Confederation of Bar
The Bar Confederates in prayer to the Queen of Poland just before the start of the Battle of Lanckorona , oil painting by Artur Grottger
| date | 1768 to 1772 |
|---|---|
| place | Poland-Lithuania |
| output | russian victory |
| Parties to the conflict | |
|---|---|
| Commander | |
|
|
|
| Troop strength | |
|
Lanckorona : 1300 Total : 100,000 |
Lanckorona : 4000 |
| losses | |
|
approx. 60,000 |
unknown |
The Confederation of Bar ( Polish: Konfederacja barska ) was the historically most important confederation of Polish noblemen founded in Bar in 1768 to defend their golden freedom in the country. It was primarily directed against its own head of state , who approved foreign rule for the fundamental modernization of their republic in the interests of Russia and was therefore frowned upon by the petty nobles as an externally determined curator and traitor. The Bar Confederation is considered the last major mass movement of the Polish aristocracy and the first Polish national uprising with far-reaching consequences until at least the 1970s.
background
In the Union of Poland-Lithuania , the Szlachta (Polish aristocracy) , which emerged from knighthood in the Middle Ages, proved to be the strongest political force. The Sejm had met since 1493, and the Nihil Novi Imperial Constitution had been in force since 1505 . It stipulated that the parliament ( Sejm ) must approve all new laws and that the king is only the head of the state with limited power (elected monarchy ), who is elected for life . His real field was foreign policy. Poland had become an aristocratic republic with golden freedom . This system provided equal rights for all nobles; the high nobility , who mostly had huge estates , were legally on a par with the simple, impoverished petty nobility.
In 1652 this petty nobility enforced another right: the Liberum veto (right of objection of the free); it made it possible for practically every single member of the Szlachta to overthrow a previously negotiated resolution of the Sejm through their objection. The uncritical, financially weak aristocrats were now omnipotent in Poland-Lithuania . At the same time, however, they also got into a long phase of mostly involuntary armed conflict with their neighbors abroad. In particular, the recurring clashes with Sweden and Russia put a heavy strain on the stability of their Union state.
Cossack Uprising, Swedish Flood and Sarmatism
Armed conflicts, which shook the Szlachta and its Union state badly, began as early as 1648 with the large-scale Chmielnicki uprising of the Ukrainian Cossacks , who rebelled against the (Polish) aristocratic rule in western Russia . In the Treaty of Perejaslav , the Cossacks finally placed themselves under the protection of Russia , with which the Russo-Polish War broke out from 1654 to 1667 . The advance of the Russians and Cossacks favored Sweden's incursion into Poland-Lithuania ( Second Northern War ) in 1655 , which in Polish historiography was known as the Potop - the "(Bloody) Flood" or "Swedish Flood". At times the Swedes advanced as far as Warsaw and Cracow . Towards the end of the 1650s, when other powers entered the war, Sweden was pushed so far on the defensive that the Polish king was able to negotiate the status quo ante in the Peace of Oliva . However, the clashes with Russia continued. In 1667 , the aristocratic republic had to cede large parts of its eastern territory ( Smolensk , Left Bank Ukraine ) and thus lost hundreds of thousands of square kilometers of state territory and millions of inhabitants to the Russian tsarist. Further territorial assignments (parts of the right-wing Ukraine and Podolia ) followed after an Ottoman-Polish War 1672–1676 . The Szlachta and its republic were not only weakened territorially. In terms of foreign policy, it became increasingly incapable of acting, and economically the consequences of the war meant a catastrophe: half of the population died in the turmoil of the wars or were expelled, 30% of the villages and towns were destroyed. The decline in agricultural products was dramatic, with grain production only reaching 40% of the pre-war level. By the beginning of the 18th century, Poland-Lithuania fell behind in social and economic development, which it was unable to make up for into the following century.
At the same time, the Szlachta, who made up about 8-15% of the population in Poland-Lithuania, developed their own provincial culture, Sarmatism . It shaped the visual arts, architecture, literature and everyday life. The fashion was based on models from the Orient, to which Sarmatia supposedly belonged. Prussia's King Friedrich II scoffed at the “Turkish robes” of the Polish aristocracy, who tried to isolate themselves from European influences. The Enlightenment reached the Polish nobility and scholars, but not the Szlachta. Instead, she indulged in a very pronounced cult of Mary . It was triggered in 1655 by the defense of the monastery fortress Jasna Góra in the Second Northern War. The petty nobility, who since then have liked to regard the Poles as the chosen people of the Blessed Mother of Jasna Góra and who a year later had King Jan II Kazimierz elected her patroness and queen of Poland , were often intolerant of other confessions and denounced the Jews as " Christ Murderer ”. The petty aristocrats often fought disputes in duels; they despised secular jurisdiction (only recognized divine jurisdiction, i.e. that of the Pope as the official representative of Christ on earth). The principle was: honor before usefulness. Sacrifice was also praised as an outstanding virtue.
The Polish petty nobility under Saxon hegemony
Due to the exhausting Second Northern War, the aristocratic republic was a country without state administrative organs, with an underdeveloped economy, insufficient tax revenues and an army that was neither qualitatively nor numerically up to the demands of the time. In return, the aristocratic republic had a wealth of raw materials and was therefore of interest to the Electorate of Saxony , which is characterized by its commercial character . With the usual bribes, King Jan III. Sobieskis on the electoral field in Wola Saxony's Elector Friedrich August “the Strong” will be elected against all initial expectations. On September 15, 1697 he was crowned king. Under Saxon hegemony , the Polish aristocracy and its republic were drawn into the Third or Great Northern War in March 1700 , which today is often viewed as the starting point in the history of the partitions of Poland . The renewed clashes for supremacy in the Baltic Sea region lasted for over 20 years . Most of the neighbors formed the “Nordic League” in the Preobrazhenskoe Treaty and ultimately defeated Sweden. The peace treaties of Stockholm , Frederiksborg and Nystad marked the end of Sweden as a major European power and the simultaneous political and military rise of the Russian Empire, founded by Peter I in 1721 .
The role of the Szlachta in this conflict revealed all too clearly the weakness of their republic. Even before the outbreak of war it was no longer an equal player among the Baltic Sea powers. Rather, as a result of the Russian successes, Poland-Lithuania fell more and more under the hegemony of Russia. Nevertheless, Augustus the Strong from Saxony, as the new Polish king, strove to profit from the disputes over the “ Dominium maris Baltici ” and to strengthen his position like that of the House of Wettin . The background to these efforts was probably in particular the intention to set a dynastic signal in order to force the conversion of the Saxon-Polish personal union into a real union , which he wanted . After Russia had defeated the Swedish troops in the Battle of Poltava in 1709, however, the "Nordic League" was finally under his leadership. For the Szlachta this meant a significant loss of importance, as they could no longer influence the further course of the war. Russia no longer viewed the dual state of Poland-Lithuania as a potential ally, but only as the “forefront” of its empire. The Russian political calculation envisaged bringing the aristocratic republic under Russian control to such an extent that it remained beyond the influence of competing powers. Poland-Lithuania entered an era of sovereignty crisis . The internal situation was as difficult as the external situation. In addition to his attempts to assert himself externally, the Saxon elector August II, as the new Polish king, endeavored to reform the republic in his favor and to expand the king's power. However, August II had neither a house power in Poland-Lithuania nor sufficient support to implement such an absolutist reform work against the powerful Szlachta. On the contrary: as soon as he stepped on the scene with his reform efforts, resistance formed in the Szlachta, which ultimately led to the formation of the Tarnogród Confederation in 1715 . August's attempted coup led to open conflict. Russia seized the opportunity of the civil war and finally secured itself longer-term influence with its intervention during the "Silent Sejm" of 1717 . At the end of the Great Northern War in 1721, the aristocratic republic was one of the official winners, but this victory deceives on the one hand the immediate consequences of the war in the country (similar to those of the Second Northern War) and on the other hand the ever-advancing process of subordination of the aristocratic republic to the hegemonic interests of the Neighboring states, conditioned and supported by a " coincidence of internal crisis and change in foreign policy constellation". De iure , Poland-Lithuania was of course not yet a protectorate of Russia, but de facto the loss of sovereignty was clearly noticeable. In the decades that followed, Russia determined Polish politics.
Dependence on foreign countries and resistance within
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From the middle of the 18th century, the balance of power in Europe shifted . After the victory in the Great Northern War, Russia had risen to become the new hegemonic power in Europe and tried to bring the aristocratic republic of Poland-Lithuania under Russian control to such an extent that it remained beyond the influence of competing powers. The extent to which Poland-Lithuania was dependent on the other European powers was shown by the election of the heir to the throne in 1733 after the death of Augustus the Strong. Although the Szlachta was split into two aristocratic factions (one grouped around the traditional, anti-Wettin Potocki family and the other dominated by the Czartoryski family , which strived for modernization in the spirit of English parliamentarism), the line of succession to the Polish electoral king had long been also discussed by the major European powers. The Prussian-Russian alliance treaty of 1726 and its renewals of 1729 and 1730 already provided for a joint approach in this matter. But Austria also felt threatened by the renewed efforts of Sweden and France to appoint Stanisław Leszczyński (the father-in-law of the French King Louis XV. ) As electoral king. That is why Austria, Prussia and Russia finally committed themselves to their own common candidate to prevent Leszczyński as heir to the throne in the alliance treaty of the three black eagles, even before the death of August the Strong . A large confederation of small Polish nobles under the leadership of Cardinal Primate Teodor Potocki ignored the treaty of the three neighboring states and on September 10, 1733 elected Stanisław Leszczyński as the new Polish-Lithuanian head of state. At the end of September 1733, troops of the Imperial Russian Army promptly appeared on the electoral field of Wola, under whose protection the much smaller Saxon party held the election of August III from the Wettin . (Son of the late king) succeeded. It came to the War of the Polish Succession 1733-1738 . The French expeditionary force sent to support King Leszczyński was gunned down by the Imperial Russian Army. After Leszczyński's flight, the anti-Wettin Confederation of Dzików was formed in 1734 . This confederation had no chance from the start, but did not end the fighting until March 1736 (two months after Leszczyński's abdication). On the "Pacific Reichstag" in 1736, the counter-king August III bought himself. With the renouncement of own design options finally the royal title and thus ended the interregnum .
The external determination by hegemonic-political Europe intensified the internal division of the Polish aristocracy and its republic, so that, for example, during the entire reign of King August III. From 1736 to 1763 not a single Sejm could be successfully concluded and not a single law was passed. In the years before, the balance sheet of the Reichstag shows the crippling effect of the unanimity principle : Of the total of 18 Reichstag, eleven were "blown up" by the Liberum veto, two ended without a resolution and only five achieved results. After the death of August III. In 1763, the two Polish noble families Potocki and Czartoryski again took up the position of succession to the throne . But as with the Interregnum in 1733, the succession to the throne again became a matter of European dimension. Again, it was by no means the Polish aristocratic parties who determined the successor, but the major European powers, especially the large neighboring states. Russia's decision about the heir to the throne had long since been made. As early as August 1762, the tsarina assured the former British embassy secretary Stanisław August Poniatowski of the succession to the throne and reached an understanding with the noble family of the Czartoryski about their support. Your choice fell on a person without power and with little political weight. In the eyes of the tsarina, a weak, pro-Russian king offered "the best guarantee for the subordination of the Warsaw court to St. Petersburg's orders". The fact that Poniatowski was a lover of Catherine II probably played a subordinate role in the decision. Nevertheless, Poniatowski was more than just an embarrassing choice, because the only 32-year-old aspirant to the throne had a comprehensive education , a great talent for languages and had extensive diplomatic and political theoretical knowledge. After his election on 6./7. The enthronement finally took place on November 25th , 1764 , which was unanimous due to the use of considerable bribes and the presence of 20,000 men of the Imperial Russian Army. Contrary to tradition , the coronation site was Warsaw , not the Wawel . Prussia accepted the choice of the Russian candidate and Austria was excluded from this decision. So Russia almost single-handedly determined the succession of the Polish-Lithuanian electoral king.
Poniatowski, however, turned out to be not as loyal and docile as the Tsarina had hoped. After a short time he began to tackle far-reaching reforms. In order to guarantee the ability to act after the election of the new king, the Reichstag decided on December 20, 1764 to transform itself into a general confederation, which should only exist for the duration of the interregnum. This meant that future diets would be exempted from the Liberum veto and majority decisions (pluralis votorum) were sufficient to pass resolutions. In this way the Polish state was strengthened. Catherine II did not want to give up the advantages of the permanent blockade of political life in the aristocratic republic, the so-called "Polish anarchy", and looked for ways to prevent a functioning and reformable system. To this end, she had some pro-Russian nobles mobilized and allied them with Orthodox and Protestant dissidents who had suffered from discrimination since the Counter-Reformation . These united in March 1767 to form the Confederation of Sluzk (Orthodox) and Toruń (Protestants). In response, Catholics organized in June 1767 in the Radom Confederation . In all three confederations, Repnin acted in the background as the mastermind. At the end of the conflict there was a new Polish-Russian treaty, which was forcibly approved by the Repnin Sejm on February 24, 1768 . This so-called "Eternal Treaty" included the manifestation of the principle of unanimity, the Liberum Veto, the Russian guarantee for the state integrity and political "sovereignty" of Poland-Lithuania and the political equality of Orthodox and Protestant Christians in the Sejm with the Catholics . The immediate consequence was the establishment of the Bar Confederation as the first Polish national uprising.
founding
On February 29, 1768, Father Marek Jandołowicz, together with his Bishop Krasiński , Józef Pułaski and Greater Poland's General Starost Mniszech, founded the “Confederation of Bar” on the fortress of Bar against the imperial Russian guardianship and the end of the golden freedom in the country. The motto of the Confederation was Bishop Sołtyk's words wiara i wolność (“Faith and Freedom”). The aim of the confederation was to block all legislative proposals in the Sejm and to raise military troops against its own head of state. Father Marek was the spiritual leader. Mniszech became Curial Marshal of the Confederation. Four days later, on the feast day of the patron saint of knights , the troops were raised against Stanisław II August Poniatowski . The formation of the troops was organized by Magnate Józef Pułaski, who was appointed Marshal, and Wawrzyniec Potocki, who was appointed General Regimentarius . In the Crown Land of the Kingdom of Poland, this was done by the Bishop's brother Michał Krasiński , who was appointed General Field Marshal, and the Starost Joachim Karol Potocki, who was appointed General Regimentarius . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania it was Michał Jan Pac , who was promoted to field marshal there, and Józef Sapieha, who was promoted to general regimentarius . The Wojewode and Starost Radziwiłł (“Panie Kochanku”), who was very popular with the Szlachta and today in many legends, novels and poems as a great patriot , who was previously the leader of the Radom Confederation, now concluded after the approval of the “Eternal Treaty” Krasiński and Mniszech and became a marshal of the Confederation of Bar. He is still regarded as an outstanding representative of Sarmatia and a symbol of his era. Also Moritz August Graf Beniowski received a leading position in the Confederacy.
Numerous petty aristocrats in Lesser Poland and Greater Poland joined them. In addition, the Hajdamak uprising in 1768 made the Confederation of Bar popular throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania .
King Stanisław August Poniatowski then discussed with the Royal Council of the Senate on March 23, 1768 the request of the Imperial Russian Army to fight the Confederation of Bar. Only 14 senators voted in favor (including the Crown Treasurer Teodor Wessel and the two Royal Court Marshals Franciszek Wielopolski and Władysław Gurowski ). However, the king decided to enforce the requirement of the Russian armed forces against the majority of his senators in order to show his devotion and unwavering loyalty to the Russian Empress Catherine II. The Imperial Russian Army marched into the Union Poland-Lithuania and received armed forces of the Royal Polish Army under the leadership of Grand Hetman Branicki in the fight against the Confederation of Bar.
Course of war
The inconsistent troops of the Bar Confederation, formed by volunteers, magnates, militia and deserters, quickly encountered the Royal Polish Army and the Imperial Russian Army. The confederation troops under Malczewski , Pac and Karol Prince Radziwiłł roamed the whole country, won the first battles against the Russian alliance and finally, overcoming their king, sent their own diplomats to the most important ruling houses in Europe.
While King Stanisław August Poniatowski was initially inclined to mediate between the Confederates of Bar and Russia via Repnin, the Russian ambassador in Warsaw, he now sent his troops under Hetman Branicki and two generals against the Confederation of Bar. This marked the Ukrainian offensive which ran from April to June 1768 and ended with the capture of the town of Bar on June 20, 1768. The directorates of the confederation withdrew to the Principality of Moldova . There was also a Confederation-supporting force unit in Lesser Poland , which operated from July to August 1768, but was defeated by the Royal Polish Army when it secured Krakow on August 22, 1768. The Confederation therefore continued to operate in the Belarusian Grand Duchy of Lithuania from August to October 1768 , where it also had to capitulate on October 26, 1768 in Nyasvish . The simultaneous outbreak of the Koliivshchyna uprising in Ukraine (May 1768) finally kept the Bar Confederation alive. The Confederation asked for military support in the Ottoman Empire and helped ensure that the Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 began in September 1768. The subsequent withdrawal of many Russian troops to the Turkish front strengthened the Confederation of Bar, and it reappeared in 1769 on the territory of Lesser Poland and Greater Poland. It also operated in the Lithuanian part of the aristocratic republic, which failed after the first victories, for example with the defeats in the battle of Białystok (July 16, 1769) and Orzechowo (September 13, 1769).
The heavy defeats in the Battle of Dobra (January 20, 1770) and Błonia (February 12, 1770) pushed the Confederation of Bar into a largely defensive position. In the same year she moved the Confederation Council from Silesia to Hungary , where it began negotiations with France , Austria and the Ottoman Empire to form an anti-Russian alliance. On October 22, 1770 he proclaimed the deposition of the Polish King Stanisław August Poniatowski. With the consent of the Confederates, the French royal court of Versailles sent its advisor Charles François Dumouriez to Poland-Lithuania to reorganize the troops against the Polish-Lithuanian head of state. The situation became so serious that even Prussian King Frederick II advised the Russian Empress Catherine II to negotiate with the Confederates of Bar.
The army of the Confederation of Bar, which was reorganized by Dumouriez, survived the loss of political importance by a few years. Although she suffered heavy defeats in the Battle of Lanckorona (May 21, 1771) and Stałowicze (October 23, 1771) in 1771, at the end of the year she had won the Jasna Góra fortress in Częstochowa and thus its queen , the spiritual center the aristocratic republic of Poland-Lithuania was.
The attempt of the Bar Confederates under Pułaski to kidnap their own king on November 3, 1771 and to replace him with the election candidate Karl of Saxony , caused the Habsburgs to end their support of the Bar Confederates and to remove them from all their countries (Austria, Bohemia, Hungary ) to evict. He gave the three European hegemonic powers Prussia, Austria and Russia just one more pretext to prove the “Polish anarchy”, combined with the necessity of being allowed to invade the country as neighbors so that the people there are again “order and security” could bring.
The regiments of the Confederation of Bar, whose directorates now had to leave the Principality of Moldova, which was part of the Ottoman Empire, did not lay down their arms. Many of their fortresses held their positions as long as they could: the royal castle on the Wawel did not fall until April 28, 1772, the Tyniec fortress lasted until July 13, 1772 and the Jasna Góra fortress with the Queen of Poland under the command of Kazimierz Pułaskis until 18. August 1772. A total of 100,000 Polish aristocrats fought in 500 skirmishes between 1768 and 1772. Probably the longest held base was the Zagórz Monastery , which fell on November 28, 1772.
After a five-year civil war between the Confederation of Bar with the support of France and Austria on the one hand and the Confederation of Radom with the Royal Polish and Imperial Russian Armies on the other hand, the Russian alliance finally triumphed in 1772. The members of the Confederation of Bar were deported to Siberia or were able to flee west with their families in good time, where they came under Prussian or Austrian rule after the first partition of Poland-Lithuania.
Consequences and historical judgment
The consequences of the war on the side of the Bar Confederation were around 60,000 dead and up to 6,000 deportees. The deportees and their families formed the first significant group of Poles to be deported into exile in Siberia . The remaining participants, who were able to flee west with their families in good time, came under Prussian or Austrian rule after the first partition of Poland-Lithuania. Many impoverished petty aristocrats could not prove their origin and so lost their nobility. The Polish aristocracy was disempowered, but retained its traditions and formed the backbone of the subsequent Polish national uprisings. The Confederation of Bar is considered the last mass movement of the Polish aristocracy and the first Polish national uprising. Adam Mickiewicz's expression of opinion in 1833 O ludziach rozsądnych i ludziach szalonych ("About reasonable and crazy people") determined the Confederation of Bar for the first time as the First Polish National Uprising and thus marked the beginning of the "Myth of Bar". All subsequent Polish uprisings up to the 1970s were motivated by the motto "Faith and Freedom" and thus offshoots of the Confederation of Bar. The Confederation of Bar is also commemorated on the Warsaw Tomb of the Unknown Soldier with the inscription "KONFEDERACJA BARSKA 29 II 1768 - 18 VII 1772 ".
The main heroes of the Bar Confederation are Kazimierz Pułaski (defender of Jasna Góra ), the Cossack Józef Sawa-Caliński in Mazovia and Józef Zaremba in Greater Poland . In addition, the charismatic Father Marek Jandołowicz of the Discalced Carmelites is also honored as a prophet. The Polish writer Juliusz Słowacki dedicated himself to him and celebrated great success with his drama Ksiądz Marek ("Father Marek"). The Confederates left a large collection of songs: it contains the most famous song of the Confederation of Bar Zdaj się, Polaku, w opiekę Maryi, Stawam na placu z Boga ordynansu (Piosenka o Drewiczu).
Until the days of the Confederation of Bar, when the Confederates operated with the help of French and Austrian support, the Confederates were seen as unpatriotic antagonists . But in 1770, when the Imperial Russian Army marched through the officially independent Poland-Lithuania and the European foreign powers pressed the Sejm to agree to the First Partition of Poland-Lithuania , the Confederates began to develop the image of the Polish soldier in exile who was his fatherland up to remains true to the bitter end. This image led to the formation of Polish legions and other troops in exile over the next 200 years .
Historians judge the Bar Confederation very differently: While none denies its patriotic intentions to liberate Poland-Lithuania from external, primarily Russian, influences, some historians like Jacek Jędruch criticize the Bar Confederation for its backward stance on civil rights issues , especially with regard to religious ones Tolerance (Jędruch writes of "religious bigotry ", "meticulously precise Catholic attitude") and claims it as a contribution to the first partition of Poland-Lithuania. Other historians such as Bohdan Urbankowski praise the Bar Confederation as the first serious military effort to restore the independence of Poland, Polish Livonia , Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.
Theaters of war
in 1768:
- June 11, 1768: Battle at Rataje (near Pyzdry )
- June 12, 1768: Battle near Raszków
- June 14, 1768: Battle of Krotoszyn (erroneously known as the Battle of Zduny)
- June 19, 1768: Siege of Bar
- June 1768; July 27 to August 17, 1768: Siege of Krakow
- 3rd / 4th October 1768: Battle of Lackowa
- October 26, 1768: Nieśwież surrendered
in 1769:
- March 8, 1769: Siege of the fortress of the Holy Trinity
- March 19, 1769: Battle of Pakość
- March 30, 1769: Battle of Lwów
- April 6, 1769: Battle of Rogi and Miejsce Piastowe
- April 8, 1769: Battle of Iwla
- May 27, 1769: Battle of Brzeżany
- July 12, 1769: Battle of Słonim
- July 17, 1769: Battle of Białystok
- August 8, 1769: Battle of Hoszów
- 11./12. August 1769: Defense of the Lubomirski Castle in Rzeszów
- August 15, 1769: Siege and battle near Powitno (today Rzeszów-Pobitno)
- September 13, 1769: Battle of Orzechów
- September 14, 1769: Battle of Radomin, Battle of Tarpno
- September 15, 1769: Battle of Włodawa, Battle of Łomazy
in 1770:
- January 13, 1770: Battle of Grab
- January 23, 1770: Battle of Dobra
- January 29, 1770: Battle of Kcynia
- April 5, 1770: Battle of Jedlicze and Siepietnica
- April 15, 1770: Battle of Dęborzyn
- 3rd to 5th August 1770: Battle of Izby
- August 16, 1770: Battle at Kościan
- September 5, 1770: Battle of Pińczów
- September 10, 1770 to August 18, 1772: Defense of Jasna Góra
in 1771:
- to January 30, 1771: Siege of Poznań
- February 20, 1771: Siege of Lanckorona
- March 1, 1771: Battle of Rachów
- April 16, 1771 and April 28, 1771: Battle of Szreńsk
- May 23, 1771: Battle of Groby
- May 23, 1771: Battle of Lanckorona
- June 25, 1771: Battle of Charchwo and Charchówek
- July 23, 1771: Battle of Widawa
- September 6, 1771: Antopol
- September 23, 1771: Battle of Stołowicze
in 1772:
- February 2, 1772: Battle of Doroszewicze at Pripyat
- to April 24, 1772: Siege of the Wawel
- May 14, 1772: Siege of the borders in Barwinek
- June 12, 1772: Siege of Krosno
- July 13, 1772: Siege of Tyniec near Kraków
- August 18, 1772: Siege of Częstochowa
- September 19, 1772: Austrian troops enter Lwów
- September 29, 1772: Siege of the Carmelite monastery in Zagórz
literature
- FA Thesby de Belcour: The Confederates of Bar. Cracow, 1895 (Polish)
- Magdalena Chadaj: Walka o Konfederację Barską. In: "Pro memoria" No. 2 (11) / 2004
- Charles-François Dumouriez : Mémoires et correspondance. Paris, 1834
- Hugh Chisholm (Ed., 1911): Bar, Confederation of . Encyclopædia Britannica , 11th edition. Cambridge University Press .
- Władysław Konopczyński : Konfederacja barska, volume 1st volume, Warsaw, 1991, ISBN 83-85218-07-6
- Władysław Konopczyński: Konfederacja barska, Volume 2nd volume, Warsaw, 1991, ISBN 83-85218-06-8 .
- Jacek Kowalski: Niezbędnik Konfederata Barskiego. Fundacja św. Benedykta, Poznan, 2008, ISBN 978-83-60758-17-5
- Aleksander Kraushar : Książę Repnin i Polska w pierwszem czteroleciu panowania Stanisława Augusta (1764-1768) ("Prince Repnin and Poland during the first four years under King Stanisław August (1764–1768)"), revised edition, Warszawa: Gebethner i Wolff; Kraków: G. Gebethner i Spółka, 1900.
- Piotr Kreczetników: Radom and Bar 1767-68 . War diary and military-political correspondence with Minister Repnin
- Janusz Maciejewski, Agnieszka Magdalena Bąbel, Jacek Wójcicki, Agata Grabowska-Kuniczuk: Literatura Konfederacji Barskiej. 1, dramaty. “DiG”, Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-7181-396-1
- Janusz Maciejewski, Agnieszka Magdalena Bąbel, Jacek Wójcicki, Agata Grabowska-Kuniczuk: Literatura Konfederacji Barskiej. 2, dramaty. “DiG”, Warsaw, 2005, ISBN 83-7181-397-X
- Paweł Matejko: The Mixed Multitude: Jacob Frank and the Frankist Movement, 1755-1816 . Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4315-4 , pp. 180-191 "The Bar Confederation"
- Jerzy Michalski: Rousseau i sarmacki republikanizm. Warsaw 1977
- Jerzy Michalski: Sarmacki republikanizm w oczach Francuza. Mably i konfederaci barscy. FNP: Leopoldinum, Breslau, 1995, ISBN 83-85220-50-X
- Jerzy Michalski: Schyłek konfederacji barskiej. Breslau / Warsaw / Krakow, 1970
- Wojciech Stanek: Konfederacje generalne koronne w XVIII wieku. Wyd. Adam Marszałek, Thorn, 1991, ISBN 83-85263-17-9
- Piotr Szubarczyk: Nigdy z królami nie będziem w aliansach. In: "Nasz Dziennik", April 3, 2003
- Wacław Szczygielski: Kazimierz Pułaski near Poznań. Poznan, 1929
- Wacław Szczygielski: Konfederacja barska w Wielkopolsce 1768-1770. Warsaw, 1970
Web links
- Confederation of Bar (s)
- Formation of the Confederation of Bar: Dorota Dukwicz spoke to Ewa Zientara - Polish History Museum (pl)
- Magdalena Chadaj: “Struggle for the Confederation of Bar” ; Illustrations, conditions and course (pl)
- MH Krasiński, MJ Pac: "Manifest Generalności Barskiej" from November 26th 1773 (pl)
- Chór Nowodworski: “Brave Pole on the Marsfeld” (2007) Video, youtube.pl
- Piotr Szubarczyk: “We will never form an alliance with the king” ; short retelling of the history of the Confederation (pl)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Dominic Lieven: The Cambridge History of Russia : Volume 2, Imperial Russia, 1689-1917. Cambridge University Press. 2006. p. 171.
- ↑ Jacek Jędruch: Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history , 1998 EJJ Books, p. 160 ISBN 978-0-7818-0637-4
- ↑ Linking the Confederation of Bar (interview) with Dorota Dukwicz, Muzeum Historii Polski (pol.) Last accessed on June 20, 2015
- ↑ The magnates in the Ukraine were mostly of Ruthenian-Ukrainian descent (descendants of Rurik).
- ↑ Cf. Rudolf Jaworski, Christian Lübke, Michael G. Müller: Eine kleine Geschichte Polens , Frankfurt a. M. 2000, p. 167.
- ↑ The relatively quiet times that were in Poland-Lithuania after the Swedish, Ottoman and Cossack wars after 1711 favored the preparations for the coronation of the miraculous image. The hearts of the faithful, especially those of the Polish aristocracy, have long wanted the papal crown to adorn the head of Our Lady of Jasna Góra. In 1716 Chryzostom Koźbiałowicz went to Rome with a request and gave it to Pope Clement XI. a copy of the image of Our Lady of Częstochowa. At the request of the faithful, the Pope signed the Coronation Breve, and on September 8, 1717 the solemn coronation took place, attended by 200,000 believers.
- ^ René Hanke: Brühl and the Renversement des alliances. The anti-Prussian foreign policy of the Dresden court 1744–1756 . Lit, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-8258-9455-X , p. 18
- ↑ For periodization cf. Müller: The partitions of Poland , p. 12 f.
- ↑ See Hans Lemberg: Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria in the 18th century , in: Friedhelm Berthold Kaiser, Bernhard Stasiewski (Ed.): The first Polish division 1772, Cologne 1974, p. 36 f., Or Müller: Die Partitions of Poland , pp. 15–18.
- ↑ Müller: The Partitions of Poland , p. 14.
- ↑ See Müller: The Partitions of Poland , p. 17.
-
↑ See Jaworski / Müller / Lübke: Eine kleine Geschichte Polens , p. 178 f.
Müller: The Partitions of Poland , pp. 18-20. - ↑ See Jaworski / Müller / Lübke: Eine kleine Geschichte Polens , p. 181.
- ↑ See Meisner: Judicial System and Justice , p. 314.
- ↑ a b cf. Hans Roos: Poland from 1668 to 1795. In: Theodor Schieder, Fritz Wagner (Hrsg.): Handbuch der Europäische Geschichte. Vol. 4: Europe in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment , Stuttgart 1968, p. 740.
- ↑ Jaworski / Müller / Lübke: A Little History of Poland , p. 185.
- ↑ Cf. Roos: Poland from 1668 to 1795 , p. 741.
- ↑ See Andrea Schmidt-Rösler: Poland. From the Middle Ages to the Present , Regensburg 1996, p. 53.
- ↑ Mastermind = English term for a genius or a thought leader, often as the driving force of a creative group of people
- ↑ Linking the Confederation of Bar (interview) with Dorota Dukwicz, Muzeum Historii Polski (pol.) Last accessed on June 20, 2015
- ↑ Władysław Konopczyński: Konfederacja Barska , t. I, Warszawa 1991, p. 46
- ↑ Barska Konfederacja , WIEM Encyklopedia
- ↑ Barska Konfederacja , WIEM Encyklopedia
- ↑ Barska Konfederacja , WIEM Encyklopedia
- ↑ Barska Konfederacja , WIEM Encyklopedia
- ↑ AnnMarie Francis Kajencki: Count Casimir Pulaski: From Poland to America, a Hero's Fight for Liberty 2005 The Rosen Publishing Group. P. 23. ISBN 978-1-4042-2646-3
- ^ Daniel Stone: The Polish-Lithuanian state, 1386-1795 . 2001 University of Washington Press. P. 272. ISBN 978-0-295-98093-5
- ↑ Barska Konfederacja , WIEM Encyklopedia
- ↑ David Pickus: Dying with an enlightening fall: Poland in the eyes of German intellectuals, 1764-1800 2001 Lexington Books. P. 35. ISBN 978-0-7391-0153-7
- ^ Lewinski Corwin, Edward Henry (1917): The Political History of Poland , Google Print, pp. 310-315
- ↑ Halina Nehring: Kartki z kalendarza: kwiecień
- ^ Lewinski Corwin, Edward Henry (1917): The Political History of Poland , Google Print, pp. 310-315
- ^ Norman Davies: God's Playground A History of Poland: Volume 1: The Origins to 1795 , 2005 Oxford University Press. P. 392. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5
- ^ Dominic Lieven: The Cambridge History of Russia: Volume 2, Imperial Russia, 1689-1917 , Cambridge University Press. 2006. p. 171
- ^ Norman Davies: Europe: A History , 1996 Oxford University Press, p. 664, ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7
- ↑ According to Wacław Szczygielski: Konfederacja Barska w Wielkopolsce, 1768-1770 , Warsaw 1970, p. 6, up to 60,000 dead
- ↑ Up to 6,000 men exiled to Siberia according to Zygmunt Gloger: Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski.
- ↑ Jacek Jędruch: Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history , 1998 EJJ Books, p. 160 ISBN 978-0-7818-0637-4
- ↑ Alicja Deck-Partyka: Poland, a Unique Country & Its People , 2006 AuthorHouse. P. 35. ISBN 978-1-4259-1838-5 .
- ↑ Bohdan Urbankowski: Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg ("Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist"), Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997, ISBN 978-83-7001-914-3 , p. 155
- ↑ Bohdan Urbankowski: Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg ("Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist"), Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997, ISBN 978-83-7001-914-3 , p. 155
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↑ Confederation of Bar . Encyclopædia Britannica . Last accessed on June 30, 2015. “Its activities precipitated a civil war, foreign intervention, and the First Partition of Poland.”
Jacek Jędruch: Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history. EJJ Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-7818-0637-4 , p. 160. - ↑ Bohdan Urbankowski: Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg. Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997, ISBN 978-83-7001-914-3 , p. 155 (“Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist”).