Medicine in ancient Egypt

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According to legend, Imhotep is considered the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine.

According to legend, Egyptian medicine is said to have been around 2700 BC. BC by the official and high priest Imhotep , who is also considered the inventor of the Egyptian script and was worshiped as the god of healing in later times. In fact, officials trained as scribes were also supreme royal administrators and advisers, as well as often priests and representatives of science, from whose knowledge the medical profession and a medicine containing both magical-religious and empirically-rational elements arose in ancient Egypt. In the late period , an Imhotep cult developed, which led to the construction of numerous temples and chapels . These became places of pilgrimage for the sick and served as models for the Asklepieions in ancient Greece . In Alexandria , the capital of the Ptolemaic empire , reached the end of the Ptolemaic empire 30 BC. Ancient Egyptian medicine in its final phase of bloom. The city was considered a center for culture and science of antiquity and at the same time a famous training center for doctors. Here she exerted great influence on the healing arts in ancient Greece, and thus also on that of Europe . The Alexandria Library is believed to have contained numerous Egyptian medical manuscripts that were lost forever when the building was destroyed. After the end of the pharaonic dynasties, ancient Egyptian traditions continued in the medicine of the Coptic culture of early Christian Egyptians, which can be proven from the 3rd century onwards .

Sources

In addition to many ostraka , a total of 13 ancient Egyptian papyri with medical content are known to date . These have a strict structure of case descriptions and recipes . Among the papyri from Al-Lahun (Kahun, Lahun) there is also a veterinary papyrus, which is still controversial in research today.

Lahun papyri

The medical papyri from Lahun were discovered in 1888/89 by the English archaeologist William Flinders Petrie during excavations in the workers' settlement of Medinet-Kahun near Al-Lahun in the Fajum oasis , translated into English by Francis Llewellyn Griffith in 1898 and then the most important papyri were published . The papyri are now in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archeology at University College London . In medical history, they are often referred to as Papyrus Kahun . The medical papyrus Kahun VI.1 and the veterinary papyrus Kahun LV.2. both of ancient Egyptian origin, combined, but nevertheless differentiated from one another in the professional world. They consist of smaller pieces of papyrus that are overloaded with various notes and appear to have been torn and thrown away after bills and everyday occurrences had been noted on them.

They can be traced back to around 1850 BC. To date. One papyri contains gynecological prescriptions, the other instructions for treating animals. This came as a great surprise to experts in Egyptology; For a long time it was assumed that only sacrificial animals received veterinary treatment.

The gynecological papyrus Kahun VI. 1, pp. 2 and 3
The veterinary papyrus Kahun LV. 2

Ebers papyrus

The Ebers papyrus is the most extensive medical papyrus. It contains 108 columns on almost 19 meters and deals with a large number of case studies from various contemporary fields such as gynecology , internal medicine , dentistry , parasitology , ophthalmology and dermatology . It also gives examples of the surgical treatment of abscesses and tumors , the repairing ( reduction ) of bone fractures, and the treatment of burns, and includes a treatise on the heart , blood vessels and a brief chapter on clinical depression . It also contains a collection of recipes.

Traditionally, it was mostly written from the last quarter of the 16th century BC. Started out. Intermediate palaeographic investigations have shown that the medical records are of older origin and were probably written down during the reign of Pharaoh Ahmose and represent possible copies of older documents.

Edwin Smith Papyrus

The Edwin Smith papyrus (also called "wound book") is an ancient Egyptian medical text written on papyrus, which is one of the oldest written documents of medical healing processes. It testifies to a very highly developed state of medicine in ancient Egypt, especially in the field of surgery . It was discovered in Thebes in 1862 and probably goes back to the end of the 12th Dynasty ( Middle Kingdom ) in Egypt. It is possible that the papyrus is a copy of a treatise that was put together 600 to 700 years ago, because at the end of the text there are numerous glosses with explanations of words (which is not known from other medical papyri).

Hearst papyrus

The Hearst papyrus dates to the first half of the 18th dynasty . It contains recipes for purulent inflammation, diseases specific to teeth and intestines and heart diseases. Many of them can also be found in the Ebers papyrus.

Papyrus London

The Papyrus London dates from the 18th Dynasty and mainly treats gynecological diseases, tumors, burns and blindness. One section contains incantations against foreign diseases, including the Asian disease . The papyrus has a high proportion of magic spells.

Papyrus Brugsch

Also “Great Berlin Papyrus”. Here are z. B. Vascular Diseases. The papyrus dates from the 19th Dynasty ( New Kingdom ).

Carlsberg Papyrus

The Carlsberg papyrus dates to around 1200 BC. BC, but is a copy of a document from the 12th dynasty. The papyrus contains formulas for the treatment of eye diseases as well as information and prognoses for childbirth and general gynecological areas. It is kept at the University of Copenhagen.

Anatomical concepts

For the anatomical designation of humans, hieroglyphic writing uses human pictorial symbols for the outer body parts and pictorial symbols of animal body parts for the internal organs of humans.

Vascular system

According to the Egyptians' understanding, the heart was the central body organ and seat of the mind . Vessels ( metu ; mtw = "channels") led from the heart to all other parts of the body and supplied them with air , water and blood . The vessel model was based on the Nile and its side canals. Just as the Nile irrigated and supplied the land, according to the Egyptians' belief there was a vascular system inside the body that supplied the various parts of the body with vital substances and carried away excretions. A person was only healthy when the internal current could flow unhindered. If the "rivers" dammed up, the supply of the body was endangered and diseases developed.

The hollow organs were also part of the metu vessels. They conducted water and air to all parts of the body. All body excretions such as feces , urine , mucus , semen and blood were drained from the vessels. However, mt was not only understood to mean the terms canal and vessel, etc., but also (according to today's understanding of anatomy) also anatomical structures such as muscle cord, tendon or nerve.

Improper nutrition was considered to be one of the main causes of diseases of the vascular system. According to the Egyptian understanding, so-called mucus and pain substances ( wḥdw ) formed when digestion was not carried out properly , which led to a jam (a "sand bank") in the vessels. Doctors often prescribed emetics , laxatives and enemas as a remedy and to combat such “traffic jams” . In addition to “traffic jams”, “floods” could also be the cause of illness, e. B. if too much blood got into the liver .

The pulse beat the Egyptians indicated as "walking of the heart". In their opinion, it was produced by the “air we breathe”, which not only consisted of oxygen-containing air, but also of a material life force that humans received from the gods ( pneuma ). The Egyptian doctrine of the vessels and their juices later entered the juices and pneuma doctrine of Greek medicine .

Diseases

Overview

Diseases were often perceived as a malfunction of the affected body parts, which was usually associated with pain . The two most common expressions for pain were meret ("(stabbing) pain") and menet ("suffering").

Many diseases that affect the entire body are known from medical texts. According to the Egyptian medical understanding, many of them can be traced back to disorders in the vascular system and the occurrence and spread of pain substances. An allocation and description according to today's terms and concepts of illness is not possible in every case.

A distinction was made between external and internal diseases. In the head area were u. a. Known headaches and migraines . A lot of attention was paid to the treatment of the eyes ( blindness ), but also the ears ( deafness ), the mouth , the teeth and the tongue . The limbs were mainly stiffened , bent (like King Siptah's clubfoot ) and swelling , especially as a result of arthritis . The internal diseases affected the chest , internal organs such as the lungs , liver, stomach and heart ( ra-ib can mean both stomach and heart), the abdomen , abdomen , anus and the bladder . Digestive disorders were particularly common , but intestinal worms , bleeding and even coughing are also mentioned.

A large group in the sources are injuries . Broken bones and wounds required doctors to have special surgical skills. Blows, bites and stings from animals and burns were also the order of the day. Otherwise one had to struggle with ulcers , tumors and swellings, as well as rashes and inflammations .

In women, diseases particularly occurred in the genitals ( ḥm.t ), including the uterus (bleeding, dislocations) and the vagina , as well as the breast . Children's illnesses included screaming , thirst , coughing, phlegm and indigestion. A number of unlocalizable and unidentifiable diseases were primarily associated with general malaise and fever . The appearance of signs of aging such as wrinkles and graying was also considered a disease.

Emergence

A distinction was made between magical and natural causes of illness. Gods (especially messengers of the Sekhmet ), demons or haunted dead were regarded as unnatural causes of illness . But they could also be bewitched by humans using magic. They penetrated people by means of the "breath" of a god, demon or magician through the openings on the left side of the body, which were equated with death. Some heart and stomach complaints were caused by an incubus impregnating its victim with poison seeds at night . Illness was viewed as a punishment for wrongdoing against a deity, as well as revenge or disapproval of a deceased or living person. Accordingly, evocations of demons and prayers played an important role in therapy.

Disorders in the digestive cycle played a role in the natural causes. Incorrectly digested food turned into harmful "pain or mucilaginous substances" and spread over the vessels throughout the body, where they local diseases such as " constipation " ( šn c : indigestion or obstruction as in stomach tumors or intestinal obstruction), swelling, suppuration and Caused stiffening .

Physical and mental disorders could cause one another. For example, anger and anger lead to abnormal heart conditions, on the other hand, a stomach constipation could in turn cause symptoms of anxiety .

Well-known subjects

Traditionally there are: gynecologists and obstetricians, ophthalmologists, dentists, the "doctor of the abdomen", the "shepherd of the anus", specialists in poisoning ("doctor of the goddess Selket ") and the "doctor and priest of Heka " (possibly a doctor for "Invisible" diseases). The existence of a special veterinarian is still debated in research.

The exact function of many doctors has not been handed down, others name their title such as "Senior Physician of the Queen's House", but it is not clear whether they are responsible for all doctors or what their special field was before this high office.

Most common treatments

The recipes that were definitely at the fore were those for treating the eyes. With sandstorms, dust swirls and insects, Egypt is the classic land of eye diseases . Cosmetic eyeshadow always had a preventive effect. The Egyptians were also big fans of enema . Contraceptives, or agents for increasing fertility or for treating pain in the female abdomen, form another large class. A letter from a foreign potentate has been received, asking for an Egyptian doctor to be sent so that his sister can conceive a child. However, the Pharaoh writes back that this is far beyond the age of having children and that the best doctor cannot change anything about it. Amputations , wooden prostheses, and even trepanations (i.e. the opening of the skull) can be detected on mummies . The bone structure on the wound shows that the patient lived for several years and that the operation was successful.

Instruments

The ancient Egyptian doctors had numerous instruments and technical aids. Of the used scalpels , knives and tongs but little has survived. There are no clear finds. Most of the information comes from medical texts or images.

Standard medical equipment likely included small knives, saliva spoons, and mortars . For the treatment of eye ailments, a liquid remedy was instilled with a vulture feather (similar to a pipette ). Blunt horns may have been used to “pour” a substance into the anus ( enema ) . The smoking device , which probably consisted of two matching clay vessels, was also a necessary aid .

Cutting instruments

Cutting instruments were used primarily for operational work. The knife treatment itself was called djua . A hemem was the name given to a knife-like metal device with which a tumor was surgically “opened”. It is only documented in text and was probably a special surgical instrument. The des knife was made of flint and was used for general slicing. It was also known outside of medicine as a commodity. Another knife was the schas , which had a special shape and was used to pull out tumors.

The henuh device was made of animal hide or leather and was a kind of tweezers or pliers. A dja drill and a chepet knife are also mentioned in medical texts . With the chepet knife you could cut open an inflammation on the ear with a round cut.

The "instrument cabinet"

"Instrument cabinet", relief in the double temple of Kom Ombo

In the temple of Kom Ombo from Ptolemaic times comes a relief known as the "instrument cabinet", the interpretation of which as a representation of medical instruments is, however, controversial. The clear assignment to the designations and areas of application has not yet been fully clarified. Scissors , pliers, scales , a saw , sacks , two cupping heads , a sponge, curettes and a drill can be seen on the relief .

The gap is very similar to a pair of scissors from the Coptic Museum in Cairo that of Coptic doctors to prepare large wounds before sewing and trimming of dressing material was used. The sack was probably used to store medicines . The curettes were used to clean large infected wounds in soft tissue or bones and prepare them for the application of medicines.

A device is supposed to represent a trephine that was used for "skull drilling". However, no actual drilling was carried out. To open the top of the skull, a piece of bone was removed by scraping or chiselling . The process is not mentioned in any Egyptian medical text, but only in the Corpus Hippocraticum . Trepanations on living people could be proven by skull finds from prehistory, the New Kingdom and the late period. Signs of a healing process indicate a successful procedure.

Other aids

The necessary inventory of a doctor also included bandages . In this case, was used linen bandages unterschiedlichster fineness, length and width. Another bandage was a vegetable fiber called fatty . He was often taken with drugs such as B. honey , ointment or oil moistened, but could also be used dry. The fiber served as a wound pad and is comparable to today's gauze or swab . A distinction was made between simple fetet fibers and fetet-en-debit fibers of the debit plant.

The Egyptians were probably also familiar with inhalers . A text gives detailed instructions on how to make a device, which consisted of hot stones, a remedy, a pot and a reed, and was used to treat coughs .

Medical papyri were also aids and, like instruments, were kept in leather cases .

See also

literature

(sorted chronologically)

German
  • Julia Budka : Art of healing and sorcery - medicine in ancient Egypt. In: Kemet. Issue 4/2000: Science in Ancient Egypt. ISSN  0943-5972 , pp. 13-19.
  • Bendix Ebbell : The Egyptian names of diseases. In: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde (ZÄS) No. 63, 1928, pp. 71–75.
  • Hermann Grapow : Outline of the medicine of the ancient Egyptians. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1954.
    • Hermann Grapow: Sick, Illness and Doctor. From the healthy and sick Egyptians, from the diseases, from the doctor and from the medical activity (= outline of the medicine of the ancient Egyptians. Vol. 3). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1956.
  • Peter WF Heller: Doctors, magicians, pharaohs. Myth and Reality of Ancient Egyptian Medicine . Self publication . Engelsdorfer Verlag, Leipzig 2008, ISBN 3-86901-037-1 .
  • Gabriele Höber-Kamel: Medicine and Magic. In: Kemet. Issue 2/2005, ISSN  0943-5972 .
  • Kamal Sabri Kolta, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Magic and reason in conception of illness and therapeutic practice. (= Sudhoffs archive . Issue 42). Steiner, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-515-07482-1 .
  • Kamal Sabri Kolta, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: Egyptian Medicine (3000-30 BC). In: Werner E. Gerabek u. a. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of medical history. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , pp. 9-14.
  • Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Camel Sabril Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 17, 1998.
  • Wolfhart Westendorf : Grammar of Medical Texts. (= Outline of the Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians. Volume VIII). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1962.
  • Wolfhart Westendorf: Papyrus Edwin Smith. A medical textbook from ancient Egypt. Wound and trauma surgery. Magic spells against plagues, different recipes. (= Hubert's classics of medicine and natural sciences. Vol. 9). H. Huber, Bern / Stuttgart 1966.
  • Wolfhart Westendorf: awakening of the healing art. Medicine in ancient Egypt. Artemis & Winkler, Zurich 1992, ISBN 978-3-7608-1072-0 .
  • Wolfhart Westendorf: Handbook of ancient Egyptian medicine. 2 volumes (= Handbuch der Orientalistik. Vol. 36). Brill, Leiden / Boston / Cologne 1998, ISBN 978-90-04-10319-1 .
English
  • AT Sandison: Diseases in ancient Egypt. In: Adian + Eve Cockburn: Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1980, ISBN 978-0-521-23020-9 , pp. 29-44.
  • John F. Nunn: Ancient Egyptian Medicine. British Museum Press, London 1996, ISBN 978-0-7141-0981-7 .
  • George J. Armelagos , James O. Mills: paleopathology. In: Kathryn A. Bard (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 , pp. 604-07.
French
  • F. Jonckheere: Les médecins de l'Egypte pharaonique; Essai de prosopographie. Fondation égyptologique reine Elisabeth, Brussels 1958.
  • Ange Pierre Leca: La Médecine égyptienne au temps des Pharaons. Édition Dacosta, Paris 1992, ISBN 2-85128-029-5 .
  • Thierry Bardinet: Les papyrus médicaux de l'Égypte pharaonique. Édition Fayard, Paris 1995, ISBN 2-213-59280-2 .
  • Richard-Alain Jean: On the subject of the objets égyptiens conservés du musée d'Histoire de la Médecine. Édition Université René Descartes - Paris V, collection Musée d'Histoire de la Médecine de Paris, Paris 1999, ISBN 2-9508470-3-X .
  • Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette: On the subject of the textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I: la reproduction. In: SH Aufrère (ed.): Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végéta. (ERUV) Vol. II, Montpellier 2001, ISBN 2-84269-502-6 , pp. 537-564.
  • Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette: On the subject of the textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I: la contraception. In: SH Aufrère (ed.): Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végétal. (ERUV) Vol. II, Montpellier 2001, ISBN 2-84269-502-6 , pp. 564-592.
  • Bruno Halioua: La médecine au temps des Pharaons. Édition Liana Levi, collection Histoire lieu, Paris 2002, ISBN 2-86746-306-8 .
  • Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette: On the subject of the textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I: la gynécologie (1). In: SH Aufrère (ed.): Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végétal. (ERUV) Vol. II, Montpellier 2005, ISBN 2-84269-695-6 , pp. 351-487.
  • Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette: La mère, l'enfant et le lait en Égypte Ancienne. Traditions médico-religieuses. Une étude de senologie egyptienne. SH Aufrère (ed.), Édition L'Harmattan, collection Kubaba - Série Antiquité - Université de Paris 1, Panthéon Sorbonne, Paris 2010, ISBN 978-2-296-13096-8 .
  • Richard-Alain Jean: La chirurgie en Égypte ancienne. Speaking of the instruments médico-chirurgicaux métalliques égyptiens conservés au musée du Louvre. Édition Cybele, Paris 2012, ISBN 978-2-915840-29-2 .

Web links

Commons : Medicine in Ancient Egypt  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ D. Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, KS Kolta: Egyptian Medicine (3000-30 BC). Berlin / New York 2005, p. 9.
  2. ↑ Kamal Sabri Kolta: Coptic Medicine. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , pp. 779-781.
  3. ^ W. Westendorf: Awakening the healing art. Medicine in ancient Egypt. Zurich 1992, p. 12.
  4. ↑ Inventory number Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archeology, University College London 32057.
  5. ↑ Inventory number Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archeology, University College London 32036.
  6. ^ W. Westendorf: Awakening the healing art. Medicine in ancient Egypt. Zurich 1992, p. 232.
  7. ^ W. Westendorf: Awakening the healing art. Medicine in ancient Egypt. Zurich 1992, p. 44.
  8. ↑ Kamal Sabri Kolta, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: The medicine in ancient Egypt. Magic and reason in conception of illness and therapeutic practice. Stuttgart 2000.
  9. ↑ a b c G. Höber-Kamel: Medicine and Magic. In: Kemet 2/2005. Pp. 4-5.
  10. ^ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Kamal Sabri Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. 1998, pp. 144-151.
  11. ↑ Papyrus Ebers, 854 1.
  12. ^ A b Wolfgang Helck , Eberhard Otto , Wolfhart Westendorf : Lexicon of Egyptology. Vol. III, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2000, ISBN 3-447-04468-3 , p. 757.
  13. ^ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Camel Sabril Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. 1998, pp. 129-141.
  14. ↑ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Kamel Sabril Kolta: The naturalistic concept of illness of the ancient Egyptian doctor. Notes on the modern conceptualization of an archaic medicine. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 143-152.
  15. ^ Hermann Grapow: Outline of the medicine of the ancient Egyptians. 1954.
  16. ↑ Kamal Sabri Kolta, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: Egyptian Medicine (3000–30 BC) 2005, p. 13.
  17. ^ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Camel Sabril Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. 1998, pp. 129-141; here: pp. 131–133 ( “Arthritis” and suffering of mt / mtw ).
  18. ^ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Camel Sabril Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. 1998, pp. 133-135 ( vascular diseases and ailments of hatj, ib, ra-ib ) and p. 146 f.
  19. ^ W. Westendorf u. a .: Lexicon of Egyptology. Volume III, Wiesbaden 2000, pp. 757-758.
  20. ↑ a b c d W. Westendorf u. a .: Lexicon of Egyptology. Volume III, Wiesbaden 2000, p. 758.
  21. ↑ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Kamal Sabri Kolta: Suffering of the ḥm.t - suffering of women. The gender category in ancient Egyptian medicine. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 153-161; in particular p. 156 ff.
  22. ↑ Kolta, Schwarzmann-Schafhauser (2005), p. 9 f.
  23. ^ Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser, Kamal Sabri Kolta: Disease in Ancient Egypt. On the reception of paleopathological research results in medical historiography or the difficulties of interdisciplinary cooperation. 1998, pp. 135-138. ( Infectious diseases and "constipation" ).
  24. ^ W. Westendorf u. a .: Lexicon of Egyptology. Volume III, Wiesbaden 2000, p. 759.
  25. ^ Felix Reinhard: Gynecology and obstetrics of the ancient Egyptian papyri, II. In: Sudhoffs archive. Volume 10, 1917, pp. 124-161.
  26. ^ A b c J. Budka: Art of healing and magic - medicine in ancient Egypt. In: Kemet 4/2000. P. 17.
  27. ↑ Grapow: Sick, Diseases and Doctor. Berlin 1956, p. 104f.
  28. ^ J. Budka: Art of healing and sorcery - medicine in ancient Egypt. In: Kemet 4/2000. Pp. 17-18.
  29. ↑ a b c G. Höber-Kamel: Medicine and Magic. In: Kemet 2/2005. Pp. 5-6.
  30. ↑ Kamal Sabri Kolta, Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: The medicine in ancient Egypt. Magic and ratio in conception of illness and therapeutic practice (= Sudhoff's archive. Supplement 42). Steiner, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-515-07482-1 , p. 126.
  31. ↑ In the figure, second device from the right in the second row from the top.
  32. ^ J. Budka: Art of healing and sorcery - medicine in ancient Egypt. In: Kemet 4/2000. P. 18.
  33. ↑ G. Höber-Kamel: Medicine and Magic. In: Kemet 2/2005. P. 5.
  34. ↑ G. Höber-Kamel: Medicine and Magic. In: Kemet 2/2005. P. 6.
  35. ↑ Grapow: Sick, Diseases and Doctor. Berlin 1956, p. 100.