).

In addition to the Jews, a number of Dutch Sinti and Roma were also deported from Westerbork to the extermination camps. An example is given here: On May 19, 1944, 244 people were transported from the Westerbork transit camp in the Netherlands to Auschwitz, including the Sintiza Settela Steinbach and her older brother Celestinus "Willy" Steinbach, who with her family from the National Socialists were deported to the Auschwitz-Birkenau extermination camp and murdered there.

Kurt Schlesinger, head of the Jewish security service in Westerbork (approx. 1942)

Historians report pronounced tensions between Dutch and German Jews in Westerbork. The Dutch inmates were convinced that the harshness of the measures imposed on them was largely due to the large number of Jews who had fled to the Netherlands. In Westerbork creating the deportation lists was incumbent on the director of its Jewish stewards , Kurt Schlesinger , who despite his imprisonment with the camp commander Albert Konrad Gemmeker collaborated . The members of the security service were also referred to behind the scenes by the other prisoners as "Jüdische SS " (Dutch joodse SS ). Schlesinger regularly used his position to deport primarily Jews of Dutch descent and to have German-Jewish inmates returned. In exchange for money or other favors, he partially protected inmates from deportation or changed deportation destinations to supposedly “better” destinations.

On the basis of a decision taken in August 1941 by Adolf Eichmann , the head of the department named after him in the Reich Security Main Office in Berlin , the half-Jews officially designated as " first degree Jewish half- breeds " were treated as equal with full Jewish people in the Netherlands . This arrangement, made in consultation with Seyß-Inquart, led to the almost 15,000 affected persons being treated with the same priority as full Jews during the deportations.

Dutch resistance

Not all Dutch allowed the Holocaust to go through without resistance. Unlike in other occupied European countries, however, this came almost exclusively from private individuals, as the Jews and their helpers in the Netherlands could not count on the help of the state. People who offered shelter to Jewish citizens or helped them flee exposed themselves to considerable risk. According to statistics from the Dutch Institute for War Documentation , the Dutch hid around 25,000 Jews from persecution during the war, around 9,000 of whom were tracked down by the Germans in raids or through betrayal. However, the Jews made up only a small part of the total of around 300,000 people in hiding in the Netherlands, including Jews, members of other persecuted minorities, escaped prisoners of war and those doing labor or deserted Wehrmacht soldiers. The businessman Johan Hendrik Weidner founded the Dutch-Paris network in 1941, which helped a total of around 1000 people, including 800 Jews, from the Netherlands, Belgium and France to flee to the neutral countries of Spain , Portugal and Switzerland .

collaboration

Some Dutch people also actively supported the Germans in persecuting the Jews. Partly this was done out of personal conviction, but partly also simply to secure personal advantages and preferential treatment by the occupying power. Many of these collaborators were members of the Nationaal-Socialistische Bewegungsing , a National Socialist party under the leadership of the former civil engineer Anton Mussert , which became the only permitted political party during the occupation. At its peak, the NSB reached around 100,000 members who helped the German occupiers track down Jewish refugees and fight the Dutch resistance . Occasionally, Jewish people collaborated with the authorities and participated in the persecution of their co-religionists. One example is the former shop owner Ans van Dijk , who was persuaded after her own arrest to work for the SD in the future. She later stated that she did so out of fear of being deported. Van Dijk assumed a different identity and pretended to be a member of the Vrij Nederland resistance group . In this position, she promised other Jews shelter, but immediately handed them over to the security authorities. She received a reward of 7.50 guilders for each of the 145 people who were arrested for her activities. After the war, van Dijk was charged with treason and was finally executed in January 1948.

Number and percentage of victims

Of the approximately 140,000 Jews in the Netherlands, 107,000 were deported during the occupation, only 5,200 of them subsequently returned alive. This means that around 73% of the Jewish population did not survive the Holocaust. There were large variations in the number of victims across the country. The number of victims in the capital, Amsterdam, with a rate of 75%, was very close to the national average. At the lower end of the scale was the municipality of Zeist (province of Utrecht), where 33% of the Jewish population did not survive the war. An example of a place with a very high percentage of victims was the municipality of Winschoten (province of Groningen ), where 88% of the Jews were murdered by the occupiers.

Comparison with other countries

The percentage of Jewish victims in the Netherlands is quite high compared to other European countries in which Jews were also exposed to persecution. In neighboring Belgium, around 40% of the registered Jews fell victim to the Nazis, while the percentage in France (occupied part and Vichy France ) was around 25%. In Luxembourg the proportion was even lower and was around 20%. A higher percentage than the Netherlands achieved the German Empire with 84% and the Czech Republic, where 90% of the Jewish residents were killed.

Some historians seek an explanation for the comparatively high number of victims in the Netherlands in the lack of resistance of the Dutch population to the discrimination and persecution of Jews, which is said to be less here than in some other European countries. The British researcher Bob Moore points out, for example, that the National Socialists in France or Belgium encountered significantly more public resistance and outrage. Because of this, the German occupiers are said to have initially corrected the number of Jews to be deported in these countries downwards. In contrast, identifying and isolating Jewish fellow citizens in the Netherlands was comparatively easy.

Other explanations for the conspicuously high number of victims in the Netherlands are, for example:

  • The Dutch resistance did not become significant until mid-1943 after the so-called April-May strike , at a time when it was already too late to save many Jews.
  • In contrast to France or Belgium, for example, the German occupation regime consisted of a civilian-led administration, which, in the person of Reichskommissar Seyß-Inquart and SS-General Hanns Albin Rauter, fully supported the “final solution to the Jewish question”.
  • The efficient and highly organized registration of the population, which was carried out by the Dutch authorities even before the occupation. A nationwide population survey took place in the Netherlands as early as 1920 on a so-called gezinskaart (in German "family card "), which was issued to the respective head of the family.
  • The densely populated country and the mostly flat landscape without mountains and without extensive forests made it difficult for fleeing Jews to hide.
  • Most of the Dutch Jews lived in small areas in Amsterdam, The Hague and other large cities, which made organized persecution easier.
  • After the Jews were largely banned from public life by the Germans, they were largely cut off from other population groups in civil society. This was a consequence of the particularism , which was widespread and confessionally based in the Netherlands at that time , the so-called Verzuiling (in German "Pillaring").
  • Only one in seven Jews tried to find a safe hiding place at the beginning of the looming persecution.
  • The Joodsche Raad in Amsterdam refused to participate in organized Jewish resistance. Nonetheless, Jews made a significant contribution to the armed resistance, partly because a relatively large number of them professed socialism or communism . Well-known examples were the communist Sally Dormits or the head of the Communist Partij van Nederland , Paul de Groot .

The historian Nanda van der Zee suggests another possible explanation in her book Om erger te voorkomen . Above all, the flight of Queen Wilhelmina and her government into exile in London is said to have left a power vacuum that could be completely filled by the anti-Semite Seyss-Inquart and his administration. The symbolic role for the resistance efforts, which other European monarchs who remained in their occupied countries, played, has thus failed. Examples are Christian X. of Denmark and Leopold III. called by Belgium. Furthermore, Wilhelmina did not mention the situation of the Jews in her regular radio addresses from exile to the Dutch people. Radio Oranje's propaganda opportunities remained unused in the case of the Jews.

To make matters worse, emigration for Jews from the occupied Netherlands was hardly possible. The Jews who fled Germany before the war began to be stuck in the country and were also exposed to persecution. Only a few thousand Jews managed to leave the country in 1940 and 1941. This was mostly done in the neutral countries of Spain and Portugal and was usually only possible through substantial bribery of officials.

Return of survivors

Route of the "lost train" through Germany

In the last months before the end of the war, a large number of the deported and still living Jews from the Netherlands were in the concentration camps Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen and Theresienstadt. While the advancing Red Army approached the camps more and more, the SS guards organized so-called "evacuation marches". In particular, during the evacuation of Auschwitz and its large number of satellite camps from January 1945, the notorious death marches took place , which led from Auschwitz initially to the west and south-west. Those prisoners who did not die of cold, hunger or violence on the way were then loaded into open freight cars in the cities of Gleiwitz and Losau and taken to Germany. About a quarter of the prisoners did not survive the marches. The other two concentration camps with a high number of Dutch prisoners were liberated on April 15 (Theresienstadt) and May 8, 1945 (Bergen-Belsen). Shortly before the end of the war, many prisoners from other concentration camps that had already been cleared were brought to Bergen-Belsen in particular. The conditions in the camp were accordingly catastrophic at this time. Of the 60,000 survivors at the time of liberation, another 14,000 died in the first few weeks afterwards. Shortly before the liberation, three trains with prisoners drove from Bergen-Belsen in the direction of Theresienstadt, the last in particular was manned by many Dutch prisoners. After an odyssey through Germany, this transport, known as the “ lost train ”, finally arrived in the town of Tröbitz in southern Brandenburg , where the prisoners were freed by Allied troops shortly afterwards. About 850 Dutch people survived the war in Theresienstadt concentration camp, including David Cohen, chairman of the Joodsche Raad van Amsterdam .

After the liberation, many deported Jews tried to return to the Netherlands as quickly as possible. However, since the Dutch government, which had just come out of exile, did not offer them any help, most of them had to organize their return themselves. While some found space on military transports, others were forced to walk home. The Jewish Dutch remaining in Auschwitz had a particularly difficult return journey: they were first sent to Odessa by the Soviet liberators via Katowitz and Chernivtsi . A New Zealand ship then drove them across the Black Sea and the Mediterranean to Marseille in France. From here the group had to travel to the Netherlands via Paris and Brussels . The reception for the returning Jews was rather cool in many places. The Dutch authorities were rather suspicious of the returnees, and after their arrival many had to stay in reception camps such as a building in the Philips factory in Eindhoven or a monastery in Vlodrop . Furthermore, many of those affected found that after their deportation their apartments and houses had been sold or rented and that most of their possessions had disappeared.

Work-up

Memorial to Anne Frank on the Westermarkt in Amsterdam (2003)
Memorial plaque in Nijmegen with a list of names of Jewish victims

In 2000, the Dutch government officially apologized to the victims of the Holocaust for their “cold” attitude towards the Jews and promised financial compensation of 14,000 guilders each to those who were still alive. The background to this was the increasing number of questions about possible compensation for expropriated Jewish possessions from around the mid-1990s. Various rounds of consultation between the Jewish community and representatives of the Dutch government led to the establishment of several commissions that dealt with the whereabouts and monetary value of looted Jewish assets. These commissions came to the conclusion that those affected had not been sufficiently compensated, whereupon the so-called Stichting Collectieve Marorgelden was founded. Since then, this foundation has been checking claims made and is responsible for paying out compensation. The name of the foundation refers to the maror , the bitter herbs that are traditionally consumed on the Seder evening at the beginning of the Jewish Passover festival.

On April 11, 2005, sixty years after the end of the Second World War, on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Centrum Informatie en Documentatie Israël (CIDI) , the then Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende admitted the far-reaching collaboration between Dutch officials and the Germans and thus complicity in the Holocaust in the Netherlands. Bar end said literally:

“They were Nederlandse gezagsdragers die meewerkten met de bezetters. Zij droegen bij aan een gruwelijk proces waarin joodse Nederlanders hun rights are ontnomen en waarin de menselijke waardigheid van joodse landgenoten are protected. We weten that in Nederland veel mensen were the zich met gevaar voor eigen leven - en vaak met succes - voor hun medemensen hebben ingezet. Maar what in ons land ook veel kilte. Veel onverschilligheid. En verraad. "

“There were Dutch officials who cooperated with the occupiers. They contributed to a horrific process in which Jewish Dutch people were deprived of their rights and in which the human dignity of Jewish compatriots was violated. We know that there were many people in the Netherlands who stood up for their fellow man at risk for their own life - and often with success. But there was also a lot of cold in our country. Much indifference. And treason. "

- Jan Peter Balkenende

This made Balkenende the first Dutch Prime Minister to establish a direct link between the failure of the Dutch authorities and the murder of the Jews. Shortly afterwards, the then management of the Dutch Railway Company , without whose active cooperation the deportation of the Jews would not have been possible, offered the Jewish community an official apology for the first time.

Prosecution of war criminals

As early as 1941, Queen Wilhelmina described the Dutch collaborators, a not inconsiderable number of whom had also participated in the persecution of the Jews, in a radio address from their exile in London as a “handful of traitors for whom there was no more room in the liberated Netherlands . "will be in preparation for the prosecution of collaborators and Nazis called was already before the liberation Bijzondere Rechtspleging (: Special Court" introduced, among others, the 1886 abolished to German) " death penalty introduced for particularly serious crimes again and the formation of Made possible tribunals that were entrusted with the determination of whether the accused had behaved like “responsible citizens”.

About three months after the end of the war, there were more than 90,000 registered inmates in the Dutch prisons, accused of having participated in war crimes . However, it is assumed that the number of people actually interned is much higher, especially in the first few months after the liberation. Two years later, however, that number had shrunk to under 20,000 people. This reflects a changed approach to the topic of dealing with collaborators that quickly adapted to the real political realities of the post-war period. For example, Wilhelmina's daughter and successor Juliana was quoted as early as 1948 with the statement that the collaborators "have to be accepted back into our society at some point."

Arthur Seyß-Inquart during the Nuremberg war crimes trial

Of the main participants in the Holocaust in the Netherlands, only a few were punished according to the severity of their crimes after the end of the war: Arthur Seyß-Inquart was among the defendants in the Nuremberg trial of the main war criminals and was sentenced to death by hanging. The sentence was carried out in Nuremberg on October 16, 1946. However, a previously submitted extradition request by the Dutch judiciary was ignored. After the end of the war, Hanns Albin Rauter was extradited to the Netherlands and sentenced to death there. The sentence was carried out on March 25, 1949 in Scheveningen by firing squad. Before his death, Rauter vehemently denied having known about the Holocaust. The exact location of his grave is treated as a state secret. Willi Lages, the head of the Central Office for Jewish Emigration in Amsterdam, was also given the death penalty in 1949, but Queen Juliana refused her consent, which is why the sentence had to be commuted to life imprisonment. Lages was discharged due to illness in 1966 and died of natural causes five years later.

Other defendants were persecuted less vehemently or were able to avoid persecution altogether. For example, Albert Konrad Gemmeker, the camp commandant of Westerbork, was sentenced to ten years in prison by a special court in Leeuwarden , whereby the correct treatment of the camp inmates was interpreted as a mitigating circumstance. Gemmeker also claimed not to have known anything about the fate of the Jews in the extermination camps. Hans Fischböck, largely responsible for the expropriation of Dutch Jews and the financing of the deportations, was able to evade criminal prosecution by initially hiding under a false name in Munich after the end of the war and later escaping to Argentina (presumably via one of the so-called rat lines ) .

Yad Vashem

Geertruida Wijsmuller-Meijer, one of the Dutch Righteous Among the Nations (1960s)

Currently (as of January 1, 2019) 5,778 Dutch people have been honored by the Yad Vashem memorial as “ Righteous Among the Nations ”. In relation to the total population of around nine million people in the Netherlands at that time, this means that around one in 1550 Dutch people can be shown to have made a contribution to the rescue of Jews without expecting anything in return.

Some examples of Dutch people who have received this honor are:

  • Miep and Jan Gies helped the Frank and van Pels families and Fritz Pfeffer to hide in the rear building at 263 Prinsengracht
  • Corrie ten Boom , hid and cared for several Jews in her home
  • Willem Kolff , in his role as a doctor, saved Jews from deportation, and was also active in the Dutch resistance
  • Frits Philips , an entrepreneur who protected his Jewish employees from persecution, was temporarily interned in a concentration camp himself
  • Geertruida Wijsmuller-Meijer , also known as "Aunt Truus", was responsible for rescuing around 10,000 Jewish children from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia, whom she enabled to travel to England through the organization of the so-called Kindertransporte
  • Frits Slomp , organized hiding places for Jewish people, but also for Germans who wanted to evade military service in the Wehrmacht
  • Jan Zwartendijk , in his position as diplomat, helped more than 2000 Jews from Lithuania to flee to Curaçao
  • Nieuwlande , a village in the province of Drenthe, whose inhabitants sheltered dozens of Jews during the war and which was therefore honored as a whole

Commemoration

Jointly laid group of stumbling blocks with Dutch lettering for the Levie family in Meppel , Province of Drenthe (2012)

In its session on November 1, 2005, the General Assembly of the United Nations declared January 27 to be International Holocaust Remembrance Day (Dutch: Internationale Herdenkingsdag voor de Holocaust ) with resolution 60/7 . This date is intended to commemorate the liberation of the Auschwitz concentration camp on January 27, 1945. In the Netherlands, the Nederlands Auschwitz Comité is organizing an annual commemorative event on the last Sunday in January in the Wertheimpark in Amsterdam's former Jewish quarter, the Jodenbuurt . This park houses the monument Nooit Meer Auschwitz (in German "Never again Auschwitz") by the artist Jan Wolkers , which consists of broken mirrors set into the ground. The NIOD Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust- en Genocidestudies , a research institution that deals with the scientific analysis of the occupation, is holding various events on this day in order to sensitize young people in particular to current and past genocides and to the consequences of anti-Semitism , racism to make and discrimination attentive.

In addition to the mirror monument, there are many other monuments throughout the Netherlands that were erected in honor of individual victims or helpers or are intended to commemorate the Holocaust as a whole. It is noticeable here, however, that the war memorials erected after the liberation did not initially deal with the fate of the Jews, but were mostly intended to commemorate the suffering of the Dutch people as a whole. The first monument to directly address the fate of Dutch Jews was built on the Weesperstraat in Amsterdam and was dedicated to those residents of the city who participated in the rescue of Jews during the war. This reflects a certain reluctance of the Dutch to grapple with the Holocaust and the role of their own country in it in the years after the end of the war. It was only around the 1980s that historians noticed an increasing public thematization of the Holocaust in the Dutch public and ascribed this effect primarily to the (historically not one hundred percent accurate) American TV mini-series Holocaust - The History of the Weiss Family , published in 1979 also first broadcast on Dutch television.

A new monument called Holocaust Namenmonument Nederland , which was designed by the artist Daniel Libeskind , is still in the planning stage . This is to be set up in the form of the Hebrew letters לזכר (in German "In memory of") and document the names and life dates of all Dutch Jews, Sinti and Roma killed by the National Socialists. With residents and representatives of the Jewish community, however, the planned monument is not without controversy due to its considerable dimensions (with a length of 350 meters and a maximum height of seven meters).

Since 2007, the so-called Stolpersteine (Dutch: struikelstenen ) by the artist Gunter Demnig have also been laid in the Netherlands . These are small concrete blocks with a brass plate attached , in which the names and life dates of the victims and usually a short text on the circumstances of the persecution and murder are incorporated. These are usually let into the pavement before the person's last freely chosen place of residence. The first group of stones was set on November 29, 2007 in the municipality of Borne , Overijssel province .

The annual commemoration event for the February strike in 1941, during which non-Jewish Dutch people protested against the treatment of their fellow Jews, sparked decades of conflict in Dutch society after the war. Specifically, it was debated whether representatives of the Communist Party could claim the triggering of the strike for themselves. This dispute, to be viewed in the context of the Cold War , was so violent in the 1950s that two separate commemorative events had to be held during this time. These differences could not be finally settled until 1991, when the end of the East-West conflict became increasingly apparent. In memory of the strike, Queen Wilhelmina had the motto Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (in German "Heldenhaft. Determined. Merciful") added to the coat of arms of the city of Amsterdam on March 29, 1947 . At the same time, she donated the so-called Verzetsvlag to the city for its services in the war .

literature

Various overviews, detailed studies and personal accounts by contemporary witnesses have appeared on the Holocaust in the Netherlands :

General reviews

  • Abel J. Herzberg: Kroniek Der Jodenvervolging, 1940–1945 . Meulenhoff, Amsterdam 1950, ISBN 978-90-214-6577-7 .
  • Jacques Presser : Ondergang: De vervolging en verdelging van het Nederlandse Jodendom 1940-1945 . Staatsuitgeverij / Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1965, ISBN 978-90-12-01804-3 .
  • Loe de Jong : Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog . Staatsuitgeverij / Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1985, ISBN 978-90-12-04899-6 (1969-1991).
  • Bob Moore: Victims and survivors. The Nazi Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands 1940-1945 . Arnold, London 1997, ISBN 978-0-340-69157-1 .
  • Ies Vuijsje: Tegen beter weten in: zelfbedrog en ontkenning in de Nederlandse geschiedschrijving van de Jodenvervolging . Atlas-Contact, Amsterdam 2010, ISBN 978-90-457-0066-3 .
  • Pim Griffioen, Ron Zeller: Jodenvervolging in Nederland, Frankrijk en België, 1940–1945: overeenkomsten, verschillen, oorzaken . Boom, Amsterdam 2010, ISBN 978-90-8506-811-2 .
  • Katja Happe: Lots of false hopes. Persecution of Jews in the Netherlands 1940–1945 . Ferdinand-Schöningh, 2017, ISBN 978-3-506-78424-7 .

Detailed studies

  • Gerard Aalders: Robbed! The expropriation of Jewish property in World War II. Dittrich, Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-920862-29-5 .
  • Johan M. Snoek: De Nederlandse kerken en de Joden, 1940–1945 . Blaak, 1998, ISBN 978-90-803573-2-7 .

Personal testimonials and accounts

Web links

Commons : Holocaust in the Netherlands  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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  3. ↑ Katja Happe, Michael Mayer, Maja Peers (edit.): The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945 (collection of sources) Volume 5: Western and Northern Europe 1940– June 1942. Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3 -486-58682-4 , p. 16 / see document VEJ 5/25: Justice Minister Goseling announced on May 7, 1938 that from now on no more refugees from Germany should be admitted to the Netherlands.
  4. ^ Herman Langeveld: Hendrikus Colijn 1869-1944 . 1st edition. tape 3 . Balans, 2012, ISBN 978-94-6003-448-0 .
  5. ^ Paul R. Bartrop: The Evian Conference of 1938 and the Jewish Refugee Crisis . In: The Holocaust and its Contexts . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham 2018, ISBN 978-3-319-65045-6 , pp. 59 .
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  8. ↑ Katja Happe, Michael Mayer, Maja Peers (arr.): The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945. Volume 5: Western and Northern Europe 1940 – June 1942. Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-486-58682-4 , p. 30.
  9. ↑ Document VEJ 5/35. In: Katja Happe, Michael Mayer, Maja Peers (edit.): The persecution and murder of European Jews by National Socialist Germany 1933–1945 (source collection) Volume 5: Western and Northern Europe 1940 – June 1942. Munich 2012, ISBN 978- 3-486-58682-4 , pp. 163f.
  10. ↑ Document VEJ 5/39
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  45. ↑ James Foster Tent: In the Shadow of the Holocaust. Fate of German-Jewish “half-breeds” in the Third Reich . Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar 2007, ISBN 978-3-412-16306-8 , pp. 85-86 .
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