Chicago School (Sociology)

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The Chicago School of Sociology is a research context from the interwar period of the 20th century that had its institutional center in the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago . The Chicago School of sociology applies between Durkheim -Schule before the First World War, and the Parsons -Schule after the Second World War , as the average of the three sociology schools that shaped the professional world. Her main field of research was the city of Chicago , research topic on the change in urban life triggered by industrialization and immigration , research method empirical social research , often in the form of field research and participatory observation . It provided groundbreaking preparatory work for urban sociology , deviance and crime sociology as well as important contributions to social ecology and is still of current importance for urban geography . The school was founded by Robert E. Park ; other pioneers and outstanding representatives are Albion Woodbury Small , William I. Thomas and Ernest W. Burgess .

After a fundamental study by Thomas and Florian Znaniecki on immigrant Polish farmers and programmatic writings by Park and Burgess, more than fifty individual studies by employees and doctoral students of the department on ethnic and subcultural issues in Chicago and on newly created or changed professions (such as “shop maid “Or office workers) and facilities (such as hotels or ballrooms ) in the big city. Six of them were later referred to as "Classics of Chicago Sociology". The six “classics” were examined in problem areas of the city (“Zone in Transition”), which were particularly suitable for observing changes in human behavior in the urban environment. They inspired other sociologists to undertake church studies in different regions of the United States . The Chicago School's most important contribution to cultural sociology is the concept of the marginal man , a modern social figure released from traditional ties.

From 1937 developed Herbert Blumer in the appropriation of theses George Herbert Mead the symbolic interaction to a school of thought in sociology. Since 1995 this line of research has been called the "Second Chicago School" by some authors. In addition to the Chicago School of Sociology, there is also the Chicago School of Architecture and the Chicago School of Economics .

The city of Chicago as a field of research

Summer crowds on Lake Michigan in front of the Chicago skyline, around 1925

The general research interest of the Chicago School was the effects of the massive structural changes in North American society since the beginning of the 20th century on the life and coexistence of people. Industrialization , urbanization and mass immigration influenced family , milieu and personality structures . They also influenced religious, moral, communicative orientations and rules of conduct for people. The city ​​of Chicago served as the “ pars pro toto ” for these interactive processes of general change in the United States . The field of study was chosen not because it happened to be on the doorstep of the University of Chicago, but because Chicago was then considered to be “the most American of all American cities”, and in which modern times were most clearly expressed.

Chicago was little more than an army camp with a few settlements in 1820 and twenty years later had only 4,500 inhabitants. In 1900, it had become the second largest city in the United States with 1.7 million inhabitants. In 1920 there were already three million people living in the city. The cause of the rapid expansion was the influx of migrants from Europe who came to the industrial metropolis on Lake Michigan in search of work . By 1910, half the population was born outside of the United States. In 1914, around 800,000 Germans of the first or second generation of immigrants lived in the city , making Chicago the fifth largest German community.

According to Reiner Keller , the Chicago situation in the first decades of the 20th century, especially in the Roaring Twenties , resembled a "seething thicket" in which immigrants from different European countries and an increasingly larger proportion of African-Americans lived in more or less peaceful coexistence. It was no coincidence that Chicago was the city of the great gangster figures , with Al Capone at the helm, who undermined prohibition legislation, illegally supplied the residents with alcohol and otherwise controlled the entertainment business. Political life was shaped by numerous strikes and large-scale demonstrations against working conditions in industry. Violent outbursts of racial hatred against African Americans increased after the flow of European immigrants died down with World War I and the number of immigrants from the American southern United States rose sharply.

All in all, Reiner Keller described Chicago as a “cauldron” in those years, in which new and extreme social inequalities and confrontations between different ethnic-cultural groups and values ​​arose. In addition, normative moral concepts and actual everyday life, which was characterized by the search for work and pleasure, came into conflict with one another. The city was made for debates and social reform movements of all kinds - and for social science research. Robert Ezra Park described the city of Chicago as a “laboratory” that was created by people and that they are now creating anew.

History of the Chicago School

In 1892, on the initiative of Albion Woodbury Small, the world's first university institute for sociology, the Department of Sociology , was founded at the University of Chicago . This made him one of the pioneers of the subject in the United States. As early as 1872 William Graham Sumner had become professor of political economy and social sciences at Yale University . In 1890 Frank Wilson Blackmar gave his first lecture as Professor of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas . He is one of the many almost forgotten scientists who taught sociology at American universities even before the First World War . This is also due to the fact that sociology in the USA up until the 1920s was more of a “social gospel”, a mixture of Christian sentiments, science and world improvement. The focus was on the evaluation and application of scientific knowledge to solve social problems. Other pioneers of the subject in the USA were Franklin H. Giddings , who received the chair for sociology and history of civilizations at New York's Columbia University in 1894 and expanded the department soon to be the second most important sociological center after Chicago, and Lester Frank Ward , who was from 1906 sociology professor at Brown University .

Small remained director of the Chicago department until 1925. He also founded the American Journal of Sociology in 1895 and served as its editor for over thirty years. In 1905 he co-founded the American Sociological Association . His own sociological work had no lasting effect. As an organizer, on the other hand, Small was “probably the personality who has contributed most to the advancement of sociology as an academic discipline.” Administratively, he was instrumental in the creation of the Chicago School . Therefore, in some representations, he is counted among the members of the Chicago School or referred to as its founder.

Three founding fathers

Robert Ezra Park is considered the actual founder of the Chicago School , next to him William Isaac Thomas and Ernest W. Burgess are mentioned as outstanding personalities of the founding phase . Thomas is first in chronological order, but his influence was more indirect, as he left Chicago involuntarily before the department's sociology became a school of science.

Thomas was a member of the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago from 1894 and was a professor there from 1910. In 1918 he was the victim of an intrigue, lost his professor status and had to leave the university. It was said that he and his companion had booked a hotel room under a false name in another state, which was considered scandalous at the time. He was arrested by the FBI for "immoral behavior". The charges were later overturned, but his reputation was ruined, also because of related press campaigns. The University of Chicago Press stopped publishing the unpublished volumes of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. This five-volume work, written by Thomas and Florian Znaniecki , was published between 1918 and 1920 by a Boston publisher. It was the first and groundbreaking empirical study of the Chicago School and is now considered a classic and key work of sociology. With his theoretical considerations, Thomas opened up philosophical pragmatism for sociology in this and other writings .

Robert Ezra Park , founder of the Chicago School

Park studied at the University of Michigan ( philology , history and philosophy ) and was there particularly influenced by John Dewey . He then worked for almost twelve years as a journalist in various major American cities, which is why Rolf Lindner subtitled his book on the subject "Sociology from the experience of reportage". He then spent several years in Germany and in 1899/1900 heard Georg Simmel's sociological lectures at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität , which, as he later stated, was the only systematic instruction in the subject for him. In 1903 he did his doctorate with Wilhelm Windelband at the University of Heidelberg with a thesis on mass and audience. After his return he was first assistant to Hugo Münsterberg at Harvard University and then secretary of the Congo Reform Association . From 1905 he worked as a press agent and ghostwriter for the African-American civil rights activist Booker T. Washington . In the context of this activity he organized the international conference On the Negro in 1912 , to which he also invited Thomas. He was so impressed by Park that he brought him to the Sociological Department at the University of Chicago in the winter semester of 1913/14. Park gave a lecture on The Negro in America and stayed with the department. There he wrote the essay The City in 1915 . Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment , considered the founding document of the Chicago School of Sociology . He did not become a professor until 1923. He did not leave behind his own magnum opus , he was the "great stimulator (...) who literally made school."

Next to Thomas, and especially after his departure from Chicago in 1918, Ernest W. Burgess was Park's most important collaborator. Burgess had studied sociology in Chicago from 1908 and received his Ph.D. been awarded a doctorate. From 1916 he was assistant professor and from 1927 professor. He is referred to as the first “young sociologist” because all the other university lecturers in the department came from other professional fields. With Burgess, Park wrote the textbook Introduction to the Science of Sociology in 1921 . In 1925 both published (together with Roderick McKenzie ) the research reader The City . With his graphic representations he made comparative social space analyzes possible .

Differentiation from the social reform approach

Edith Abbott , Dean of the School of Social Service Administration from 1924 to 1942

Up until the First World War , Chicago sociology, like the subject in the USA as a whole, was socially reformist and evangelically motivated and operated the so-called “Big-C-Sociology” (“Charity, Crime an Correction”). That changed with the Robert E. Parks research program. Park himself was committed to social reform, but kept this strictly separate from science. His credo was: “A moral man cannot be a sociologist.” He sharply rejected the self-righteousness inherent in the perspective of helping and improving and implemented an empirically “understanding” research concept that was characteristic of the first Chicago school of sociology . The separation of sociology and the reform movement had methodological reasons. Instead of focusing on immediate problem solving, the behavior of city dwellers should be examined impartially and their point of view learned.

The social reform approach was maintained at the University of Chicago by the School of Social Service Administration (founded in 1908), where Sophonisba Breckinridge and Edith Abbott taught as professors. Despite the methodological conflicts, the two institutions inspired each other through the results of their field research . The Nobel Peace Prize laureate Jane Addams also worked with the Sociology Department, but without being employed at the university herself.

In the disciplinary foundation and defensive struggles between university sociology and because of its proximity to social reform settlement movement so-called "settlement sociology" was academic sociology for "Men Science", while the women of the supposedly "lower" discipline of social work devoted . According to Reiner Keller , this was the “classic form of gender homogenization”.

Chicago sociology as a scientific school

In his portrayal of the Chicago School, Eike Hennig selects the period from 1915, when Park's first catalog of questions on urban research (The City) appeared, through the dissertations of Park students from 1923 to Louis Wirth's general view on urbanization in 1938. In Martin Bulmers The standard work on the history of the Chicago School is named as the period from 1915 to 1935 as its main period. Rolf Lindner describes the years between 1920 and 1935 as the classic phase of the Chicago School. Sighard Neckel names the period between 1918 and 1934, Howard S. Becker the period between 1915 and 1938.

According to Hennig, the reason for the different periodizations is likely to be "that the Chicago School is relaxed". This already results from the large number of dissertations by Park and Bullmer students, which were developed independently of each other. This research is based "loosely" on a few programmatic approaches and approaches. There is no close research organization around a clearly defined topic, theory and method concept, nor is there a citation community. Each dissertation is unique and its relation to the general concept can usually only be found in the preface of the doctoral supervisor. That is why Becker writes of a “so-called” Chicago school and describes it as a “school of activity” with different styles and phases.

A new phase at the department began with William Fielding Ogburn , who was professor there from 1927 to 1951 and gave organizational and community studies a statistical orientation. Robert E. Park retired in 1933, after which only Ernest W. Burgess was active in the department of the protagonists of the school. Everett C. Hughes , the last Park student to teach as a professor at the University of Chicago, published studies up until the 1960s that were in the tradition of the classic work program, but also of the so-called "Second Chicago School" (better known under the designation symbolic interactionism ). According Sighard Neckel the term "Second Chicago School" was for the period from 1946 to 1960 for the first time in 1995 by Gary Alan Fine used David Matza used previously heard the term "neo-Chicago". The Chicago Herbert Blumer had the symbolic interaction justified by resorting to George Herbert Mead and developed for sociology. Important first works of the “second Chicago school” came from Erving Goffman , who had never studied or taught in Chicago, but felt himself to be part of the circle around Blumer (The Presentation of Self in Every-day Life and Asylums ) and Howard S. Becker ( Outsiders ) .

The classic Chicago school inspired other American sociologists to a number of works, such as the Middletown studies of the couple Helen Lynd and Robert S. Lynd in Indiana , the five-part study of Newburyport ( Massachusetts ) ( "Yankee City Series") by William Lloyd Warner and team, and William Foote Whyte's Street Corner Society study , based on fieldwork in Boston . Studies in this tradition also appeared much later, such as Elijah Anderson's Streetwise: Race, Class, And Change In An Urban Community from 1990 (for which he received the Robert E. Park Book Award in 1991 ) or the study by Bourdieu's student Loïc Wacquant life for the ring. Boxing in the American Ghetto from 2001.

The importance of the Chicago School is illustrated by the fact that its protagonists were elected Presidents of the American Sociological Association : Robert E. Park (1925), William I. Thomas (1927, on the proposal of the Chicago Department, which he had to leave in 1918), Ernest W. Burgess (1934), plus William F. Ogburn (1929) and Louis Wirth (1947). Albion W. Small, who was involved in the organization of the school, had already presided over it in 1912/13.

Theoretical basis: action-theoretical pragmatism

The philosopher George Herbert Mead influenced the Chicago sociologists with the pragmatic theory of action

The sociology of the Chicago School differed significantly from that of contemporary European classics. The Europeans Ferdinand Tönnies , Émile Durkheim and Max Weber found that hierarchical and traditional community orders were dissolving. They saw the cause of this development in increasing urbanization , division of labor and rationalization . Communities were thus replaced by individualized, rationalized and functional mass societies. This alternative did not arise for the Chicagoans. For them, the structural differentiation of society interacted with a democratization and reflection of the social and cultural order.

Of the European classics, only Tönnies and Georg Simmel were important to the Chicagoans. Tönnies' writings were known to Park and his students, but, as Werner J. Cahnman noted, they were regularly received incorrectly. Even so, Cahnman contended that Tönnies' influence had permeated the Park approach (largely in the form of "silent influence") and thus entered the mainstream of social science thought in America. The influence of Simmel, under whom Small, Park and other members of the department had studied, is clearer. Simmel's thoughts on quarrels , strangers , proximity and distance and the big city were particularly well received by the Chicagoans. Despite the affinities of American sociology to Simmel, Hans Joas limits whether it is completely misleading to want to derive the ideas of the Chicago School from his thinking or to assume a superiority of European social science thinking at all. The Chicago School is an authentic American school of thought.

The Chicago School was involved in the pragmatic theory of action John Deweys (who taught from 1894 to 1904 as a professor in the Department of Philosophy, Psychology and Education at the University of Chicago) and George Herbert Meads (who was professor of philosophy and social psychology in Chicago from 1894 to 1931) oriented. This philosophical doctrine did not regard humans as the 'executive organ' of stimuli, fixed norms or goals. She saw concrete, creative action as problem-solving. People are therefore not passively exposed to social structures, but can actively shape and change them through their actions.

This is why the Chicago sociologists also looked at the subjective point of view of individuals. In their first major empirical study, Thomas and Znaniecki explained that people act on the basis of their interpretations of situations and not on the basis of objectively given facts. Your personal assessment of a circumstance is crucial to your actions - not whether your definition of the situation is right or wrong. This socio-psychological assumption was sharpened in 1928 in the book The Child in America , which Thomas wrote with his wife Dorothy Swaine Thomas , to the Thomas theorem : "If people define situations as real, their consequences are real" (Original: "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences ").

According to Thomas, social actions and social orders are not predetermined by human nature and cannot be traced back to instincts or drives . Only “four wishes” are anthropologically based, which arise from the biological independence of humans. At first Thomas differentiated the “desire for experience” from the “desire for security”, which often contradict each other. The other wishes are those for "reply" and "recognition". These four wishes establish the organic world of emotions and form the basis of motivation for human activity. However, they are neither clear goals of action nor causes of action, but rather form the emotional background of actions.

Methodical approach: "Sociology from the experience of reporting"

“Go into the district” and “get the feeling” as well as “become acquainted with people”, these are the instructions from Parks handed down by students. They seem trivial and can only be understood against the background of “library sociology”. They initiated “first-hand observation”. That had a journalistic effect and also contained elements of the report . According to Rolf Lindner, Park's activity - “and ultimately the Chicago School” - cannot be properly understood without taking into account his journalistic character. The urban report preceded the sociological study both thematically and methodically. There is a journalistic counterpart to each of the department's classic sociological studies. Role reporting, for example, concealed participatory observation, was downright in vogue in journalism in the 1880s. And the biographical method was also used for newspaper reports at the turn of the century.

Park behaved towards his students like a “city editor” towards young journalists, learning was done “on the job”. Above all, it was important to develop an eye for the essentials and to explain what was observed in a coherent manner. The apprentice-master relationship did not always end well. The young explorers were swept away by Park's enthusiasm; he did not give up until a project was over. But then “the air was out”. According to Lindner, this research practice meant that many park students did not contribute anything worth mentioning to sociology after completing their thesis.

Chicago School's "Manifesto": The City

The research reader The City , published in 1925 by Robert Park, Ernest, Burgess and Roderick McKenzie is a collection of theoretical contributions, fundamental considerations and half-finished workshop reports and is considered the "Manifesto of the Chicago School of Urban Sociology". It contains a basic article by each of the three editors, six essays (five of which by Park) and an extensive, annotated bibliography by Louis Wirth . In this bibliography, Georg Simmel's essay The Big Cities and Spiritual Life is presented as “the most important sociological single contribution about the big city”.

McKenzies human ecology

McKenzie's basic article was devoted to human ecology , which deals with the significance and impact of spatial-temporal positioning of population groups and institutions. It was about the social subsystem as a spatially evolving “biotic” order, on the basis of which the cultural order arises. This is the real subject of sociological research. McKenzie shed light on the evolutionary logic of human settlements, moving from the simple to the complex and from the general to the specialized. Due to the division of labor, population immigration and location competition, spatial segregation and functional differentiation take place . He calls these processes, taking over the terms from plant and animal ecology, invasion and succession . The result is the development of units of communal life with special social and cultural characteristics: from banking to entertainment districts, from ethnic enclaves to residential areas. McKenzie referred to such units as "natural areas". In their entirety, they form the quasi-organic structure of a city.

Burgess' zone model

Burgess model of the concentric rings.

In his fundamental article on the growth of the city, Ernest W. Burgess presented a model of urban expansion that is intended to systematize the processes of distribution and segregation of population groups according to residence and occupation for all American cities. For this purpose, he divided the city ideally into five zones, which (similar to a target) are shown as concentric circles. Zone I (in the graphic A used here) is the "central business district" of the city center, Zone II (B) is the so-called "transition zone" ("Zone in Transition") with immigrant colonies and slums, Zone III (C) is the residential area of ​​the (respectable) workers and the "second generation" of immigrants, zone IV (D) that of the middle class and zone V (E) "suburbia", the commuter zone. In the course of urban expansion, a process of distribution takes place which, in terms of human ecology, leads to a “natural distribution” of “species” in urban space.

Parks research program

Park's principle article was a revised version of his essay The City. Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment from 1915. There were few, but significant, changes compared to the earlier version. For the first time the terms “ecology” and “human ecology” appeared and research was propagated that was based on ethnology . The method of patient observation in researching the life and customs of the North American Indians, developed by Franz Boas and Robert H. Lowie , could be even more productive in researching the customs, beliefs, social practices and general ideas about life in Little Italy or the “Lower North Side” in Chicago, as well as in neighborhoods in other cities.

Park outlined three major subject areas of an empirical urban sociology: the big city as a constellation of spatially located social worlds; the emergence of new professions specific to large cities and the reforming of mentalities and behaviors to "urban types"; the change in integrating and regulating systems as well as the emergence of new social formations and new mechanisms for building consensus.

Park's contribution to the book contained various suggestions for studying human behavior in the metropolitan environment, including a list of types of occupation that he considered worth investigating: the shop girl, the policeman, the taxi driver, the night watchman, the clairvoyant, the vaudeville artist, the quack, the bartender , the patron of a constituency, the strike breaker, the labor agitator, the teacher, the reporter, the stockbroker, the pawnbroker. They are all characteristic products of big city life.

The Fundamental Study: The Polish Peasant in Europe and America

The multi-year research that led to the study The Polish Peasant in Europe and America began even before Robert E. Park did The City in 1915 . Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment published the founding document of the Chicago School. The work of William Isaac Thomas and Florian Znaniecki has become a classic in sociology.

The study looks at the experience of immigrants who saw themselves transferred from the rural and rural environment in Poland to the rapidly changing, chaotic and expanding North American metropolis. Letters that Polish immigrants sent to their homeland and received from there served as data sources. After that, Thomas and Znaniecki searched through a newspaper advertisement and received over 700 such documents. With the evaluation, they introduced the biographical method, i.e. the use of life stories and experiences, into sociology. They also had about 8000 documents from Polish daily newspapers at their disposal. Data from immigration and social organizations as well as autobiographies and diaries were also used.

The first of the initially five volumes (later the study appeared in two volumes) deal with the respective family life and the social environment. The third volume presents the autobiography of an immigrant. The fourth volume examines the changes in rural life in Poland. Finally, in the fifth volume, the processes of change in the immigrant community in the USA are analyzed. All volumes deal with social disorganization and the subsequent “social new building”. The authors identified three ideal types of personalities: the “ philistine ” (philistine) who is caught in a tight corset of attitudes and situation definitions; the " bohemian " who does not take a moral position, scoffs at moral apostles and is flexible to the point of disorientation; the “creative”, whose lifestyle and values ​​show a permanent focus on new situations that are constantly reconsidered, weighed and developed.

Individual studies

By 1937, more than fifty dissertations and expert reports on ethnic and subcultural issues had been written in Chicago. This research arc ended with the portrayal of the professional thief by Edwin H. Sutherland and the cross-border commuter between two cultures by Everett V. Stonequist . The essential studies broke new ground, they proceed in terms of cultural sociology and socio-spatial and link macro and micro aspects. The areas of work and industry, rule, education, gender relations, the "Negro problem" and comparisons with other cities were left out. The “better areas” were hardly taken into account either.

Six classic studies

Hobos in Chicago, 1929

Six of the individual studies are classified as “classics of Chicago sociology”. With one exception, the field of investigation of these studies was always in the “Zone in Transition”, which represented the ideal laboratory for a sociology to investigate the changes in human behavior in the urban environment. As the first place to live for immigrants, as an area of ​​ethnic enclaves and as a niche for social outsiders, the zone offered a wealth of research opportunities.

The classic Chicago studies are, in order of origin:

  • Nels Anderson's The Hobo (1923), a study of Chicago migrant workers, their milieu, institutions, and culture.
  • Frederic Milton Thrashers The Gang (1927) a study of youth gangs , which he interprets as a phenomenon of the second generation of immigrants.
  • Louis Wirth's The Ghetto (1928), an analysis of the Jewish quarter in Chicago, which is the only one of the studies that is historically based.
  • Harvey Warren Zorbaugh's The Gold Coast and Slum (1929), a comparative study of the geographically close quarters of the rich ("Gold Coast"), the poorest and problematic district "Little Hell" with Sicilian immigrants and the bohemian district "Towertown".
  • Clifford Robe Shaw's The Jack-Roller (1930), the life story of a teenage mugger.
  • Paul Goalby Cressey's The Taxi-Dance Hall (1932), an investigation into the milieu of Chicago dance halls, in which male visitors could “hire” female dance partners for 10 cents per dance.

Further studies (selection)

The many other studies, not all of which were published as books, also came partly from research in the Chicago “Zone in Transition”, but also dealt with general metropolitan institutions such as the hotel or new professional groups such as secretaries. General problems of rapid social change were also looked at, including the decline of families and suicide .

Saleswomen in Chicago in 1927

The field of study was not always in Chicago, and the authors of the studies did not always belong to the Sociology Department of Chicago University. Frances R. Donovan, for example, was an English teacher in Chicago who took part in sociological seminars as an external student. During her summer vacation she liked to slip into a different role and did covert, participatory observation in other professional fields. Her work The Saleslady was created after two summers in which she had worked in large department stores in New York. Robert E. Park included the study in the Chicago School series of publications.

Pauline V. Young had studied sociology in Chicago up to her bachelor's degree , but then did research in Los Angeles in 1930 on the assimilation problems of a Russian sect there and received her doctorate with this work. Her study was published in 1932, with a foreword by Park, as The pilgrims of Russian-town .

The first research studies by Walter C. Reckless and Edwin H. Sutherland , who became known as criminologists from the 1940s onwards, came from the context of the Chicago School and inspired them to develop the classical crime theory of differential association.

With Sutherland's study of the professional thief and Everett V. Stonequist's work on the marginal man , the Chicago series of individual studies ended in 1937. The concept of Marginal Man originally came from Park and was systematized by his student Stonequist. Park understood the social figure of the marginal side to be a person who is on the edge, thus in the border area, of two cultures and thus participates in both cultures without really belonging. He saw the Randseiter as the modern personality type who has been released from traditional ties. The concept is considered to be Park's most important individual contribution to cultural sociology .

Effect and criticism

Edward A. Tiryakian classified the Chicago School as the middle of the three sociology schools that shaped the subject worldwide. The first school is then the Durkheim School, which had its main effect before the First World War. The third is the Parsons School, which dominated sociology after World War II. In the interwar period, it was the Chicago School that gave the discipline a new sense of interpretation. In the period between the world wars, the Chicago School made its most lasting impression on the academic period. Their influence has persisted to this day (Tiryakian's original English-language manuscript appeared in 1979) in the application of field research, participatory observation, urban sociology and attention to social-psychological and intersubjective characteristics and processes.

In Germany, the Chicago School was already accepted in the 1920s, at the Sociological Institute of the University of Cologne . Its director, Leopold von Wiese , was also the editor of the Cologne Quarterly Issues for Sociology , which appeared from 1921. In the first editions, essays by Robert E. Park were published in translation. There were also reviews of Chicago studies, mainly by Hanna Meuter . In addition, individual studies were carried out by members of the Cologne Institute, for example on the village as a settlement structure or an investigation of the Jewish ghetto in Amsterdam. In the 1950s and 1960s, under Wiese's successor René König , according to Rolf Lindner, the Cologne Institute was the only sociological institute in the Federal Republic to work in the tradition of Chicago urban research.

Andreas Walther , Professor of Sociology at the University of Hamburg since 1926 , had visited Chicago in 1925, studied and adopted the methods there. His German colleagues, who understood sociology as the humanities, only had a "disparaging smile" for that. Only Ferdinand Tönnies was open to Walther's innovations. Walther had already planned a “social atlas” in the 1920s and met with great interest from the Hamburg authorities, because there were many social hot spots in the Hanseatic city . But it was only after the National Socialists came to power that the project was financed accordingly. In 1934/35 Walther developed a social cartography of Hamburg's slum areas in preparation for social hygienic renovations, which was generously funded by the Emergency Community of German Science .

The importance of the Chicago School for urban geography continues unabated. Heinz Fassmann writes that no textbook on urban geography could be written without giving due consideration to its approach. Hartmut Häußermann and Werner Siebel emphasize the topicality: The search for general principles of socio-spatial development, as it was especially pursued by Ernest W. Burgess , is still used today in urban geography.

According to Reiner Keller, the Chicago School developed a new style of sociological analysis that shaped the further development of qualitative social research with its turn towards participation in the “social worlds of the big city”, immersion in the concrete reality of social phenomena and the combination of different research methods has been.

René König wrote about Park (and with it the classic Chicago school of sociology) that he “, in contrast to the later sociologists equipped with heavy research technology, still knew how to 'see' with the naked eye and did not need any instrumental crutches”: Aus In retrospect, it is astonishing what “regularities and regularities in the apparent chaos of the cities” have emerged. Eike Hennig complains precisely that what the Chicagoans did not summarize: The city is thus becoming a mosaic of small living environments. In addition, the special reality of the “ Black Belt ” or other “colored” communities compared to “white” transitions and search processes was hardly taken into account, which led to an overestimation of “Americanization”.

The Swedish social anthropologist Ulf Hannerz also uses the image of the mosaic, but says: Even if the mosaic does not form a picture of Chicago as a whole, it does create a better picture of the human environment of the individual groups or institutions than we usually do in individual studies can find. This achievement must be emphasized because it has hardly ever been achieved anywhere else.

The criminal sociologist David Matza , an early exponent of critical criminology , saw the dilemma of the classical school in the fact that cultural diversity was described while at the same time social pathology was diagnosed. Numerous Chicago studies are characterized by an ambivalence , on the one hand to appreciate and describe big city life and on the other hand to constantly fluctuate in the direction of moralism and reform. Only Howard S. Becker (“Second Chicago School”) succeeded in resolving this contradiction with his essay “Becoming a Marihuana User” (1949) based on symbolic interactionism, which was later published in his sociological bestseller “ Outsiders ”.

Fonts

Groundbreaking writings

Individual examinations (selection)

  • Nels Anderson : The Hobo. The Sociology of the Homeless Man. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1923 (last edition: University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1961).
  • Frederic Milton Thrasher (with George W. Knox): The Gang. A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1927 (last edition: University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963).
  • Ernest R. Mowrer : Family Disorganization. An Introduction to Sociological Analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1927 (last edition: Arno Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-405-03873-9 ).
  • Louis Wirth : The Ghetto. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1928 (last edition: Transaction, New Brunswick 1998, ISBN 1-560-00983-7 ).
  • Ruth Shonle Cavan : Suicide. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1928 (last edition: Russell & Russell, New York 1965).
  • Harvey Warren Zorbaugh : The Gold Coast and Slum. A Sociological Study of Chicago's Near North Side Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1929 (last edition: University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1976, ISBN 0-226-98944-5 ).
  • Ruth Shonle Cavan: Business Girls. A Study of Their Interests and Problems. Religious Education Association, Chicago 1929.
  • Frances R. Donovan: The Saleslady. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1929 (last edition: Arno Press, New York 1974, ISBN 0-405-06088-2 ).
  • Pauline V. Young : Assimilation problems of Russian Molokans in Los Angeles. University of Southern California, Los Angeles 1930.
  • Clifford R. Shaw . The Jack Roller. A Delinquent Boy's Own Story. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1930 (last edition with an introduction by Howard S. Becker : University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1966).
  • Paul Goalby Cressey: The Taxi-Dance Hall. A sociological study in commercialized recreation and city life. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1932 (latest edition: AMS Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-404-01839-4 ).
  • Walter C. Reckless : Vice in Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1933 (last edition: Montclair, Patterson Smith, Montclair 1969, ISBN 0-875-85084-7 ).
  • Norman Sylvester Hayner : Hotel Life. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1936 (latest edition: McGrath Pub. Co., College Park 1969).
  • Edwin H. Sutherland : The Professional Thief. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1937.
  • Everett V. Stonequist : The Marginal Man. A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1937 (last edition: Russell & Russell, New York 1961).

literature

  • Martin Bulmer: The Chicago school of sociology. Institutionalization, diversity, and the rise of sociological research. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1984, ISBN 0-226-08004-8 .
  • Marco d'Eramo : The Pig and the Skyscraper. Chicago: A Story of Our Future. Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 1998, ISBN 978-3-499-60520-8 .
  • Lee Harvey: Myths of the Chicago school of sociology. Avebury / Gower Publishing, Aldershot 1987, ISBN 0566053985 , online full text .
  • Eike Hennig : Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-17168-5 , pp. 95-124.
  • Reiner Keller : The Interpretative Paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-15546-3 .
  • Rolf Lindner : The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-593-38482-5 (first edition 1990), translated into English by Adrian Morris with Jeremy Gaines and Martin Chalmers: The reportage of urban culture. Robert Park and the Chicago School. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, Oakleigh, Victoria 1996, ISBN 0-521-44052-1 .
  • Roger A. Salerno: Sociology Noir. Studies at the University of Chicago in Loneliness, Marginality and Deviance, 1915-1935. McFarland & Company, Jefferson, NC and London 2007, ISBN 978-0-786-42990-5 .
  • Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (Ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 3-531-15273-4 , pp. 119–166.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (Ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, ISBN 3-531-15273-4 , pp. 119–166, here p. 137.
  2. ^ Rolf Lindner : The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-593-38482-5 , p. 76.
  3. ^ A b Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (Ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 119–166, here p. 138.
  4. ↑ Information on the population development of Chicago is based on Reiner Keller : The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-15546-3 , p. 23 and Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (Ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 119–166, here p. 138.
  5. ↑ Marco d'Eramo : The Pig and the Skyscraper. Chicago: a story of our future. Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1998, p. 155.
  6. ↑ Reiner Keller : The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-15546-3 , p. 25.
  7. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 26.
  8. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 26 f.
  9. ^ The Department of Sociology. The University of Chicago, History & Culture.
  10. ↑ Information on the pioneers of sociology in the USA is based, if not otherwise documented, on Volker Kruse : History of Sociology. 3. Edition. utb, Munich / Konstanz 2018, ISBN 978-3-8252-4936-6 , p. 105 f.
  11. ^ Hermann Korte : Introduction to the history of sociology. 9th edition, VS-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-16102-0 , p. 170.
  12. ^ J. Maier : Small, Albion Woodbury. in: Wilhelm Bernsdorf , Horst Knospe (Hrsg.): Internationales Soziologenlexikon. 2nd Edition. Volume 1. Enke, Stuttgart 1980, p. 393.
  13. ↑ Volker Kruse: History of Sociology. 3. Edition. utb, Munich / Konstanz 2018, p. 109.
  14. ^ Eike Hennig : Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 20112, ISBN 978-3-531-17168-5 , pp. 95–124, here p. 109.
  15. ^ Gabriela Christmann: Robert Ezra Park. UVK, Konstanz 2007, ISBN 978-3-89669-559-8 , p. 18, note 4.
  16. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 51.
  17. ^ Ansgar Weymann: The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Mongraph of an Immigrant Group. In: Sven Papcke, Georg W. Oesterdiekhoff (Ed.): Key works of sociology. Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 978-3-531-13235-8 , pp. 485-488.
  18. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 32 ff.
  19. ↑ Biographical information on Park is based on Rolf Lindner : Robert E. Park (1864-1944). In: Dirk Kaesler : Classics of Sociology. 2 volumes, volume 1: From Auguste Comte to Alfred Schütz. 6th, revised and updated edition 2012, ISBN 978-3-406-64297-5 , pp. 230–246, here p. 231 ff.
  20. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007.
  21. ^ A b c d Robert E. Park: The City. Suggestions for the Investigation of Behavior in the City Environment. In: American Journal of Sociology . 20th year, 5/1915, pp. 577–612.
  22. ↑ Volker Kruse : History of Sociology. 3rd edition, utb, Munich / Konstanz 2018, ISBN 978-3-8252-4936-6 , p. 109.
  23. ^ Rolf Lindner: Robert E. Park (1864-1944). In: Dirk Kaesler (Ed.): Classics of Sociology. 2 volumes, volume 1: From Auguste Comte to Alfred Schütz. 6th, revised and updated edition 2012, pp. 230–246, here p. 236.
  24. ^ Ernest W. Burgess , American Sociological Association online biography .
  25. ^ Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess: Introduction to the Science of Sociology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1921.
  26. ^ Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, Roderick McKenzie : The City. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1925.
  27. ^ Eike Hennig: Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 20112, pp. 95–124, here p. 111.
  28. ^ Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, ISBN 3-593-37500-1 , p. 117.
  29. ↑ Quoted from Rolf Lindner : Robert E. Park (1864–1944). In: Dirk Kaesler (Ed.): Classics of Sociology. 2 volumes, volume 1: From Auguste Comte to Alfred Schütz. 4th edition, Munich 2003, pp. 213-229, here p. 217.
  30. ^ Rolf Lindner: Robert E. Park (1864-1944). In: Dirk Kaesler (Ed.): Classics of Sociology. 2 volumes, volume 1: From Auguste Comte to Alfred Schütz. 4th edition, Munich 2003, pp. 213-229, here p. 218.
  31. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Wiesbaden 2012, p. 32.
  32. ↑ a b Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Wiesbaden 2012, p. 31.
  33. ↑ Starting with Nels Anderson : The Hobo. The Sociology of the Homeless Man. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1923.
  34. ^ Louis Wirth : Urbanism as a Way of Life. In: The American Journal of Sociology. Volume 44, No. 1 (July 1938), pp. 1–24.
  35. ↑ a b Eike Hennig: Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 20112, pp. 95–124, here p. 108.
  36. ^ Martin Bulmer : The Chicago school of sociology. Institutionalization, diversity, and the rise of sociological research. Chicago 1984, ISBN 0-226-08004-8 , p. 1. In the foreword, Bulmer writes somewhat more generously: “Between about 1915 and 1940 it dominated sociology an political science in the United States”, Preface, p. Xiii.
  37. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 50.
  38. ^ Sighard Neckel : Between Robert E. Park and Pierre Bourdieu: A third “Chicago School”? Sociological Perspectives on an American Research Tradition. In: Soziale Welt , Volume 48, Issue 1/1997, pp. 71–83, here p. 75.
  39. ↑ a b Howard S. Becker : The Chicago School, So-Called. In: Qualitative Sociology. Volume 22, No. 1/1999, pp. 3–12, here p. 10.
  40. ^ Robert Hettlage , Ogburn, William Fielding. Culture and social change . In: Sven Papcke and Georg W. Oesterdiekhoff (eds.), Key Works of Sociology , Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden 2001, ISBN 978-3-531-13235-8 , pp. 368–372, here p. 368.
  41. ↑ Martin Bulmer names the psychologist Louis Leon Thurstone and the economist Henry Schultz as well as Ogburn as those who caused Chicago sociology to turn to statistical methods; Martin Bulmer: The Chicago school of sociology. Institutionalization, diversity, and the rise of sociological research. Chicago 1984, p. 172.
  42. ^ Everett C. Hughes (with Howard S. Becker , Blanche Geer, Anselm L. Strauss ): Boys in white. Student culture in medical school. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1961.
  43. ↑ Everett C. Hughes (with Howard S. Becker and Blanche Geer): Making the grade. The academic side of college life. Wiley, New York 1968.
  44. ↑ Martina Löw : Community Studies Today: Social Research in the Tradition of the Chicago School? In: Journal for qualitative education, counseling and social research. No. 1/2001, pp. 111-131, here p. 112.
  45. ^ Sighard Neckel : Between Robert E. Park and Pierre Bourdieu: A third “Chicago School”? Sociological Perspectives on an American Research Tradition. In: social world. 48th year, No. 1/1997, pp. 71-83, here p. 77; Gary Alan Fine (Ed.): A second Chicago school? The development of a postwar American sociology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1995, ISBN 0226249387 .
  46. ↑ David Matza : Deviant behavior. Investigations into the genesis of deviant identities. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1973, ISBN 3-494-00779-9 , p. 45 ff .; Original: Becoming deviant. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1969.
  47. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 83 ff.
  48. ^ Erving Goffman : The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday & Company, New York 1959; German edition: We all play theater. The self-expression in everyday life. Translated by Peter Weber-Schäfer . 10th edition. Piper, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-492-23891-2 .
  49. ↑ Erving Goffman: Asylums. Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and other Inmates. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1961; German edition: Asyle. About the social situation of psychiatric patients and other inmates. 10th edition, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1995, ISBN 978-3-518-10678-5 .
  50. ^ Howard S. Becker: Outsiders. Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. The Free Press, New York 1963; German edition: Outsider. On the sociology of deviant behavior. 2nd edition, Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2014, ISBN 978-3-658-01253-3 .
  51. ↑ Gertraude Mikl-Horke : Sociology. Historical context and sociological theory drafts. 6th edition, Oldenbourg, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-486-70243-9 , p. 205.
  52. ^ Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd  : Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture . New York 1929; and Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts . New York 1937.
  53. ↑ Gerlinde Schein and Gertraud Seiser: Yankee City Studies (1930-1934) , online information from the Institute for Cultural and Social Anthropology, University of Vienna .
  54. ^ Sighard Neckel: Between Robert E. Park and Pierre Bourdieu: A third “Chicago School”? Sociological Perspectives on an American Research Tradition. In: social world. 48th year, No. 1/1997, pp. 71–83, here p. 75 f.
  55. ^ Sighard Neckel: Between Robert E. Park and Pierre Bourdieu: A third “Chicago School”? Sociological Perspectives on an American Research Tradition. In: social world. 48th year, No. 1/1997, pp. 71–83, here p. 79 f .; Neckel attributes the Anderson and Wacquant studies to a “Third Chicago School”, but this persiodization remained a single suggestion.
  56. ^ American Sociological Association, List of Presidents.
  57. ↑ Information in this section is based on Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 119–166, here pp. 120 ff.
  58. ^ Werner J. Cahnman : Tönnies in Amerika. In: Wolf Lepenies (Ed.): History of Sociology. Volume 4, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 978-3-518-07967-6 , pp. 82-114, here pp. 83 f. and 92 ff.
  59. ↑ General Donald N. Levine, Ellwood B. Carter and Eleanor Miller Gorman: Simmel's Influence on American Sociology. In: Wolf Lepenies (Ed.): History of Sociology. Volume 4, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 978-3-518-07967-6 , pp. 32-81.
  60. ↑ Hans Joas : Pragmatism and Social Theory Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1992, ISBN 3-518-28618-8 . P. 38.
  61. ↑ Dagmar Danko: On the topicality of Howard S. Becker. Introduction to his work. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-531-17420-4 , p. 15.
  62. ^ William I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas : The child in America. Behavior problems and programs. AA Knopf, New York 1928, p. 572.
  63. ↑ Dagmar Danko: On the topicality of Howard S. Becker. Introduction to his work. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2011, p. 17.
  64. ^ William I. Thomas: Person and social behavior. Selection of translated Thomas writings, edited by Edmund H. Volkart, translated by Otto Kimminich. Luchterhand, Neuwied am Rhein 1965, p. 170 ff.
  65. ^ Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (Ed.): Yearbook for Sociological History 2007. VS Verlag, Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 119–166, here p. 124 ff.
  66. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 118.
  67. ^ Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 118.
  68. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. New edition, Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 124 ff.
  69. ^ Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, Roderick McKenzie : The City , Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925.
  70. ↑ a b Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 123.
  71. ↑ Information in this section is based on Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 123 f.
  72. ↑ Information in this section is based on Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 124.
  73. ↑ Information in this section is based on Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 124 ff.
  74. ^ William Isaac Thomas, Florian Znaniecki : The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Monograph of an Immigrant Group. Gorham Press, Boston 1918-1920.
  75. ^ Matthias Koenig : William I. Thomas; Florian Znaniecki. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. In: Dirk Kaesler , Ludgera Vogt (Hrsg.): Major works of sociology. Kröner, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 978-3-520-39601-3 , pp. 470-477.
  76. ↑ Information in this section is based on Reiner Keller: The interpretative paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 52 f.
  77. ^ Edwin H. Sutherland : The Professional Thief. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1937.
  78. ↑ Everett V. Stonequist : The Marginal Man. A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1937.
  79. ^ Eike Hennig: Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 20112, pp. 95–124, here p. 107.
  80. ↑ a b Eike Hennig: Chicago School. In: Frank Eckardt (Ed.): Handbuch Stadtsoziologie. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 20112, pp. 95–124, here p. 121.
  81. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 104.
  82. ^ Hans-Joachim Schubert: The Chicago School of Sociology. Theory, empiricism and method. In: Carsten Klingemann (ed.): Yearbook for the history of sociology. Wiesbaden 2007, pp. 119–166, here p. 142.
  83. ^ Rolf Lindner: The discovery of urban culture. Sociology from the experience of reporting. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2007, p. 106.
  84. ^ Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 129.
  85. ↑ Nels Anderson : The Hobo. The Sociology of the Homeless Man. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1923.
  86. ↑ Frederic Milton Thrasher : The Gang. A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. New Chicago School Press, Chicago 2000, ISBN 0966515552 (first edition 1927).
  87. ↑ Louis Wirth : The Ghetto. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1928.
  88. ↑ Harvey Warren Zorbaugh : The Gold Coast and Slum. A Sociological Study of Chicago's Near North Side Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1929.
  89. ^ Clifford R. Shaw: The Jack-Roller. A Delinquent Boy's Own Story. University of Chicago Press, 1930.
  90. ^ Paul Goalby Cressey: The Taxi-Dance Hall. A sociological study in commercialized recreation and city life. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1932.
  91. ^ Norman Sylvester Hayner : Hotel Life. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1936.
  92. ↑ Ruth Shonle Cavan : Business Girls. A Study of Their Interests and Problems. Religious Education Association, Chicago 1929.
  93. ^ Ernest R. Mowrer : Family Disorganization. An Introduction to Sociological Analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1927.
  94. ↑ Ruth Shonle Cavan: Suicide. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1928.
  95. ^ Donovan, Frances R. , entry on Encyclopedia.com.
  96. ^ Frances R. Donovan: The Saleslady. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1929.
  97. ^ Pauline V. Young : Assimilation problems of Russian Molokans in Los Angeles. University of Southern California, Los Angeles 1930.
  98. ^ Pauline V. Young: The pilgrims of Russian-town. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1932.
  99. ^ Walter C. Reckless : Vice in Chicago. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1933.
  100. ^ Edwin H. Sutherland : The Professional Thief. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1937.
  101. ↑ Everett V. Stonequist : The Marginal Man. A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 1937.
  102. ^ Rolf Lindner: Robert E. Park (1864-1944). In: Dirk Kaesler : Classics of Sociology. 2 volumes, volume 1: From Auguste Comte to Alfred Schütz. 4th edition, Munich 2003, pp. 213-229, here p. 220.
  103. ↑ Edward A. Tiryakian : The importance of schools for the development of sociology. In: Wolf Lepenies (Ed.): History of Sociology. Volume 2, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 1981, ISBN 978-3-518-07967-6 , pp. 31-68, here pp. 52 f. and 56 ff.
  104. ^ Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 136 ff.
  105. ^ Rolf Lindner: Walks on the Wild Side. A history of urban research. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 139.
  106. ^ Rainer Waßner : Andreas Walther and his urban sociology between 1927 and 1935. In: ders. (Ed.): Ways to the social. 90 years of sociology in Hamburg . Leske and Budrich, Opladen 1988, ISBN 3-8100-0595-9 , pp. 69–84, here p. 70.
  107. ^ Carsten Klingemann: Sociology and Politics. Social science expert knowledge in the Third Reich and in the early West German post-war period . VS, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2009, ISBN 978-3-531-15064-2 , p. 275.
  108. ^ Heinz Fassmann, The City . In: Sven Papcke, Georg W. Oesterdiekhoff (Ed.): Key works of sociology. Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden 2001, 382–384, here p. 384.
  109. ↑ Hartmut Häußermann / Werner Siebel: Urban Sociology. An introduction . Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main / New York 204, ISBN 978-3-593-37497-0 , p. 54.
  110. ↑ Reiner Keller: The interpretive paradigm. An introduction. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2012, p. 78.
  111. ↑ René König: Sociology and Ethnology. In: Oliver König, Michael Klein (Eds.): René König, sociologist and humanist. Texts from four decades. Leske and Budrich, Opladen 1998, ISBN 3-8100-2023-0 , pp. 209-217, here p. 216.
  112. ↑ Ulf Hannerz : Exploring the city. Inquiries toward an urban anthropology. Columbia University Press, New York 1980, p. 54.
  113. ↑ David Matza: Deviant behavior. Investigations into the genesis of deviant identities. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1973, p. 54 ff.
  114. ↑ David Matza: Deviant behavior. Investigations into the genesis of deviant identities. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1973, p. 118 f.
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