Marquesas

Marquesas
Map of the Marquesas
Waters	Pacific Ocean
Geographical location	9 ° 18 ′  S , 139 ° 39 ′  W Coordinates: 9 ° 18 ′  S , 139 ° 39 ′  W
Number of islands	approx. 14
Main island	Nuku Hiva
Total land area	1274 km²
Residents	9264 (2012)
Location of the Marquesas in the Pacific

French Polynesia map

The Marquesas Islands ( French Archipelago des Marquises ; original name Te Fenua Enata , translated "The earth of men") belong geographically to the East Polynesian islands and politically to French Polynesia . The Marquesas are located south of the equator in the Pacific Ocean , 1,600 kilometers northeast of Tahiti at 9 ° south and 139 ° west (Hiva Oa).

The archipelago with 14 islands and numerous small islets is divided into a northern group with the main islands Nuku Hiva , Ua Pou and Ua Huka and a southern group with Hiva Oa , Tahuata and Fatu Hiva . The total land area covers 1274 km². The total population of the subdivision administrative des îles Marquises , the administrative unit of the Marquesas Islands, was 9,346 in 2017.

geography

Climate diagram Atuona, Hiva Oa

The Marquesas are the peaks of a mountain range of volcanic origin rising from the deep sea . Similar to Hawaii , they emerged from hot spots on the Pacific plate. The islands can be geologically divided into three groups, northern, middle and southern groups, the age of which increases from the southeast to the northwest. The rocks of the island of Fatu Hiva in the extreme south-east are a little over a million years old, those of Hatutu in the north-west are over four million years old.

There is no surrounding fringing reef , but most of the islands are surrounded by small side islands or reef rocks. The highest point is the Mont Oave at 1,232 meters on Ua Pou , the second highest is the Mont Tekao on the island of Nuku Hiva at 1,224 meters.

The interior of the large islands is predominantly mountainous, heavily rugged with deeply cut valleys, the rivers of which sometimes pour into the sea with spectacular waterfalls. There is no coastline or a coastal plain. The only flat areas are at the mouths of the valleys and in the history of the island were mostly settled and / or used for agriculture. Occasionally small beaches of black sand, gravel or pebbles have emerged in the bays. The south and east side of the islands is almost impenetrably covered with lush tropical vegetation on the windward side , the tropical rainforest extends to the highest peaks. The north-west side, facing away from the wind and in the rain shadow , is mostly arid , with sparse vegetation and in places resembles a semi-desert .

The climate is tropical hot with abundant rainfall and high humidity, the temperature averages 28 ° C. The nights, especially in the months of May to October, can occasionally get uncomfortably cool.

Islands

Hiva Oa

Rainforest on Fatu Hiva

The Marquesas are geographically divided into a north and a south group. The main islands are:

Surname	group	position	Area km²	Population (2012)	Population (2017)
Nuku Hiva	North	8 ° 52 ′  S , 140 ° 6 ′  W	339	2,966	2,951
Including Pou	North	9 ° 25 ′  S , 140 ° 5 ′  W	105	2.173	2.213
Ua hookah	North	8 ° 54 ′  S , 139 ° 33 ′  W.	83.4	621	674
Eiao	North	8 ° 0 ′  S , 140 ° 42 ′  W.	43.8	- 1)	- 1)
Hatutu	North	7 ° 55 ′  S , 140 ° 34 ′  W	6.4	- 1)	- 1)
Motu Iti	North	8 ° 40 ′  S , 140 ° 37 ′  W.	0.3	- 1)	- 1)
Motu One	North	8 ° 0 ′  S , 139 ° 12 ′  W.	0.03	- 1)	- 1)
Hiva Oa	south	9 ° 45 ′  S , 139 ° 0 ′  W	387	2,190	2,243
Tahuata	south	9 ° 56 ′  S , 139 ° 6 ′  W.	61	703	653
Fatu Hiva	south	10 ° 29 ′  S , 138 ° 39 ′  W	84	611	612
Fatu Huku	south	9 ° 25 ′  S , 138 ° 55 ′  W.	1.3	- 2)	- 2)
Mohotane	south	10 ° 0 ′  S , 138 ° 50 ′  W.	15th	- 3)	- 3)

¹⁾ to the commune associée Taiohae of the community of Nuku Hiva
²⁾ to the commune associée Puamau of the community of Hiva Oa
³⁾ to the commune associée Atuona of the community of Hiva Oa

Flora and fauna

flora

The flora of the islands is very diverse. Research by the Smithsonian Institution found that of the 714 vascular plants found there, 337 are native species, of which nearly half are endemic . With 27 families, 55 genera and 117 species, the stock of fern plants is one of the richest on earth.

The original vegetation of the Marquesas comes mainly from the Indo-Asian region, which is related to the spread of the plants in the Pacific from west to east. However, there are also some American and Australasian species. Before human settlement, the islands were covered by a thick rainforest. On the leeward and therefore rain-free side, savanna-like bush and grass landscapes dominated .

Today the vegetation of the islands can be divided into several levels of altitude. In the lower areas, up to about 300 meters above sea level, there is tropical vegetation, which, however, has changed significantly over the centuries of human settlement. These interventions were so extensive that today there are hardly any indigenous plant communities to be found. Many of the original species are extinct. The anthropochorous plant species dominate .

The predominant cultivated plants on the islands were spread in the course of the various settlement waves of the Polynesians or later by the Europeans. The main food to this day is the breadfruit , which is processed into a nutritious pulp called popoi. Also of great importance are yams and taro , bananas , kava and all kinds of tropical fruits. The coconut palm is an important economic factor and basis for modest copra production , albeit with decreasing importance. Recently, noni fruits (Morinda citrifolia) have been grown for alternative medicine.

The middle vegetation zone is predominantly mesophytic and has low forest cover or closed bushland. In the moist valley cuts, dense and species-rich stands of ferns grow outside of the cultivated areas . On the large islands in the middle altitudes between 400 and 900 m you can find a mostly undisturbed, medium-high growing forest belt, which is mainly composed of hibiscus , pandanus and angiopteris (a genus of large, tropical ferns).

The heights above 900 m are mostly covered by clouds on the Marquesas. A largely undisturbed forest of low trees and tall bushes has been preserved here. Common plant species are: Weinmannia , Metrosideros , Myrsine , Trimenia and Scaevola . The subsoil is thickly covered with moss, herbaceous plants and ferns.

Some islands, for example Eiao, whose flora has been severely damaged by introduced and now overgrown European domestic animals (sheep, goats, horses), are largely arid and only have sparse, xerophytic vegetation made up of robust, often introduced grasses and low bushes.

fauna

The only large animals are farm animals such as horses, cattle, pigs and chickens. The Marquesan dog is extinct . The animal world on land is otherwise limited to insects , snails and lizards. Numerous rare bird species are native to the rainforest, for example the Marquesa pigeon (Gallicolumba rubescens) , the Marquesas fruit pigeon (Ducula galeata) , the Marquesasliest (Todiramphus godeffroyi) , the Marquesas monarch (Pomarea mendozae) , the Iphis flycatcher iphis () , which is endemic to the island of Ua Huka , and the Fatuhivamonarch (Pomarea whitneyi) found only on Fatu Hiva .

The smaller, uninhabited islands are rich in bird life with frigate birds , terns and other sea bird species.

history

Marquesas carving ( U'u war clubs )

prehistory

Finds of later Lapita pottery (plainware) on Nuku Hiva by the anthropologist Harry Lionel Shapiro from the American Museum of Natural History during excavations in 1956 prove a relatively early colonization of the Marquesas by Protopolynesians, although the exact time is disputed. The American archaeologist Robert Suggs assumes an initial settlement between 100 BC. Chr. To 150 AD, but newer publications do not assume first colonization before 300 AD. The Polynesian colonization of the Marquesas came from the west, probably from Samoa or Tonga , as part of the Polynesian expansion . More recent findings, however, tend to support the multiple settlement thesis in the form of multiple settlement waves. The Marquesas later settled Hawaii , New Zealand , the Society Islands and possibly Easter Island .

AG Ioannidis et al. published a genome analysis in 2020 that proves a Polynesian-South American contact around 1150–1200, the earliest between the island of Fatu Hiva and the Zenú people in Colombia.

A possible Polynesian journey eastwards, starting from the Marquesas Islands, followed by a return journey with South Americans, or after genetic mixing is under discussion is being discussed. The occurrence of the potato plant in Polynesia could also be explained in this way. It is called "kuumala" in Polynesian, very close to Quechua "kumara" or "cumal."

Based on the research of Suggs, the island's history up to the European discovery is divided into four periods:

1. Settlement period (from the beginning of settlement to approx. 600 AD)
2. Development period (from 600 to 1200 AD)
3. Expansion (from 1200 to 1600 AD)
4. Classical period (from 1600 to the influence of Europeans in the late 18th century).

In the earliest period of time following the initial settlement, people settled in small, compact beach settlements or under rock overhangs in the immediate coastal area. Their main source of food was inshore fishing, as evidenced by the findings of numerous fishhooks made from mussel shells. In addition, people practiced small-cell horticulture and resource-saving tree use.

and display information about the image

TIKI TUHIVA, largest sculpture (12 m high) in the Pacific on Nuku Hiva

This settlement phase was followed by a period of cultural development and stabilization. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD, agriculture (taro, yams) and the use of cultivated, fruit-bearing trees (breadfruit, coconut) became increasingly important. The technique of deep-sea fishing was refined, as can be seen from the further development of the fish hook , and pigs and dogs were probably also kept as food animals. Advances in canoe construction made it possible to exchange goods extensively with other islands. There is evidence of journeys to Rarotonga , 2500 kilometers away, in order to trade in the bright red, highly sought-after Kura feathers for chief jewelry. Towards the end of this period there was a noticeable change in the food supply. Archaeological studies of rubbish heaps showed a drastic decrease in the remains of wild animals (land and sea birds, turtles and marine mammals). Locally there was a significant increase in population density, combined with overexploitation of the surrounding nature and the extermination of individual species.

The further population growth and the decline of natural food sources made expansion and the development of new agricultural techniques necessary from the 2nd millennium AD. The settlements moved away from the coast and grew up the steep valleys. Cultivation terraces for the taro with sophisticated irrigation systems were created. Occasional periods of drought and natural disasters, which reduced the yield, were bridged by means of elaborately designed, huge storage pits for the fermented porridge made from the breadfruit (ma) . One of these storage pits in the Taipivai Valley on Nuku Hiva had a capacity of 216 m³. In the deeply cut valleys separated by steep rocky ridges, independent tribal principalities with a stratified social order developed. At the top were the tribal chiefs, who were able to trace their genealogy back to their deified, mythical ancestors and were supported by the nobility and the priesthood. They owned all the resources and secured the complicated social structure through a sophisticated system of dependencies, rights and tapus (prohibitions, inviolability), which granted each individual a certain right to have a say and influence, but carefully differentiated the possibilities of influence according to age, gender and social level .

Remains of a tohua on the island of Ua Pou

The center of the settlement was the tohua , an extensive place for festivals, dances and ceremonies, around which numerous stone platforms accumulated. On it were the houses built from perishable materials - e.g. For example: temples, the chief's residence, houses for the nobility and the priesthood, assembly halls, a tattoo house, a house for the warriors, etc. - which are no longer preserved today. Mountain fortresses made of a cleverly constructed system of trenches, palisades and platforms covered the inaccessible mountain ridges and prove a warlike society with frequent, ritualized tribal wars.

Stone statues of the Marquesas (Ua Pou)

In the classical period, starting around the 17th century, the settlements continued to grow up the valleys, but the beaches were avoided, the archaeologist Suggs suspected, in order to evade increasing attacks from the sea. The architecture was heading towards a climax. Huge, multilevel temple platforms ( me'ae ) with colossal, anthropomorphic stone figures were built. House platforms (paepae) were now built in megalithic stone setting . The artistic creation shifted to experts (tohunga) , who led the culture to a new bloom and produced gifted tattoo artists , wood and bone carvers, stone sculptors and canoe builders. Their products are now scattered around the world in ethnographic museums. Little of it remains on the Marquesas themselves. This period of rich cultural growth ended when the Europeans - especially the missionaries - began to exert increasing influence from the mid-18th century.

One of the downsides was the increasing influence of the warrior caste (toa) , which led to the intensification of the conflicts. The elitist warrior order of the Kaioi was formed , roughly comparable to the Arioi in Tahiti , but more aggressive in expression.

Adam Johann von Krusenstern and other early visitors from Europe tell of cannibalism during famine and ritual cannibalism of the warrior caste. No current research has been carried out on this aspect of the island's history. Rites of particular importance required human sacrifices , usually prisoners of the defeated war party. The skulls of the victims were kept in skull pits on the ceremonial platforms.

Discovery story

The Marquesas were discovered for Europe in 1595 by the Spaniard Alvaro de Mendaña de Neyra . He drove with four ships from Peru to the Solomon Islands to establish a Spanish base there. First he sighted the island of Tahuata and named the archipelago after Marques de Mendoza, the viceroy of Peru at the time: "Las Islas Marquesas Don García Hurtado de Mendoza y Canete", shortened to "Marquesas". On July 21st, he landed on Fatu Hiva. After a friendly greeting and the exchange of gifts, the islanders committed some minor thefts. In the subsequent skirmish, 8 natives were killed, including an elderly chief.

From July 27 to August 5, 1595 Mendana stayed on the island of Hiva Oa. There, too, there were conflicts and the plan to conquer and settle failed due to the fierce resistance of the islanders. Fernandes de Quiros , one of the captains, writes that a total of 200 natives were killed in these clashes.

Because of the imprecise position information and a shift in interests of the Spaniards away from the Pacific, the islands fell into oblivion. It was not until nearly two hundred years later that they were rediscovered by James Cook , who was on the Marquesas from April 7th to 11th, 1774 during his second South Sea expedition.

In 1791 the American Joseph Ingraham , who sailed from Boston to the South Seas with his merchant brig Hope , discovered the northwest group of the Marquesas with the largest island Eiao, and named it "Washington Island" after the American president.

Lieutenant Richard Hergest of the Daedalus , the supply ship for the Vancouver expedition , drew the first complete map of the Marquesas in March / April 1792.

In May 1804, Adam Johann von Krusenstern anchored during the first Russian circumnavigation of the world with the ships Nadeshda and Neva in the Bay of Taiohae on the island of Nuku Hiva. During his ten-day stay he studied the everyday life and customs of the islanders. He was also able to identify signs of ritual cannibalism .

At the end of the 18th century, the wooded islands of the Marquesas became the destination of sandalwood traders and a stopover for whaling ships. Adventurers and runaway sailors settled on some islands and brought venereal diseases, firearms and alcohol with them. The social fabric on the islands was completely out of whack.

“There were the wild adventurers, little conquistadors who, in possession of shotguns and ammunition, ruled one or a few valley tribes, led the natives in their wars and possibly instigated them to pirate the beach. They were the terrors of the missionaries. As 'educators' of the natives, they gave them the gift of coconut palm wine. "

- The Marquesans and their art. Volume 1: Tattooing. P. 38.

In 1813 Commodore David Porter reached Nuku Hiva with the frigate USS Essex , christened it "Madison Island" and took possession of it for the USA . Since the US Congress waived ratification , this occupation was not legally binding.

From August 18 to September 2, 1814, the warships HMS Briton and HMS Targus anchored off Nuku Hiva and Tahuata. From there they drove to Pitcairn , where the crew met John Adams , the last survivor of the mutiny on the Bounty .

In 1838 the Frenchman Abel Aubert Dupetit-Thouars reached the Marquesas Islands with the frigate Venus and brought along Catholic missionaries . According to a report by Jules Dumont d'Urville , who a few weeks later anchored off Taiohae with his ships Astrolabe and Zélee , four Americans, two Spaniards and an Englishman had already settled among the indigenous population in Taiohae.

Tattooed warrior from the book by Kvd Steinen: The Marquesans and their art

In 1842 France took possession of the islands as colonies . During his second voyage to the Pacific, Du Petit-Thouars, now Rear Admiral , carried out the annexation in two steps:

• on May 1, 1842 in Vaitahu, Tahuata for the southeastern group. After initial resistance, Chief Iotete (different spelling: Lotete) accepted French rule by contract. In gratitude, the French supported him in the tribal conflicts so that Iotete could rise to the rank of king of the entire archipelago.
• on June 2, 1842 at Taiohae on Nuku Hiva for the northwest group. The French built a fort and a settlement there to make their claim clear.

The writer Herman Melville stayed on the island of Nuku Hiva from June 23, 1842 to August 9, 1842. In his novel Typee he depicts - romantically exaggerated, but by no means unrealistic - his life with a clan of the Marquesas. The successful novel was published by John Murray in London in 1846 . The criticism of colonization and proselytizing contained in the book led to violent attacks by conservative circles. Still, the novel influenced many later authors who wrote about the South Seas, for example Robert Louis Stevenson , Jack London and Robert Dean Frisbie .

In 1862 a two-year raid by Peruvian blackbirders to the South Pacific islands began, which deported numerous inhabitants as cheap labor to Peru and Chile, from Ua Pou, Hiva Oa and Tahuata a total of around 30 people. The few returnees caused a smallpox epidemic on Ua Pou and Nuku Hiva in 1863 , which killed around half of the island's population.

In 1888 the writer Robert Louis Stevenson stayed for several months in the Marquesas, on the Tuamotu Archipelago and on Tahiti .

In 1897/98 the German doctor and ethnologist Karl von den Steinen visited the Marquesas. We owe him u. a. a meticulous description of the tattoos . Without this work, the ornate patterns would be lost forever.

Mission history

Although Mendaña's ships had chaplains on board, no serious attempt at proselytizing seems to have taken place in the Marquesas Islands. The first missionaries to reach the Marquesas from England via Tahiti in 1797 were William Pascoe Crook (1775–1846) and John Harris (1754–1819) from the London Missionary Society . Harris couldn't cope with the situation at all and returned to Tahiti a few months later. A contemporary report states that he was found desperate, naked and looted at the stand. Crook stayed until 1799.

The American-Hawaiian mission was no longer successful. William Patterson Alexander (1805–1864), Benjamin Parker (1803–1877) and Richard Armstrong (1805–1860) reached the Marquesas in 1834 with their wives and a three-month-old baby from Hawaii. They returned in the same year. In 1853, other missionaries under the leadership of James Kekela (1824-1904) came with their wives from Hawaii to Fatu Hiva, but could not stay there because there were confrontations with Catholic missionaries who arrived on a French warship. The Protestants went to Hiva Oa, but there too they had little success. There were few converts , and tribal wars and human sacrifices continued. The Protestant missionaries gradually left Hiva Oa and returned to Hawaii, only James Kekela remained. In 1899 he also returned to Hawaii and died in Honolulu on November 29, 1904. The Hawaiian missionary James Bicknell translated the Gospel of John into the Marquesan language in 1857 .

From 1838/39 the Catholic mission was able to establish itself, supported by the French order Pères et religieuses des Sacrés-Cœurs de Picpus, which was founded in 1800 . The missionaries spread from Mangareva to Tahuata, Ua Pou, Fatu Hiva and Nuku Hiva. Unlike their evangelical co-religionists, they suffered the same hostile reception and tribal wars. With the support of the French authorities, however, they were able to hold their own in the long run - despite all the obstacles. They even managed to baptize King Moana of Nuku Hiva, who, however, died of smallpox in 1863.

The missionaries of every faith did their best to eradicate the traditional culture with kava drinking, fertility and manliness rites, tattoos, skull preparations, dance and traditional music, but they also tried - and ultimately with success - cannibalism, human sacrifice and the permanent Stop tribal wars.

Population development

Marquesans in Hapatoni on Tahuata

The fertile nature was able to feed the numerous and rapidly growing population in the first centuries. Older estimates assume that at the end of the 13th century the islands had a total of between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants. However, recent research considers the figure of 35,000 to be more realistic. The rapid growth was not without conflict:

“One of the main reasons for the immense tribal rivalries can be seen in the relation between the number of inhabitants and the usable land. As the population grew beyond the point at which all ecological niches were filled, the conflicts over land distribution and use multiplied. "

Natural disasters, abortion and infanticide, but above all the cruel tribal wars, prevented the population from expanding further. The influence of the Europeans did not end the conflicts at first, but only exacerbated them through the availability of firearms. In addition, there were previously unknown diseases and epidemics as well as a decline in the birth rate.

Relatively reliable figures, which make the dramatic population decline after contact with the Europeans clear, were only available after the French authorities took over management (figures for all islands together):

• 1842: 20,200 pop.
• 1856: 12,550 pop.
• 1872: 06,045 pop.
• 1882: 04,865 pop.
• 1897: 04,279 pop.
• 1911: 03,000 pop.
• 1930: 02,200 pop.

The official census recorded the population as a whole, including European immigrants. In adjusted figures, only around 3,800 Marquesan natives are likely to have remained in 1897.

Politics and administration today

flag

Politically, the Marquesas now belong to the French Overseas Zealand ( Pays d'outre-mer , POM) French Polynesia and are therefore affiliated to the EU . They are administered by a subdivision (Subdivision administrative des Îles Marquises) of the High Commission of French Polynesia (Haut-commissariat de la République en Polynésie française) based in Papeete .

The subdivision administrative des Îles Marquises comprises six politically independent municipalities (Communes des Îles Marquises) :

local community	main place	Area km²	Population 2017	Sub-municipalities (Communes associées)
Fatu Hiva	Omoa	85.0	612	(with Motu Nao )
Hiva Oa	Atuona	326.5	2,243	Atuona 1.934 (with Mohotane) Puamau 309 (with Fatu Huku)
Nuku Hiva	Taiohae	387.8	2,951	Hatiheu 352 Taiohae 2,183 (with Motu Iti, Eiao, Hatutu, and Motu One) Taipivai 416
Tahuata	Vaitahu	61.0	653
Ua hookah	Vaipaee	83.4	674
Including Pou	Hakahau	105.6	2.213	Hakahau 1,683 Hakamaii 530

The currency is (still) the CFP franc, which is linked to the euro . The administrative budget of the Marquesas is largely subsidized with funds from France and the EU.

The majority of the 9,346 inhabitants (2017) are of Catholic faith. Most of them live in small villages, there are no big cities in the Marquesas. The largest town is Taiohae on the island of Nuku Hiva, which is also the administrative center, with 2,183 inhabitants (2017).

For several years there have been efforts to achieve independence. The Marquesas do not feel sufficiently represented by the central administration of French Polynesia in Papeete and are striving for a direct connection to France.

language

The official language in the Marquesas is French . The indigenous Marquesan language is one of the Polynesian languages , a subunit of the Austronesian language tribe . It is spoken by 5500 Marquesans. Marquesan is divided into a northern dialect (3400 speakers) on the northern island group and a southern dialect (2100 speakers) on the southern islands. Some researchers consider the two varieties as separate languages.

Others

In his novel " Die Propellerinsel " , published in 1895, Jules Verne compares the Marquesas Archipelago with a squadron of French warships:

“The largest would then be the first-class ships“ Nuka-Hiva ”and“ Hiva-Oa ”; the middle the cruisers of different ranks "Hiaou", "Uapou" and "Uauka"; the smallest finally the Avisos "Motane", "Fatou-Hiva" and "Taou-Ata", while the islets and atolls would be simple pinnacles and boats - only that none of them are movable. "

- Jules Verne : The Propeller Island

literature

• Thor Heyerdahl : Fatu Hiva . (1937) Goldmann, Munich 1996; ISBN 3-442-08943-3 (report on a year-long adventurous robinsonade on the island of Fatu Hiva, which is still remote today).
• Herman Melville : Typee . First published in 1846, several German editions. (Personal experiences of Melville with a tribe on the island of Nuku Hiva, embedded in a novel)
• Robert Louis Stevenson : In the South Seas. 1896; German: In the South Seas , translated by Heirich Siemer (1928), new edition Belle Époque Verlag, Dettenhausen 2017, ISBN 978-3-945796-69-6 (first part: Stevenson's experiences on the Marquesas)
• Karl von den Steinen : The Marquesans and their art. 3 volumes, Dietrich Reimers, Berlin 1925–1928; Facsimile re-print Fines Mundi, Saarbrücken 2006 (still valid ethnological basic work on the Marquesas) ( digitized from the Bodleian Libraries )
• Adam Johann von Krusenstern : Journey around the world , selected, edited and edited by Christel and Helmuth Pelzer; FA Brockhaus, Leipzig 1985, ISBN 3-325-00172-6 .
• Greg Dening: Islands and beaches: discourse on a silent land; Marquesas 1774-1880 . University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0721-9 .
• Burgl Lichtenstein: The world of 'Enana - A journey through the past and present of the Marquesas Islands. MANA-Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-934031-62-3 (a kind of travel diary with extensive background information and many personal impressions).
• Marie-Pierre Cerveau: Les îles Marquises: Insularité et développement (Iles & Archipe. Nø31). Pu Bordeaux 2001, ISBN 978-2-905081-43-8 ( books.google.de at Google Books )

Web links

Commons : Marquesas  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Literature by and about Marquesas in the catalog of the German National Library
• Jane Freeman Moulin: Music of the Southern Marquesas Islands. (PDF; 10.4 MB) In: University of Auckland (Ed.): Occasional Papers in Pacific Ethnomusicology, No. 3, 1994
• Tourism site of the Marquesas
• Maps with boundaries of the communes associées

Remarks

1. ↑ There are several spellings: Te Henua Kenana , Henua 'enana , to name just two more. Since the Marquesan culture did not develop its own script, they are all based on oral transmission to the Europeans. One can assume that one is as inaccurate as the other.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b} Institut Statistique de Polynésie Française (ISPF) - Recensement de la population 2017.
2. ↑ Valérie Clouard, Alain Bonneville: Ages of seamounts, islands, and plateaus on the Pacific plate . In: Gillian R. Foulger, James H. Natland, Dean C. Presnall, Don L. Anderson (Eds.): Plates, plumes and paradigms (=  Geological Society of America Special Paper . No. 388 ). Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colo. 2005, ISBN 0-8137-2388-4 , pp. 71-90 , doi : 10.1130 / 0-8137-2388-4.71 .
3. ↑ Flora of the Marquesas ( Memento of August 19, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
4. ^ Dieter Mueller-Dombois & Raymond Fosberg: Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag Berlin-New York 1998, ISBN 0-387-98313-9 , pp. 447-453
5. ↑ ^{a b} R.C. Suggs: Archeology of Nuku Hiva, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia; Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. New York 1961
6. ^ Matthew Spriggs & Atholl Anderson: Late colonization of East Polynesia. In: Antiquity - A quarterly review of World Archeology, Volume 67, Number 255, p. 210
7. ^ ^{A b} Patrick Vinton Kirch: The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms, Cambridge University Press New York 1984 (4th edition 1996)
8. ↑ Ioannidis, AG, Blanco-Portillo, J., Sandoval, K. et al .: Native American gene flow into Polynesia predating Easter Island settlement. In: Nature 583, pp. 572-577 (2020). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2487-2
9. ^ Gannon, Megan: DNA reveals Native American presence in Polynesia centuries before Europeans arrived. In: National Geographic (July 9, 2020). https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/07/dna-pre-columbian-contact-polynesians-native-americans/
10. ^ F. Leach et al: The fishermen of Anapua Rock Shelter, Ua Pou, Marquesas Islands ; in Asian Perspectives - the Journal of Archeology for Asia and the Pacific 36 (1997), pp. 51-66
11. ↑ Patrick Vinton Kirch: On the Road of the Winds - An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact , University of California Press, Berkeley 2002, pp. 258-259
12. ↑ Barry Vladimir Rollett: Colonization and cultural change in the Marquesas . In J. Davidson et al .: Oceanic Culture History: Essays in Honor of Roger Green . Dunedin (New Zealand) 1996, p. 538 ff.
13. ^ R. Linton: Archeology of the Marquesas Islands ; Honolulu 1925, p. 103
14. ^ Adam Johann von Krusenstern: Voyage Round the World. John Murray, London 1813, p. 167
15. ↑ Jacques Antoine Moerenhout : Voyages aux îles du Grand Océan . Adrienne Maisonneuve, Paris 1837, p. 304
16. ^ Alfred Schoch: Ritual killing of people in Polynesia. A contribution to the question of human sacrifice, taking into account the cultural, sociological and economic structure of this population group on the islands of the South Seas , summarized under the collective ethnological term "Polynesian culture" , University of Freiburg, 1954 (dissertation)
17. ^ Peter N. Peregrine, Melvin Ember: Encyclopedia of Prehistory (Volume 3: East Asia and Oceania) . Springer, New York – Boston 2001, p. 247
18. ↑ The Voyages of Pedro Fernandez de Quiros - 1595 to 1606 ; translated and edited by Clements Markham, Volume 1; London 1904; Chapters 4-7
19. ^ Papers of Joseph Ingraham, 1790-1792: Journal of the Voyage of the Brigantine "Hope" from Boston to the North-West Coast of America . 1790-1800. Retrieved June 8, 2013.
20. ↑ Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern: Journey around the world in the years 1803, 1804, 1805 and 1806 on the orders of his emperors. Majesty Alexander the First, on the ships Nadezhda and Neva, under the command of the captain von der Kaiserl. Marine, AJ von Krusenstern ; Berlin 1811
21. ^ Steven Roger Fischer: A History of the Pacific Islands, Palgrave New York 2002, p. 98
22. ^ ^{A b} Karl von den Steinen: The Marquesans and their art. Volume 1, Dietrich Reimer, Berlin 1925.
23. ^ Eugéne Caillot, Histoire de la Polinésie Orientale, Paris 1910, p. 344.
24. ↑ Hershel Parker: Herman Melville - A Biography, Volume 1, 1819-1851, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1996, pp. 210-220
25. ^ Henry Evans Maude : Slavers in Paradise, University of the South Pacific Press, Uva ( Fiji ), 1986.
26. ^ Niel Gunson: Australian Dictionary of National Biography. Volume 1, Melbourne University Press, 1966, pp. 259-261.
27. ^ J. Ham: A Biographical Sketch of the Life and Labors of the Late Rev. William Pascoe Crook. Melbourne 1846.
28. ↑ Death of Kekela - Missionary Who Was Thanked By Lincoln. Article in The Hawaiian Gazette, Honolulu, December 2, 1904, p. 3.
29. ^ Quotation from RC Suggs: The island civilizations of Polynesia. New York 1961; P. 128.
30. ↑ ispf.pf
31. ↑ Population des communes de Polynésie française
32. ^ Result of the 2017 census, French Polynesia Statistical Office
33. ↑ Population of the communes et communes associées de Polynésie française Population 2017 of the commune associée
34. ↑ Le Nouvel Observateur of December 23, 2007: "Polémique à Tahiti: les Marquises veulent se rapprocher de Paris" rue89.com
35. ↑ Stephen A. Wurm, Shirô Hattori: Language Atlas of the Pacific Area. Australian Academy of the Humanities, Canberra 1981

This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on August 23, 2005 .