Homosexuality in China

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In ancient China , same-sex love was widespread - at least if literary traditions are to be believed - and had no negative status in and of itself. However, it was criticized, for example, by the legalist Han Fei , when personal benefits were associated with it. Whether it was the so-called opening to the West in the 18th century that led to the adoption of homophobic ideologies and laws, as some activists in Hong Kong claim, or changes within China in the 19th century that made the self-chosen monogamous heterosexual relationship the only valid one Form of relationship is still controversial today. Today, the situation of lesbians and gays in the People's Republic of China , but also in Hong Kong , Macau and Taiwan to be very ambivalent . In addition to continuing repression , less by the state as from family and society , have existed for several decades sustainable liberalization processes that in China - including all special administrative areas - have led to the complete decriminalization of homosexuality , if, as in Hong Kong, there had ever been clear regulations. In Taiwan, the emancipation of the Tongzhi community is furthest advanced.

Male lovers and female voyeur (Qing Dynasty)

Chinese terms

The high-level terms for same-sex love were once “the passion of the cut-off sleeve” and “the split peach” ( Chinese  分 桃 , pinyin fēntáo ), both of which refer to semi-legendary episodes of two love affairs between ancient Chinese men. Other expressions were “male trend / wind” ( Chinese  男 風  /  男 风 , Pinyin nánfēng ), “connected brothers” ( Chinese  香火 兄弟 , Pinyin xiānghuǒxiōngdì ), and “male dragon preference” ( Chinese  龍陽 癖  /  龙阳癖 , Pinyin lóngyángpǐ ).

Nowadays, Tongzhi ( Chinese  同志 , Pinyin tóngzhì ) with the original meaning “comrade / comrade” is the most common expression in Chinese . A distinction between male ( Chinese  男 同志 , Pinyin Nán Tōngzhì ) or female ( Chinese  女同志 , Pinyin Nǚ Tōngzhì ) is not necessary. In an attempt to translate the term “queer” into Chinese, Mai Ke and Lin Yihua created the term tongzhi when Western queer films were shown at the 1988 Queer Cinema film festival. The word itself is derived from the well-known quote from Sun Yixian: “The revolution has not yet triumphed, comrades let us fight together” ( Chinese  革命 仍未 成功, 同志 仍需 努力 , Pinyin gémìng réng wèi chénggōng, tóngzhì réng xū nǔlì ). The term is a head rhyme on tongxinglian (同性戀), the sexological term for homosexuality or homosexuals. In Tongzhi is also the official form of address among members of the Communist Party of China , which has led to resistance and misunderstandings when emerging this 1990s-term on the mainland.

In Cantonese , the word Gei (基) is also used, which is based on the English term gay . However, it is sometimes perceived as hurtful - especially when used by heterosexuals . Another, not widely used slang expression is Boli (玻璃, Pinyin : bōlí, crystal or glass). Datong (大同) neologism is gaining popularity among gay students . Datong actually stands in Chinese for the utopia of social “great equality”, but is an abbreviation for da xuesheng tong xinglian (homosexual students). Not only in Taiwan, Ku'er (酷儿, Pinyin: kùer) is enjoying increasing popularity. It was based on the English term queer , which has become internationally known through the reception of the queer theory coming from the USA .

In Taiwan, lesbians call themselves Lazi (拉 子) or Lala (拉拉). These are abbreviations of the English term "Lesbian".

religion

All major religions in ancient China have some kind of code that has traditionally been interpreted as being directed against homosexuality. For example, Confucianism knows the rule that a man should behave according to the traditional male gender role , and in the same way women should behave according to the female gender . Hence, transvestism is an offense against Confucian natural law.

There are several historical accounts of emperors putting on women's clothing themselves and this has always been taken as a bad sign. Conceiving children (especially sons) is one of the central tasks of a man in traditional Chinese society. Thus, a man who has only male lovers violates his duties. The Taoism emphasizes the balance between Yin and Yang . A male-male relationship is considered to be a yang-yang relationship and consequently unbalanced and destructive.

In Buddhism , in Buddhist ethics , sexual orientation is irrelevant and is not judged or judged. It is essential here on the one hand not to cause suffering ( dukkha ) with any actions , and on the other hand to recognize the sexual drive , regardless of its orientation, as one of those human characteristics that make it difficult to achieve awakening ( bodhi ).

On the other hand, none of the major Chinese religions condemn homosexuality as a sin , as do numerous interpretations of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam . Judging by the understanding of sin in Christian culture, the sinful acts in the Confucian Code of Conduct do not include homosexuality. As long as a man is doing his duty and fathering children, it is his private matter whether he also has male lovers on the side.

This also applies to Daoism. Although every man is considered to be yang (masculine), he also carries something yin (feminine) about him. Some men can have a lot of yin . Therefore, the presence of some feminine behavior in men is not considered unnatural, but corresponds to the balance of yin and yang in a person. It is also noteworthy that many Taoist gods and goddesses live either alone or with deities of the same sex of their own. A well-known example are Shanshen (the mountain god) and Tudi (the earth god). Every place has a Shanshen and Tudi who live together. What is more fascinating, however, is that, as in the classic novel Journey to the West , they sometimes manifest as an old woman and an old man.

Ancient China

Emperors Ai of Han and Dongxian
Young men in erotic play (hand roll from Beijing, late 19th century)

Homosexuality has been documented in China since ancient times. According to Ji Yun, a scholar of the Qing Dynasty , Huáng Dì , the legendary emperor and founder of Chinese culture, had male lovers. This is of course not trustworthy, as it is unclear whether there was even a person with the name Huang Di. One of the literary formulas used in ancient China, namely yútáo duànxiù (余 桃 断 袖), alludes to two well-known rulers anecdotes . The one about Yútáo or the "left part of the peach" is recorded in the Hanfeizi . It is about Mi Zixia (彌 子 瑕), a beautiful youth who was worshiped by Prince Ling von Wei (衛靈公). Mi once shared a already bitten but very delicate peach with the prince. The latter was very touched by this gesture. But when Mi lost his beauty in old age, the prince looked back on this event and accused his former lover of having been dishonest at the time. Duànxiù or "cut off the sleeve", on the other hand, refers to a story about Emperor Ai von Han , who, in order not to wake his male concubine Dongxian (董賢), cut off the sleeve on which Dongxian was sleeping.

The scholar Pān Guāngdān (潘光旦) concluded that almost every emperor in the Han dynasty had one or more male sexual partners. There are descriptions of lesbian relationships in some history books as well. It is believed that homosexuality was very popular in the Song , Ming, and Qing Dynasties . Compared to the European persecution of sodomites , there was little discrimination against homosexual acts in China .

Same-sex love was also celebrated in Chinese art, and much of it survived the book burnings during the Cultural Revolution . Although we no longer know of any large statues, many hand scrolls and silk paintings can still be found in private collections.

In 1944, a scholar named Sun Cizhou published a work in which he stated that one of the most famous ancient Chinese poets, Qu Yuan , was a lover of his king. Sun quoted Qu Yuan's poetry to prove his claim. In his most important work, Li Sao ( Worrying About Saying Goodbye), Qu Yuan called himself a handsome man (or woman, mei ren [美人]). A word he used to describe his king was used by women at the time to characterize their lovers.

The first law against male-male sexual intercourse was passed in 1740. There is no historical record of how effectively it was enforced. Ironically, what was more devastating for the Chinese tradition of male love was the enlightenment that began as part of the self-empowerment campaign, when China, along with Western science and philosophy, imported homophobia as a modern way of thinking.

People's Republic of China

Persecution under Mao

After the formation of the People's Republic of China , homosexuality became invisible. Both Confucian morality and the puritanism of the communist movement were hostile to same-sex love. The communist state persecuted homosexuals, especially during the Cultural Revolution, when many gays were subjected to public humiliation, physical assault and long imprisonment, or even executed. The social tolerance of homosexuality dwindled. Ironically, it is said of Mao Zedong , who started the Cultural Revolution, that his erotic preferences extended to men as well. His personal physician, Dr. Li says, “Mao had numerous concubines, but his sexual activity was not limited to women. His young servants were always handsome and strong. One of her jobs was to massage him before he went to bed. ”In detail, Dr. Li involved in two separate homoerotic events.

Liberalization processes

Since the reform and opening up process in 1979, the Communist Party has loosened its control over this type of behavior, homosexual practices are still partially denigrated as a “ decadent capitalist lifestyle ”.

A notable change occurred during the late 1990s and early 2000s when male anal intercourse was decriminalized in 1997 and homosexuality was removed from the list of mental illnesses in China on April 20, 2001 . In 1995, the famous dancer and transsexual Jin Xing was able to have "the first official sex reassignment surgery in China" performed. This development is currently continuing. Menbox magazine is unofficially considered a gay magazine. Transsexual Chen Lili was recently allowed to participate in the Chinese preliminary round of the Miss Universe election .

An Internet survey in 2000 showed that the Chinese are becoming more tolerant of homosexual relationships: among the 10,792 respondents, 48.15% responded positively and 30.9% negatively. 14.46% were unsure and 7.26% were indifferent. But most homosexuals live undercover. Over 90% of middle-aged lesbians and gays live in a heterosexual marriage. As there are no radical conservatives or radical liberation activists, violent homophobic attacks are rare. However, some social scientists have complained that the government is doing nothing in this area and is doing nothing to improve the situation of homosexuals in China. Only two people from the mainland were sent to participate in the Gay Games in 2002, and apart from gay websites , the media barely covered the event. Many gay men claim to have unprotected intercourse , but the Chinese government is doing little to educate them about the risk of AIDS . The authorities still refuse to promote gay causes in China. Although consensual sex between adults of the same sex is not prohibited, there are no laws that protect against discrimination, and there are no organizations that campaign for the rights of lesbians and gays. In the opinion of many, the People's Republic's policy towards homosexual concerns continues to consist of the “three no's”: no to approval, no to disapproval and no to promotion (不 支持, 不 反对, 不 提倡).

In June 2009, as part of the liberalization process in China, the first week-long LGBT festival took place in Shanghai and has been celebrated annually since then. State media such as China Daily , which is owned by the communist party, rate this festival positively. The Mr. Gay election in Beijing , planned for the first time nationwide in January 2010, was banned at the last minute.

On June 17, 2011, China abstained from the narrowly adopted UN Human Rights Council resolution against discrimination based on sexual orientation, whereas in previous years it had always voted “no” to similar motions. On July 25, 2011, China again voted against the granting of UN advisory status (in the UN Economic and Social Council ECOSOC) to the queer world umbrella organization ILGA . On September 26, 2014, the UN Human Rights Council passed resolution 27 / L.27, which calls for the fight against discrimination based on sexual orientation, on which China again abstained.

media

The easing of restrictions on Internet use has resulted in the flourishing of gay websites, although the police sometimes intervene and close these sites. The Internet is an important factor for Chinese lesbians and gays. Although there are no homosexual organizations in the People's Republic, there are a few well-organized websites that act as advisory institutions.

The mainstream media sometimes reports notable events abroad related to homosexuality, such as gay parades . However, some critics accuse the media that the goal of the media is more of a smear campaign against homosexuality. In the absence of an age rating system, the government bans gay movies from being shown on television or in cinemas on the grounds that they are "inappropriate". Despite the great attention that Lan Yu has received in Taiwan, Hong Kong and other places, it is still banned in the People's Republic because of its homosexual portrayals, even though all of the actors and the screenwriter are from the mainland.

Urban and countryside

There are some gay bars and nightclubs in big cities like Shanghai , Guangzhou and Beijing that are subject to police harassment. Gays who cannot afford to frequent this scene look for casual sex in public washrooms, parks and shower facilities because of the social taboos that hover over homosexuality. Being gay is a big problem when you live in the country ; it is particularly pronounced in China as the overwhelming majority of the population lives in rural areas and has neither access to the Internet nor the possibility of moving to a city.

Shanghai

In line with its pioneering role in society in recent decades ( proclamation of the Republic of China in 1912 and abolition of the Empire , founding of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 , decisive role in the cultural revolution and in the current economic reforms ) queer emancipation in Shanghai has progressed more than anywhere else in the PRC. An annual, albeit small, pride has been established there since 2009 .

This article or the following section is not adequately provided with supporting documents ( e.g. individual evidence ). Information without sufficient evidence could be removed soon. Please help Wikipedia by researching the information and including good evidence.
The bars' websites do not prove alignment. The list should also be out of date.

In the small Huaihei district (north of Jiaotong University) in the northern area of ​​the Xuhui district there is even a cluster of queer bars; also in the western area of ​​the French Concession.

Persistent repression

Many individual cases show that gays are still subject to prejudice by the judicial system and harassment and arrest by the police. In October 2000, a Beijing court first publicly declared that homosexuality was "abnormal and unacceptable to the Chinese public". Another notable case occurred in July 2001 when at least 37 gay men were detained in Guangdong Province . In April 2004, the state regulatory authority for radio, film and television (国家 广播 电影 电视 总局) launched a campaign with the aim of ridding the media of violence and sexual content. Programs that touch on homosexual issues are considered to be a violation of "the healthy way of life in China" and fall victim to censorship .

Discussion about same-sex marriages

During the evaluation of an addendum to the marriage law in 2003 , the People's Republic had the first discussion about homosexual marriages. Although the request was rejected, it was the first time that lesbian and gay rights were discussed in mainland China.

Sexologist Li Yinhe (李銀河) attempted to legalize same-sex marriages during the National People's Congress in 2000 and 2004 . According to Chinese law, the signatures of 35 delegates are required for a bill like the one Li drafted to go to Congress. Their efforts failed due to the lack of supporters.

adoption

Changes that went into effect May 1, 2007 prohibit foreign adoptions from being permitted by unmarried couples, those over the age of 50, and those extremely obese. Up until then, many gay couples in the USA who wanted to have children had adopted children from China.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong , anal sex between men was defined as a capital crime until 1991 . The maximum sentence was life. However, this punishment was never imposed in cases of non-coercive sex among adult men and, unlike in the West, from which the laws were drawn, a Chinese indifference to homosexual acts prevailed. The Legislative Council approved the decriminalization of homosexuality after years of public debate that began as early as 1980 . But in 1993 and 1997 two further attempts to introduce legislation against discrimination failed .

There are several gay organizations in Hong Kong such as Rainbow Action and the Tongzhi Culture Society . In 2003, the Hong Kong Roman Catholic Church issued a paper condemning same-sex marriages. In response, a group of demonstrators stormed into a church and stopped the service.

Notable and important to Hong Kong homosexuals was the gradual outing of the hugely popular Hong Kong singer and actor Leslie Cheung . Those in the know had long known that he was living with a man. It only became known to the general public when Leslie Cheung not only played gays in several films, but also danced an erotic tango on stage with his choreographer and dedicated a song to his friend, with the remark that he was second most important after his mother love. In the following years, they often appeared together at public events and were even photographed holding hands . When Cheung committed suicide in 2003, his friend was listed first on the obituary, where the widowed spouse's name is usually listed.

Taiwan

The status of homosexuals in Taiwan has changed in recent years, not as a result of general public debate but as a result of various disputes, some of which have become more prominent depending on social, political and economic developments in Taiwan.

Depending on the social and political characteristics, “traditional”, “psychoanalytic”, “humanistic” and “postmodern” discourses prevailed . A discourse of heteronormativity , perceived as traditional, shaped the 1950s in Taiwan.

At a time when the endeavors of the ruling party, the KMT , but also large sections of the population were aimed at restoring “order” after the “chaos” (luan 亂) of the civil war, the Sino-Japanese war and after the Establishing a new power structure in Taiwan by the Guomindang troops as a result of the withdrawal of Japanese troops and Japanese administrative officials, gender was also seen in clearly defined categories in public discourse, both in science and in literature . There was an - unspoken - equation of biological gender, social gender and sexual orientation.

A medical-psychoanalytical discourse with “Chinese characteristics” shaped the 1960s; it was based on psychoanalytic approaches, mainly from the USA, even if cultural differences were partially discussed. Simplifying psychoanalytic approaches were adopted, but with some significant differences: the question of “curability” played a lesser role, there was still no moralizing assessment of homosexuality as “sinful behavior”, and in contrast to the US discourse, where one of a negative development of the individual assumed, it was argued socially and collectively.

In the 1970s there was a broadening, but also a "trivialization" of the discourse in the mass media, along with the first literary attempts to address the topic. With the urbanization of Taiwan, the advancing mechanization of the economy, the expansion of universities, the expansion of scientific contacts with the West, the published opinions of Taiwan at the end of the 1970s offered “experts” a large space. These experts were usually medical professionals who repeatedly emphasized that they were not homosexual themselves and that they took up the topic out of a purely scientific interest. There was a synthesis of these expert opinions and the discourse of compulsory heterosexuality , which was also seen by the experts as a fixed and unquestionable norm.

In the first half of the 1980s it was the homosexuals themselves who began to openly debate; feminist , humanist approaches gained importance; It was only in the second half of the 1980s that feminist and humanist ideas influenced the discourse in medicine.

A strategy of exclusion has now been repealed in literary works, for example by Bai Xianyong 白先勇, Guang Tai 光 泰 and Xuan Xiaofo 玄 小 佛. In the case of AIDS , it was found that it was not just American tourists who contracted AIDS, but that the disease affected 'normal' local families.

In addition, after 1987, when the state of emergency was lifted, groups outside the GMD state could organize, and very different social movements emerged. Within this social movement it was a "new feminism", connected with the Awakening Foundation and Li Yuanzhen, that questioned firmly established paradigms of Taiwanese society: gender as an analysis category for the patriarchal structures of society played an increasing role in the public perception, and gender studies dealing with the topic of homosexuality were carried out at various universities.

With the lifting of the state of emergency and the end of censorship, independent magazines - for example from student and feminist groups - could also appear. Finally, the development of the 1990s is characterized by a pluralization of society, and a “ tongzhi discourse” shaped by social movements as well as a glocalized post-modern “ kuer discourse” are becoming dominant.

The literary world was of particular importance here and numerous works on the subject of homosexuality were published; some works received lavish awards from the mainstream press. Mention should be made here of Ling Yan (dem 煙) in 1990 with the novel “The Dumb Thrush” (失聲 ans), in 1991 Du Xiulan's (杜 修) with the novel “The Unruly Daughter” (蘭 逆女) and Cao Lijuan (曹麗娟) with the work “The Dance of the Girls” (童女 之 舞) and in 1996 Qiu Miaojin's (邱 妙 津) “Notes of a Crocodile” (鱷魚 手記) or Zhu Tianwen (朱天文) “Notes of an Outsider” (荒 人 手記). Finally, homosexuality was partially removed from the minority discourse: young writers such as Ji Dawei (紀大偉), Chen Xue (陳雪), Qiu Miaojin (邱 妙 津) or Hong Ling (洪凌) dealt again in postmodern magazines such as "Isle Margin" with the topic of same-sex desire, deconstructed the phenomenon and showed that there are no fixed boundaries between sex and gender , using US approaches such as queer theory (Judith Butler), but localizing approaches and ideas.

Culture

Several novels dealing with homosexuality were published in the 1970s. One of the most famous authors is Pai Hsien-yung , in whose novels there are many gays. His most famous book is called Crystal Boys . To date, several homosexual films and television series (including a film adaptation of Crystal Boys ) have been made, some of which have been noticed by lesbians and gays in the People's Republic of China. Formula 17 even became an unexpected box-office hit (largest Taiwanese film grossing in 10 years). The young director Chen's first work is set in a utopian Taipei, where heterosexuality does not seem to exist. The young protagonists struggle with their love life instead of with society.

history

Taiwan society is an immigrant society . In the 17th century, the Qing government limited the number of women allowed to emigrate from mainland China to the island of Taiwan. This limitation resulted in a gender imbalance in Taiwanese society. People who had same-sex relationships were called "Lo Han Jiao" (羅漢 腳).

21st century

  • In late October 2003, the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) announced its plan to legalize same-sex marriage.
  • On November 1, 2003 , the first lesbian and gay parade in a Chinese-speaking country was held in Taipei , the capital of Taiwan . More than 1,000 people attended, including Taipei Mayor Ma Ying-jeou . However, many protesters wore masks to hide their identities as homosexuality was still taboo in Taiwan. Since then, this parade has been held every autumn.
  • On January 17, 2004, Taipei police arrested 93 gays for participating in a drug orgy. The public was shocked to learn that almost a third of those arrested were HIV positive. The police action was strongly condemned by the Tongzhi community.
  • On May 17, 2019, the parliament in Taipei approved a bill that allows gay partners to register for a wedding. This made Taiwan the first Asian country to legalize same-sex marriage.

Contemporary culture

People

The following people have tried to improve the situation of lesbians and gays in China by coming out publicly or through other efforts:

Movies and TV series

Many gay movies and TV series have been produced in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, including:

Documentaries:

See also

literature

  • Jens Damm: Discourses of Homosexuality: About the Emergence of Sexual Identities in Glocalized Taiwan and Postcolonial Hong Kong. In: Berliner Chinaheft 18 (2000).
  • Jens Damm: Homosexuality and Society in Taiwan, 1945 to 1995. Series: Berliner China-Studien Vol. 42, 2003, ISBN 3-8258-6674-2 .
  • Bret Hinsch: Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China . Berkeley, CA 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7 .
  • Zhou Huashan: Tongzhi: Politics of Same-Sex Eroticism in Chinese Societies . Binghamton, NY 2000, ISBN 1-56023-154-8 .

Web links

Commons : Homosexuality in China  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Androphile.org: Viscount Mizi Xia and the Bitten Peach ( Memento December 10, 2004 in the Internet Archive ) (Retrieved May 28, 2010)
  2. ^ Androphile.org: The World History of Male Love ( Memento of May 27, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (Retrieved May 28, 2010)
  3. ↑ Xing, Jin: Shanghai Tango. My life as a soldier and dancer , Munich 2006, ISBN 3-7645-0216-9 , p. 88 ( review of this book on farbfroh3.de)
  4. ↑ Menbox ( Memento from September 26, 2003 in the Internet Archive )
  5. ↑ The 5th Shanghai Pride took place from June 14th to 22nd, 2013.
  6. ↑ Queer.de: China - First Gay Pride praised by those in power , June 10, 2009 (accessed on May 28, 2010)
  7. ↑ Queer.de: China - “Mr. Gay "competition prohibited , January 17, 2010 (accessed November 18, 2010)
  8. ↑ Article "'Historic' UN Resolution Against Gay Discrimination"
  9. ↑ Article "United Nations Recognizes ILGA"
  10. ^ Resolution on Human Rights, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity
  11. ↑ derstandard.at: First talk show for homosexuals in China , April 4, 2007 (accessed on May 28, 2010)
  12. ↑ Shanghai Ride
  13. ↑ Eddy's Bar , Shanghai Studio , Transit Lounge , 390Shanghai , Rice Bar ( Memento from September 8, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) and Cloud9 Bar  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.livingshanghai.com
  14. ↑ Blend Café ( Memento from May 16, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  15. ^ The Washington Post , Jan. 24, 2000
  16. ↑ Queer.de: China forbids gay adoption , December 21, 2006 (accessed May 28, 2010)
  17. ↑ Crystal Boys in the English language Wikipedia.
  18. ↑ Taipeitimes: We are homosecxuals! We love you! , November 2, 2003 (Retrieved May 28, 2010)
  19. ↑ Taiwan is the first Asian country to introduce gay marriage. In: Die ZEIT / dpa. May 17, 2019, accessed April 5, 2020 .