Bromeliads

Bromeliads
	Guzmania berteroniana
Systematics
Subdivision :	Seed plants (Spermatophytina)
Class :	Bedecktsamer (Magnoliopsida)
	Monocots
	Commelinids
Order :	Sweet grass (Poales)
Family :	Bromeliads
Scientific name
	Bromeliaceae
	Yuss.

The Bromeliaceae (Bromeliaceae), also Bromeliaceae called, are a plant family in the order of Süßgrasartigen (Poales) within the monocotyledonous plants ( monocots ). The 58 to 62 genera with 2900 to 3180 species are native to the Neotropic . The best known are the fruits of the pineapple ( Ananas comosus ). A number of species and their varieties are used as ornamental plants .

Botanical history

Charles Plumier named the genus Bromelia (Plum.) After the Swedish doctor and botanist Olaf Bromel (1639–1705). Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (Juss.) Published the Bromeliaceae family in 1789. At first the sole interest (from around 1690 in Europe) was the fruits of the pineapple .

Christopher Columbus brought the pineapple ( Ananas comosus ) back to Spain from his second trip to the New World as early as 1493 . But it was not until 1776 that a second species, Guzmania lingulata , was brought to Europe. Aechmea fasciata came to Europe in 1828 and Lutheria splendens (formerly Vriesea splendens ) in 1840. When exotic plants became fashionable in the 19th century, the cultivation of bromeliads as ornamental plants began.

description

In Tillandsia circinalis , the stem axis is not compressed and the leaves act as tendrils by curling up

Funnel bromeliad with a compressed stem axis. In Neoregelia species, the inflorescence axis is also compressed and therefore the flowers “sit” in the leaf funnel: Neoregelia concentrica var. Plutonis

Illustration by Aechmea tillandsioides

Appearance

Almost all species of the Bromeliaceae are evergreen , perennial herbaceous plants . Exceptions are a few plurienne hapaxanthe plants , these species die off completely after blooming and seeding : the most impressive example is Puya raimondii , it takes many decades (50 to 70 years) to form the largest inflorescence of all plant species. Another exception are a few species that are deciduous in the dry season, such as Pitcairnia heterophylla .

Most bromeliads have a compressed stem axis , i.e. a leaf rosette as a typical growth form. However, there are also some species whose stem axis is not compressed and which form small stems. Many species are more or less pronounced xerophytes , so they have different options for reducing evaporation. About two thirds of the species have CAM metabolism .

root

As with all monocotyledonous plants , the primary root dies shortly after germination and adventitious roots form, so-called sprout roots . The terrestrial species often have a well-developed root system. The roots of the epiphytic species mainly serve to secure the plant body to the ground. In a few species ( e.g. Tillandsia usneoides ) no further roots are formed after the primary root has died.

leaves

The alternate and spirally arranged, simple, parallel- veined leaves are usually divided into leaf blades and leaf sheaths; but they usually do not have a petiole (exception, for example, some Pitcairnia species). The exception is a two-line arrangement of the leaves, especially in the subgenus Diaphoranthema of the genus Tillandsia . The shapes of the leaf blade range from linear to tongue-shaped to broadly triangular. The leaf margins are prickly or not. In a few species ( e.g. Tillandsia duratii ) the leaf tips are rolled up and serve to anchor the plants to branches.

A characteristic feature is the possession of flaky hairs ( suction scales , trichomes) on the leaves, with which these plants absorb the precipitation and nutrients directly, without going through the roots . The suction scales sit either visibly on the leaf surface - then the leaf looks more or less gray - or inside the leaf funnel in the water supply. The structure of the suction scales can be more or less complicated - the more progressive ( evolution ) the species, the more complicated the structure (with Pitcairnioideae and Bromelioideae easier than with Tillandsioideae and such a progression series can also be demonstrated within the subfamilies and genus ). The suction scales always consist of the so-called shield or trichome lid and the water absorption cells. The shield consists of four central cells, which are surrounded by eight cells and which in turn are surrounded by 16 cells. In advanced taxa, these rings of cells are surrounded by a "wing" of 64 cells. All shield cells are dead and have thick walls. So dehydration does not harm them and they are hygroscopic; when they are dry they are often folded. When it is dry, air is trapped in the cells and they appear gray, silvery to white, while the cells appear much greener when they are moist. The water absorption cells in the center of the suction scale are arranged in a row and are sunk in the epidermis ; they are living cells. The water uptake cells establish the connection with the leaf tissue. The shed hair also serves as protection against evaporation and radiation.

Inflorescences and flowers

The flowers and fruits are usually in very differently shaped, simple or compound, racemose or paniculate inflorescences ( inflorescences ) together. The usually very decorative bracts (bracts) and bracts of inflorescences serve the attraction of pollinators (next diurnal or nocturnal insects and birds and bats ). In a few species there is only one flower ( e.g. Tillandsia usneoides ).

Zygomorphic flowers of Pitcairnia grafii

An important characteristic is the three-fold number of flowers , which is common to the other monocots . The mostly hermaphrodite and often radial symmetry , rarely zygomorphic flowers have a double perianth . Only in a small number of species are the flowers unisexual or functionally unisexual. Then the species can be monoecious or dioecious separately sexed; Examples: the genera Androlepis , Hechtia and some species in Catopsis and Dyckia . The three sepals are free or fused. The three petals are mostly free; only in the species of the genera Cryptanthus , Greigia , Guzmania , Mezobromelia , Navia , Neoregelia and Nidularium are they fused together. In some genera there are two small scales (ligules) at the base of the petals; the absence or presence is often an important determinant. There are two circles with three stamens each. Pitcairnioideae and Tillandsioideae produce monocolpate pollen with an elongated aperture, and Bromelioideae often produce porate pollen with round apertures. Three carpels are an upper to under constant ovary grown. The stylus is cylindrical and usually straight or sometimes curved. The scar has three free or fused scar lobes. There are septum nectaries .

The flower formula is: or or ${\ displaystyle \ star \;}$ ${\ display style \ downarrow \, K_ {3} \; C_ {3} \; A_ {3 + 3} \; G _ {\ underline {(3)}} \;}$ ${\ displaystyle \; G _ {\ overline {(3)}}}$

Fruits and seeds

The fruits and seeds are very different in the subfamilies (see there): triple, septicidal, dry capsule fruits or berries with a large number of seeds are formed. The genera pineapple as well as the pseudananas and acanthostachys from the subfamily of the Bromelioideae form an edible fruit cluster (syncarpium) as berries.

The seeds are wingless or winged or have parachute-like appendages. Except for the Bromelioideae, the seeds are spread by the wind. The berries of the Bromelioideae are eaten by animals, which excrete the seeds undigested. The flying hairs of the Tillandsioideae allow the seeds to adhere relatively firmly to their base when they are moist. This ensures that germination only takes place where there is sufficient water for further growth.

Sets of chromosomes

The chromosome number is usually 2n = 50, so there is usually a base number of x = 25. But it can also be only 2n = 34 in the genus Cryptanthus , 2n = 46 in Ayensua uaipanensis or up to 2n = 150 in Orthophytum species. Polyploidy plays a major role in chromosome evolution in the Bromeliaceae; For example, in Orthophytum and Bromelia there are species with 2n = 100 tetraploid karyotypes and also hexaploid karyotypes with 2n = 150.

As an extreme, some Tillandsia species even colonize telephone lines

Epiphytic bromeliad on Irazú Volcano, Costa Rica

ecology

They grow epiphytically (around 1700 species, i.e. more than half) on trees (trunk or branch) or other plants (e.g. cacti) or on rocks ( lithophytic ), but also on the ground, i.e. terrestrially. They often thrive in hydrically difficult locations where the subsoil temporarily dries out completely, or in the crown area of the trees (crown areas of trees in the tropics are very extreme locations with high levels of solar radiation and high evapotranspiration ). Species with a lot of scale hairs mostly occur in areas with difficult climatic conditions, or colonize higher levels of the jungle trees. Species on which no scale hair can be seen thrive in the cloud forest zone or in the lower level of the tropical rainforests . Many taxa thrive in nutrient-poor habitats .

Overall, bromeliad species thrive in almost all land habitats of the Neotropics: All desert areas of the New World, even the driest desert in the world, the Atacama Desert , are among their habitats. They grow in rocky areas up to altitudes of over 4000 meters. Many species thrive in the páramo and on the table mountains, the tepuis . From the lowland rainforests to the mountain forests to the cloud forests and the dry forests and thorn forests, one can find species, i.e. in all forest formations of the Neotropic.

Many species form a leaf funnel, with the leaf bases they form cisterns in which they can collect water. These small ponds represent their own ecological niche ( biotope ). Such habitats have been called Phytotelmata since L. Varga 1928 (singular: Phytotelma ). For example, some tropical tree frog species ( Hylidae ) live and breed in bromeliads. Some insect species use these small ponds as breeding grounds for the larvae , and some aquatic plants live in them.

A few (3 of about 2900) species are on the way of evolution towards carnivorous plants (carnivores), see Brocchinia or Catopsis .

The pollination is usually caused by animals, especially birds ( ornithophily ) and bats ( Chiropterophilie ) or by butterflies ( Lepidopterophilie ). In many species, a lot of nectar is produced in the flowers , such species are mostly pollinated by hummingbirds (trochilophilia). Only Navia species are wind pollinated ( anemophilia ). Depending on the species, the flowers are open and can be pollinated at different times of the day. For example, there are species that can only be pollinated at night, especially those species that are pollinated by bats or moths; their flowers are often white or whitish. Only relatively few species have fragrant flowers.

Occurrence

distribution

The exclusively New World distribution ( Neotropic ) of the bromeliad family extends in tropical and subtropical areas from the southern states of the USA to southern Chile (44th parallel) and the Caribbean islands . Pitcairnia feliciana is the only exception with its small area in West Africa ; Today it is assumed that it did not get there earlier than 9.3 million years ago due to long-distance spreading, while this occurrence was previously used as evidence of continental drift (Raven & Axelrod 1974) (from the closest relatives the Neotropical Rapateaceae is there is only one species in West Africa: Maschalocephalus dinklagei Gilg & K.Schum. ). Centers of biodiversity are the Mata Atlântica in Brazil, the mountain slopes of the Andes in Peru, Colombia and Ecuador, also Mexico and neighboring areas in Central America .

Bromeliad species are native to altitudes between the lowlands and the Páramo level (about 3200 to 4500 meters).

The following numbers of bromeliad species were determined for individual countries in 1991 and 1994: Peru 411, Columbia 391, Ecuador 368, Venezuela 364, State of Rio de Janeiro 311, Costa Rica 191, Florida 17. The centers of diversity are the Guiana Shield and the Andes . Whereby the original taxa occur almost only on the Guiana shield and the development of all Bromeliaceae probably also began there. The Tillandsioideae, however, have their largest number of species in the Andes and have probably also developed there. The following information on species diversity was obtained for Mexico in 2004: There are 18 genera with 342 species. The two Ursulaea species occur only in Mexico. The genus Hechtia has its center of biodiversity in Mexico with 49 of the 51 known species, 46 of which only occur in this country. Other genera that have many species in Mexico are Tillandsia with 192 species and Pitcairnia with 45 species. The Mexican states with the most species are Oaxaca (135 species), Chiapas (121 species), Veracruz (91 species), Guerrero (88 species), Jalisco (72 species) and Puebla (58 species). In 2004, 16 genera with 178 species were recorded for Panama , the most species-rich genera being Guzmania (38 species), Werauhia (37 species), Tillandsia (34 species) and Pitcairnia (22 species). Six genera with around 23 species, 2 subspecies and 4 varieties are native to Chile, of which 20 species occur only there, some species are very rare and endangered.

Fossil: Puya Gaudini

Development history

There are only a few fossil records related to the Bromeliaceae. The most reliable is Karatophyllum bromelioides LDGómez, a 30 million year old fossil from sediments of the Middle Tertiary in Costa Rica described by Luis Diego Gómez Pignataro in 1972 . The first Bromeliaceae developed from xerophytic species in the dry ( arid ) center of the Gondwana continent. The parent group of the Bromeliaceae is dated to about 112 million years ago at the earliest, Wikström et al. 2001 assume the age of the parent group to be 72 to 69 million years ago. 84 and 23 million years ago one suspects an increased adaptive radiation based on the original forms on the Guayana shield (Givnish et al. 1997, 2004, 2008, 2011).

Systematics

The Bromeliaceae family includes 58 to 73 genera and about 2900 to 3180 species. Some editors also provide a lower number of categories. The problem of the number of genera has arisen for some time in particular, because genetic family tree analyzes have shown that certain groups of species clearly do not fit into the original genus. An example of this can be found under Tillandsioideae . For example, the genus Tillandsia is polyphyletic with over 500 species in its current size and so individual genera are currently being outsourced, this is “in flux” and cannot currently be represented satisfactorily.

So far, most authors have distinguished three subfamilies:

Tillandsioideae Burnett : Important characteristics are triple, septicidal, dry capsule fruits and seeds with parachute-like appendages. There are 1015 to 1050 species included. There were eight or nine genera and in 2016 a total of eleven new genera were introduced.
Bromelioideae Burnett : the only subfamily with berry fruits and seeds without appendages. There are 31 genera and 722 to 730 species included.
Pitcairnioideae Harms : The capsule fruits are triple, septicidal and dry and the seeds are mostly winged. It is a previously polyphyletic group. The monophyletic Pitcairnioideae s. st. today contains only five ( Deuterocohnia , Dyckia , Encholirium , Fosterella and Pitcairnia ) to nine genera and 465 to 515 species. From this subfamily Pitcairnioideae sl the new subfamilies were spun off.

According to the latest (2007 to 2011) investigations, further subfamilies are added, all of which were combined in the previously polyphyletic subfamily Pitcairnioideae. This results in a total of eight subfamilies:

Brocchinioideae (GSVarad. & Gilmartin) Givnish : It contains only one genus:
- Brocchinia Schult. : The approximately 21 species occur in southern Venezuela and Guyana.
Hechtioideae Givnish : It contains only one genus:
- Hechtia Klotzsch : The approximately 60 species are distributed from southern Texas to northern Nicaragua; the center of biodiversity is Mexico with 56 species.
Lindmanioideae Givnish : It contains two genera with about 49 species:
- Connellia N.E.Br. : The six or so species occur only on the Guiana shield from Ptari-Tepui to Roraima-Tepui.
- Lindmania Mez : The approximately 43 species are distributed from northern South America to northern Brazil.
Navioideae Harms : It contains four or five genera with around 110 species, all species occur only on the Guayana highlands and in northeastern Brazil:
- Brewcaria L.B.Sm., Steyerm. & H.Rob. : The six or so species occur in the Guiana highlands in northeastern South America, only in the states of Colombia and Venezuela.
- Sequencia Givnish : A genus newly established in 2007 with the only species:
  - Sequencia serrata (LBSm.) Givnish (Syn .: Brocchinia serrata LBSm.): It occurs in Colombia.
- Cottendorfia Schult. & Schult. f. in Rome. & Schult .: It contains only one type:
  - Cottendorfia florida Schult. & Schult. f. : It occurs in Brazil.
- Navia Mart. ex Schult. & Schult. f. in Rome. & Schult .: Its approximately 93 species have characteristics that are interpreted as the most primitive within the Bromeliaceae. As a special feature, they are wind-pollinated. Distribution area is the northeastern South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana and Suriname) with the Guiana highlands as a development center.
- Steyerbromelia L.B.Sm. : The approximately six species occur in the Guiana Highlands in northeastern South America, only in Venezuela.
Puyoideae Givnish : It contains only one genus:
- Puya Molina : The approximately 200 to 250 species are common on the South American continent.

The family tree of the Bromeliaceae family with its eight subfamilies today:

Bromeliaceae

Brocchinioideae

Lindmanioideae

	Tillandsioideae

	Hechtioideae

Navioideae

	Bromelioideae

	Puyoideae

	Pitcairnioideae s. st.

For a long time, all genera that belonged neither to the Tillandsioideae nor to the Bromelioideae were combined in the subfamily Pitcairnioideae. It was already known that this could not reflect the family relationships and that the Pitcairnioideae were paraphyletic . Nevertheless, so far only the Bromelioideae and Tillandsioideae have been monophyletic . The latest findings are in TJ Givnish et al. Released in 2007 and 2011.

Within the order of the Poales , the Bromeliaceae are closest to the Typhaceae Juss. and these two with the Rapateaceae Dum. related.

Propagation mechanisms and possibilities for reproduction in culture

The propagation takes place:

sexually about:
- wind-dispersed seeds or
- Seeds that are in berries. The berries are eaten by animals, the seeds are then excreted undigested. Or
asexual ( vegetative ) by growing side shoots , they are called Kindel in bromeliads ; in some species the new leaf rosettes arise at some distance from the mother plant ( offshoots ).

The mother plant dies after the seed formation and the formation of the daughter plants.

Particularly in order to achieve a high rate of reproduction with hybrids that are not true-to-seed , in -vitro young plants are produced in large quantities in some varieties by methods of plant tissue culture .

Use and ingredients

Only a few species from the Bromeliaceae family are used by humans as food or for the production of fibers or active ingredients: The known pineapples and their varieties are used most economically . In addition to the fruits, pineapples also provide fibers. Some other bromeliad species are also used to obtain fibers, such as Neoglaziovia variegata (called Caroa in Latin America). From plant parts of pineapple TYPES which is protein-cleaving (proteolytic) enzyme bromelain isolated, which is used to make meat more tender (there are other types could be used as Bromelaine are widely used in the family). Tillandsia usneoides (“Spanish Moss”) is used as packaging and cushioning material. Few species with heavily reinforced leaves are planted as living “spiked fences” (for example species of the genus Bromelia ). A starch powder is produced from the strains of Bromelia karatas and Bromelia laciniosa (called Macambira in Brazil) after boiling and sun drying. The fruits of Greigia sphacelata are eaten. The budding inflorescences of Puya chilensis are eaten as a salad; the spectacled bear ( Tremarctos ornatus ) also likes them ; Other parts of the plant are also used by humans.

Some species and their varieties are popular, very long flowering ornamental plants , which even in rooms as a houseplant can well take care of: The most commonly for the sale cultivated: Aechmea fasciata , some Guzmania - hybrids , some vriesea hybrids and varieties of Vriesea splendens , Varieties of Ananas comosus and some Tillandsia species. Few Neoregelia varieties, Billbergia varieties, Aechmea varieties, etc. are less common in stores. Many species and varieties adorn parks, gardens and terraces in tropical and subtropical countries. Seen worldwide, fruit or inflorescences are rarely offered as cut flowers; in the countries of origin, cut off inflorescences are used somewhat more often.

Diseases

A number of diseases can occur in culture:

Often the young plants are attacked by "propagating fungi" after germination and in the first few months and die prematurely. Colletotrichum crassipes can also cause leaf rot on fully grown plants. Wilt diseases caused by Fusarium or Verticillium species often occur in Aechmea varieties in particular . The leaves first turn yellow, then the stem axis is also clearly affected and the pathways are blocked by the pathogen and the plant slowly dies.

A number of types of lice infest the bromeliads: aphids are relatively unproblematic, mealybugs and mealybugs are more difficult to control. Various scale insect species are increasingly becoming a major problem, especially in botanical collections. Root lice, which weaken the plants, are often discovered late. Mention should be made of spider mites and fungus gnats. Snails only pose a problem when it comes to seeds.

Before control measures with pesticides expert advice is required, and to remember that many bromeliad species can not tolerate a number of plant protection products, for example they may lead to large-scale necrosis on the leaves.

swell

Eric J. Gouda, Derek Butcher, Kees Gouda: Encyclopaedia of Bromeliads. Version 3.1 (2012) with updates 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016.
The Bromeliaceae family on the AP website. (Section systematics)
Werner Rauh : Bromeliads - Tillandsias and other bromeliads worthy of culture. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-8001-6371-3 (section distribution, ecology and description)
Bromeliads as a habitat for other organisms. ( Memento from January 17, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
Harry E. Luther: An Alphabetical List of Bromeliad Binomials. 2008, (PDF; 321 kB) In: The Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. Sarasota, Florida, USA. Published by The Bromeliad Society International. (PDF file; 314 kB)
The Bromeliaceae family at DELTA by L. Watson and MJ Dallwitz.
The Bromeliad Society International .
Harry E. Luther, Gregory K. Brown: Bromeliaceae. - Same text online as the printed work , In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Ed.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 22: Magnoliophyta: Alismatidae, Arecidae, Commelinidae (in part), and Zingiberidae. Oxford University Press, New York / Oxford 2000, ISBN 0-19-513729-9 . (Section description)
Ralf Horres: Investigations into the systematics and phylogeny of the Bromeliaceae with special consideration of molecular characteristics. Dissertation . 2003. (full text PDF, 2.5 MB)
Thomas J. Givnish, Kendra C. Millam, TM Evans, JC Pires, Paul E. Berry, Kenneth J. Sytsma: Phylogeny, biogeography, and ecological evolution in Bromeliaceae-insights from ndhF sequences. In: JT Columbus, EA Friar, JM Porter, LM Prince, MG Simpson: Monocots: Comparative Biology and Evolution. Poales. Aliso. Volume 23, 2007, pp. 3-26. (PDF-Online) (Section systematics)
David H. Benzing, Bradley C. Bennett, Gregory K. Brown, Mark A. Dimmitt, Harry E. Luther, Ivón M. Ramirez, Randall G. Terry, Walter Till: Bromeliaceae: Profile of an Adaptive Radiation. Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-43031-3 . (Google Book online version) (Distribution and Evolution sections)
Georg Zizka, Marco Schmidt, Katharina Schulte, Patricio Novoa, Raquel Pinto, Konstantin König: Chilean Bromeliaceae: diversity, distribution and evaluation of conservation status. In: Biodiversity and Conservation. 18, 9, 2009, pp. 2449-2471. doi: 10.1007 / s10531-009-9601-y (dissemination section)
Thomas J. Givnish, Michael HJ Barfuss, Benjamin Van Ee, Ricarda Riina, Katharina Schulte, Ralf Horres, Philip A. Gonsiska, Rachel S. Jabaily, Darren M. Crayn, J. Andrew C. Smith, Klaus Winter, Gregory K. Brown, Timothy M. Evans, Bruce K. Holst, Harry Luther, Walter Till, Georg Zizka, Paul E. Berry, Kenneth J. Sytsma: Phylogeny, adaptive radiation, and historical biogeography in Bromeliaceae: Insights from an eight-locus plastid phylogeny . In: American Journal of Botany. Volume 98, 2011, pp. 872-895. PDF. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.1000059

Individual evidence

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Werner Rauh : Bromeliads - Tillandsias and other bromeliads worthy of culture. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-8001-6371-3 .
↑ Ralf Horres: Investigations on the systematics and phylogeny of the Bromeliaceae with special consideration of molecular characteristics. Dissertation , 2003 (PDF; 2.5 MB)
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d David H. Benzing, Bradley C. Bennett, Gregory K. Brown, Mark A. Dimmitt, Harry E. Luther, Ivón M. Ramirez, Randall G. Terry, Walter Till: Bromeliaceae: Profile of an Adaptive Radiation . Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-43031-3 . (Google Book online version)
↑ Illustrations of the dandruff hair.
↑ Ana Lúcia Pires Cotias-de-Oliveira, José Geraldo de Assis Aquino, Moema Cortizo Bellintani, Jorge Clarencio Souza Andrade, Maria Silva Guedes Lenise: Chromosome numbers in Bromeliaceae. In: Genetics and Molecular Biology. Volume 23, 1, 2000, pp. 173-177. (PDF, 594 kB)
↑ J. Gitaí, Ralf Horres, AM Benko-Iseppon: Chromosomal features and evolution of Bromeliaceae. In: Plant Systematics and Evolution. Volume 253, Springer Vienna, 2005, pp. 65–80.
↑ L. Varga: An interesting biotope of the biocoenosis of aquatic organisms. In: Biologisches Centralblatt , Volume 48, 1928, pp. 143-162.
^ BA Richardson: The bromeliad microcosm and the assessment of faunal diversity in a Neotropical forest. In: Biotropica. Volume 31, 1999, pp. 321-336.
↑ Thomas J. Givnish, Kendra C. Millam, TM Evans, JC Hall, JC Pires, Paul E. Berry, Kenneth J. Sytsma: Ancient vicariance or recent long-distance dispersal? Inferences about phylogeny and South American-African disjunctions in Rapateaceae and Bromeliaceae based on ndhF sequence data. In: International Journal of Plant Sciences. Volume 165, 2004, pp. 35-54. doi: 10.1086 / 421067
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d Thomas J. Givnish, MHJ Barfuss, B. Van Ee, R. Riina, Katharina Schulte, Ralf Horres, PA Gonsiska, RS Jabaily, DM Crayn, JAC Smith, K. Winter, Gregory K. Brown, TM Evans, Bruce K. Holst, Harry E. Luther, Walter Till, Georg Zizka, PE Berry, Kenneth J. Sytsma: Adaptive radiation and diversification in Bromeliaceae: insights from a 7-locus plastid phylogeny. In: American Journal of Botany. Volume 98, Issue 5, 2011, pp. 872-895. PDF. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.1000059
↑ Adolfo Espejo-Serna, Ana Rosa López-Ferrari, Ivón Ramírez-Morillo, Bruce K. Holst, Harry E. Luther, Walter Till: Checklist of Mexican Bromeliaceae with Notes on Species Distribution and Levels of Endemism. In: Selbyana. 2004, Volume 25. Issue 1, pp. 33-86. (Full text PDF) JSTOR 41760147
^ Daniel Cáceres González, Katharina Schulte, Marco Schmidt, Georg Zizka: A synopsis of the Bromeliaceae of Panama, including new records for the country. In: Willdenowia. Volume 41, 2011, pp. 357-369. DOI: 10.3372 / wi.41.41216
^ Georg Zizka, Marco Schmidt, Katharina Schulte, Patricio Novoa, Raquel Pinto, Konstantin König: Chilean Bromeliaceae: diversity, distribution and evaluation of conservation status. In: Biodivers. & Conservation. Volume 18, Issue 9, 2009, pp. 2449-2471. (Full text PDF)
↑ Karatophyllum bromelioides LDGómez (Bromeliaceae), nov. gen. et sp., del Terciario Medio de Costa Rica. In: Revista de Biología Tropical. Volume 20, Issue 2, 1972, pp. 221–229: (PDF, 969 kB)
↑ ^a ^b Michael HJ Barfuss, Walter Till, Elton JC Leme, Juan P. Pinzón, José M. Manzanares, Heidemarie Halbritter, Rosabelle Samuel, Greg K. Brown: Taxonomic revision of Bromeliaceae subfam. Tillandsioideae based on a multi-locus DNA sequence phylogeny and morphology. In: Phytotaxa , Volume 279, Issue 1, October 2016, pp. 001-097. doi : 10.11646 / phytotaxa.279.1.1
^ Harry E. Luther: An Alphabetical List of Bromeliad Binomials. 2008. (PDF; 321 kB) In: The Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. Sarasota, Florida, USA. Published by The Bromeliad Society International .
↑ ^a ^b Thomas J. Givnish, JC Pires, SW Graham, MA McPherson, LM Prince, TB Patterson: Phylogeny, biogeography, and ecological evolution in Bromeliaceae: Insights from ndhF sequences. In: JT Columbus, EA Friar, JM Porter, LM Prince, MG Simpson: Monocots: Comparative Biology and Evolution. Poales. Rancho Santa Ana Botanical Garden, Claremont, 2007, 23, pp. 3-26.
↑ Eric J. Gouda, Derek Butcher, Kees Gouda: Encyclopaedia of Bromeliads. Version 3.1, 2012 with additions 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016. _{last viewed on December 31, 2016}
↑ The Bromeliaceae family on the AP website .
↑ H. Mercier, GB Kerbauy: Bromeliaceae. In: YPS Bajaj: High-tech and micropropagation. Volume VI, Springer, 1997, ISBN 3-540-61607-1 , pp. 43-57. Google book.
↑ Entries on Bromeliaceae in Plants For A Future

Web links

Commons : Bromeliad Family (Bromeliaceae) - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Tom Deutschle: Fascination Rainforest - Bromeliads .
Peter v. Sengbusch: Botany Online - dandruff hairs of the bromeliads .
Derek Butcher: Key to the genera of the Bromeliaceae. 2004. (online)

[Rauh1990-1] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Werner Rauh : Bromeliads - Tillandsias and other bromeliads worthy of culture. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1990, ISBN 3-8001-6371-3 .

[Horres2003-2] Ralf Horres: Investigations on the systematics and phylogeny of the Bromeliaceae with special consideration of molecular characteristics. Dissertation , 2003 (PDF; 2.5 MB)

[Benzing2000-3] David H. Benzing, Bradley C. Bennett, Gregory K. Brown, Mark A. Dimmitt, Harry E. Luther, Ivón M. Ramirez, Randall G. Terry, Walter Till: Bromeliaceae: Profile of an Adaptive Radiation . Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-43031-3 . (Google Book online version)

[UniHamburg-4] Illustrations of the dandruff hair.

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[Givnish2011-10] Thomas J. Givnish, MHJ Barfuss, B. Van Ee, R. Riina, Katharina Schulte, Ralf Horres, PA Gonsiska, RS Jabaily, DM Crayn, JAC Smith, K. Winter, Gregory K. Brown, TM Evans, Bruce K. Holst, Harry E. Luther, Walter Till, Georg Zizka, PE Berry, Kenneth J. Sytsma: Adaptive radiation and diversification in Bromeliaceae: insights from a 7-locus plastid phylogeny. In: American Journal of Botany. Volume 98, Issue 5, 2011, pp. 872-895. PDF. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.1000059

[Espejo-Serna2004-11] Adolfo Espejo-Serna, Ana Rosa López-Ferrari, Ivón Ramírez-Morillo, Bruce K. Holst, Harry E. Luther, Walter Till: Checklist of Mexican Bromeliaceae with Notes on Species Distribution and Levels of Endemism. In: Selbyana. 2004, Volume 25. Issue 1, pp. 33-86. (Full text PDF) JSTOR 41760147

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[14] Karatophyllum bromelioides LDGómez (Bromeliaceae), nov. gen. et sp., del Terciario Medio de Costa Rica. In: Revista de Biología Tropical. Volume 20, Issue 2, 1972, pp. 221–229: (PDF, 969 kB)

[BarfussEtAl2016-15] Michael HJ Barfuss, Walter Till, Elton JC Leme, Juan P. Pinzón, José M. Manzanares, Heidemarie Halbritter, Rosabelle Samuel, Greg K. Brown: Taxonomic revision of Bromeliaceae subfam. Tillandsioideae based on a multi-locus DNA sequence phylogeny and morphology. In: Phytotaxa , Volume 279, Issue 1, October 2016, pp. 001-097. doi : 10.11646 / phytotaxa.279.1.1

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[BromeliadEncyclopaedia-18] Eric J. Gouda, Derek Butcher, Kees Gouda: Encyclopaedia of Bromeliads. Version 3.1, 2012 with additions 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016. _{last viewed on December 31, 2016}

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[PFAF-21] Entries on Bromeliaceae in Plants For A Future