Stephanskrone
Stephanskrone is the common name in German-speaking countries for the crown of the former Kingdom of Hungary . The country's most important coronation or imperial insignia is called Szent Korona (“Holy Crown”) in Hungary .
The areas that belonged to Hungary de facto until 1918, de jure until the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, were traditionally referred to as the lands of St. Stephen's Crown . The centuries-old royal crown is of great symbolic importance for the national consciousness of many Hungarians. Since 2000 it has been kept together with the imperial orb and scepter in the dome of the Hungarian parliament building in Budapest .
The crown
Appearance and dating
The crown consists of two assembled, originally independent parts:
- The corona graeca , an open circlet with ten image plates made of enamelled gold and precious stones. Christ Pantocrator is enthroned on the front panel, and the Byzantine emperor as a secular counterpart on the rear panel. The Greek inscription shows him as Michael Dukas (1071-1078). His designated successor Konstantios sits enthroned to his right, and the Hungarian King Géza I (1074-1077) is enthroned on the left . Saints are depicted on the other panels.
- The corona latina : Two crossed temples complete the corona graeca to form a complete crown. On the temple there are more enamel pictures with inscriptions now in Latin: Another Christ Pantocrator can be seen in the head, and eight apostles on the temple. The upper pantocrator plate is drilled through and provided with the characteristic sideways inclined cross, which can be verified for the first time in the 17th century.
The dating of the corona graeca is secured by the portrayals of people and their inscriptions. The time of origin of the corona latina, however, is unknown; What is certain, however, is that it is not a relic of the original crown of Saint Stephen I of Hungary. The timing of the joining of the two “crowns” (the purpose of which as such is by no means certain) is still being discussed in specialist circles; the year 1185 is favored at the time of Bélas III.
Inclined cross
The Stephanskrone is characterized by a cross sloping sideways. According to legend, it is related to Ladislaus Postumus (1440–1457): he was initially unable to assert himself as king in Hungary, and the Jagiellonian Wladyslaw was elected king. Thereupon he is said to have commissioned the lady-in-waiting Helene Kottannerin to steal the Hungarian St. Stephen's crown and bring it to Wiener Neustadt . The cross is said to have been damaged during transport and has been crooked since then.
According to another legend, the cross was bent by the Habsburgs to break the "magical powers" that the Hungarians attribute to their crown.
According to other symbols, the oblique cross is supposed to mean a bow to God .
Pendilien
The pendilies are a reminiscence. They remind of the making of the crown. The diadem , the victory wreath was attached to the helmet with strings. From this the crown developed.
History and meaning: the apostolic kingdom
The St. Stephen's Crown is a symbol of Hungarian imperial unity (see also the countries of St. Stephen's Crown ). This becomes clear, for example, from the fact that the coat of arms of Hungary is crowned by the image of the jewel. Any other crown was invalid at the Hungarian coronation. Not only in the secular, but also in the religious sense, the crown was considered to be the “only holy” crown that connected the earthly with the heavenly kingdom . Traditionally, the crown is represented together with two angels as symbols of their divine descent. The holy images of the crown are to be seen as a further reference to their religious significance.
According to the old Hungarian legal conception, Hungary was the property of the St. Stephen's Crown. Therefore only the monarch who was crowned with her could see himself as the rightful ruler of Hungary.
The original St. Stephen's crown is said to have been sent by Pope Silvester II in the year 1000 to King Stephen I of Hungary, who had recently converted to Christianity, for his coronation. This crown (in the form of a diadem) was probably lost forever in an unknown location in Austria around 1074 . New Year's Eve II also gave the King of Hungary the title of Apostolic King . The kings from the house of Árpád and all their successors as winners of the St. Stephen's Crown in Hungary up to 1918 are therefore called “Apostolic Kings”.
Today 's so-called Stephanskrone was made in several phases between the 11th and 13th centuries ; it is called in Hungarian (as opposed to the actual St. Stephen's Crown) Szent Korona (German: "Holy Crown").
Since 1267 the Hungarian kings have sworn allegiance to the crown. The Crown of St. Stephen therefore became the most important insignia in Hungarian royalty, which explains its importance as a national symbol. The coronation city was Stuhlweissenburg in the Middle Ages , then (when central Hungary was Turkish ) Pressburg (ung. Pozsony), the seat of government of the Habsburg state of Hungary during this time. The coronation of Emperor Franz Joseph as King of Hungary took place in Buda in 1867 .
The Habsburg kingship in Hungary existed from 1551 to 1918, during which time the crown was in their possession. In 1916 , the Austrian Emperor Karl I was the last monarch to be crowned Hungarian King Karl IV ( IV Károly ). According to the constitution, Hungary has only been a republic since 1946.
If you put the St. Stephen's Crown and the Holy Crown together, a total of 55 Hungarian kings were crowned with it; three rulers did not wear them or only later: Wladyslaw (1434–1444; see below), Johann Sigismund (1540–1570 as Johann II; his “counter-king” and Emperor Ferdinand I held them 1527–1538) and Josef II ( 1780–1790), who rejected the Hungarian constitution and a coronation with the St. Stephen's crown.
In 1945, the St. Stephen's Crown was brought to the West by Hungarian patriots on the legendary gold train , and later to the USA , which it only returned to Hungary in 1978 as part of the negotiations on the return of spoils from the final phase of the Second World War.
In 1990 the depiction of St. Stephen's Crown was reintegrated into the coat of arms of the Hungarian Republic by parliamentary resolution. In terms of foreign policy, it is a difficult national symbol, since the occasional demands for a revision of the Hungarian borders are made in the name of St. Stephen's Crown.
On July 1, 2012, a law came into force in Hungary that punishes denigrating national symbols, including insulting the Holy Crown , more severely. The maximum sentence is one year in prison.
Storage locations throughout history
Over time, the Stephanskrone was one of the most “travel-friendly” crowns in Europe. During Hungary's turbulent history, the crown was stolen several times, brought to safety from enemies, buried and even lost. She traveled from present-day Slovakia to the Czech Republic, Austria and Germany and in the east to present-day Romania to Ukraine. After 1945 she was in the USA for several decades, but eventually returned to Hungary again and again. The historically known stations are listed in the following list:
- In 1301, the Bohemian King Wenceslaus came into possession of the crown through a ruse. He had them shown to him first and put them on his son's head. Then he withdrew to Bohemia with his knights and the crown.
- In 1305 Otto the Bavarian came into their possession when Wenzel III. ceded claims to the Hungarian throne in Prague. On the way to Hungary, however, he had to pass through the territory of the Habsburg Albrecht I. He and his entourage disguised themselves as merchants. During the nightly ride through Austria, the crown, hidden in a wooden tub and attached to the saddle button, fell to the ground unnoticed. The loss was not noticed until the next day. Otto and his men rode back and in the evening were still able to find the crown lying undamaged on the way. On November 11, 1305 they reached Ofen with the Stephanskrone . Finally he was crowned King of Hungary as Béla V on December 6, 1305 in Stuhlweissenburg .
- In 1437, the Crown of St. Stephen came into the possession of a Habsburg for the first time. After the death of Sigismund of Luxemburg , Albrecht II was crowned King of Hungary on January 1, 1438 and moved his court to Hungary. Three months later he was also elected King of the Holy Roman Empire in Frankfurt . After fighting with the Turks, however, he died surprisingly the following year, on October 27, 1439, in Neszmély (German: Langendorf) near Komárom , today Komárno , Slovakia , probably of the Ruhr.
- In 1440, his pregnant widow, Elisabeth von Luxemburg , had her chambermaid Helene Kottannerin kidnap the St. Stephen's Crown from the Plintenburg in Visegrád to Austria on the night of February 21st to 22nd . The Stephanskrone was from 1440 to 1453 with great probability by Friedrich III. kept in the treasure vaults of the castle in Wiener Neustadt . She hoped that her unborn child would have a son whom she would secure the claim to the Hungarian throne. According to legend, the cross on the crown is crooked because it was damaged during transport. However, in view of the Turkish threat, the Hungarian magnates chose the King of Poland, Wladislaus III. to the Hungarian king. Instead of the missing St. Stephen's crown, it was crowned with the head relic of St. Stephen. Wladislaus died in 1444 fighting the Turks in the Battle of Varna . In the meantime, Elisabeth had actually given birth to a son, Ladislaus Postumus , who was now recognized as king by the Hungarian estates. The guardianship of the underage king was taken over by his uncle Emperor Friedrich III. , while the reign in Hungary was transferred to Johann Hunyadi as imperial administrator.
- In 1458, after the early death of Ladislaus Postumus, Matthias Corvinus , the son of Johann Hunyadis, was crowned king in Hungary in an "emergency ceremony" in Ofen, while the St. Stephen's crown remained with the Habsburgs and was kept in Wiener Neustadt . After long negotiations with Friedrich III., Who continued to uphold claims to the throne, Matthias Corvinus was able to buy back the St. Stephen's Crown in 1463 in a settlement and after paying 80,000 gold forints . The crown finally reached Stuhlweissenburg via Ödenburg and Ofen, where Matthias was formally crowned on March 29, 1464.
- In 1490, after the death of Matthias Corvinus, Ladislaus Jagiellon , the son of the Polish king, was elected the new king of Hungary and crowned King Géza I with the crown of St. Stephen at the grave of the Weißenburg .
- In 1526, after the devastating battle of Mohács , Hungary had two kings for several years: Johann Zápolya , the prince of Transylvania , and the Habsburg Ferdinand I. However, only Johann Zápolya was in possession of the St. Stephen's crown. In the dispute over rule in Hungary, he allied himself with the Turks. In 1529 he paid homage to the Turkish sultan, Suleyman the Magnificent, on the ground of the Mohács battlefield . He took the crown of St. Stephen from his hand and put it on himself and then on his grand vizier Ibrahim Pascha on a trial basis. After that he gave it back to Johann Zápolya, and the united armies marched together against Vienna ( First Turkish siege of Vienna ). After the conquest of Vienna failed, Johann Zápolya brought the St. Stephen's Crown back to Transylvania.
- In 1551 the widow of Johann, Isabella Jagiellonica , who had since died, renounced the Hungarian throne in favor of Ferdinand I. The Crown of St. Stephen came into the hands of the Habsburgs for the second time and was brought from Transylvania to Vienna.
- In 1563, after the death of his father Ferdinand I , the Habsburg Maximilian II was appointed the new Hungarian king. On September 8, 1563 he was coronated with the St. Stephen's Crown, for the first time in Pressburg , which from then on became the coronation city. The St. Stephen's Crown was brought back to Vienna after the coronation. However, his rule only extended to royal Hungary , while Budapest was occupied by the Turks and Transylvania in the east remained largely independent under the rule of the Báthory family .
- In 1580 the crown briefly came to Prague , where Rudolf II had his court. When he abdicated in 1608 in favor of his brother Matthias , the crown returned to Vienna. For his coronation on November 19, 1608, she was transported to Pressburg, where she stayed.
- In 1620, during the Thirty Years' War , an anti-Habsburg uprising broke out in Hungary under Gabriel Bethlen . Bethlen's troops were able to quickly conquer the whole of Upper Hungary (the area of today's Slovakia), including Pressburg. As a result, the Stephanskrone came into his possession. The attempt to conquer nearby Vienna together with the Bohemian insurgents failed, however. And when the imperial troops ausholten to strike back, the Crown was Altsohl to Kosice (slow .: Košice brought to safety). From there it was brought to the Hungarian moorland in Ecséd in Heves County . Her guard Peter Revay later brought her to Trenčín , where he died next to St. Stephen's Crown on June 22, 1622.
- 1637 Ferdinand III. crowned with the crown of St. Stephen in Ödenburg .
- In 1642 a Swedish army under Lennart Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia and briefly threatened Vienna, which is why the St. Stephen's Crown was evacuated to Raab .
- In 1683 an Ottoman army under Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa marched through Hungary on Vienna for the second Turkish siege . Among them were the Hungarian troops of the Kuruc leader Emmerich Thököly . Before the siege began, the crown of St. Stephen was brought from Vienna to Linz and on to Passau , where the imperial court also took refuge. But in the same year, after defeating the Turks, the crown first returned to Vienna and then to Pressburg.
- In 1701 a new anti-Habsburg uprising broke out among the Hungarian nobles. Kuruc leader Franz II. Rákóczi conquered almost the entire area of today's Slovakia, and there was a danger that he could usurp the crown of St. Stephen. This was therefore brought from Pressburg to Vienna, which, protected by new fortification walls, was considered safe ( Kuruzenwall ).
- In 1740 Maria Theresa was crowned Queen of Hungary with great pomp in Preßburg. For the first time since Maria von Anjou , a woman wore the St. Stephen's crown again. Because of the danger posed by the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession , the holy crown was brought to the Komorn Fortress for a few months .
- In 1780, after the death of his mother, Joseph II became King of Hungary. The enlightening rationalist, however, had no sense of tradition and mysticism and viewed the St. Stephen's crown as a museum piece. He therefore refused an official coronation with holy mass and anointing. In 1784 he had the crown and the other insignia placed in a glass cabinet in the treasury of the Vienna Hofburg . The official crown guards were dismissed, and the Pressburg Castle , before that the crown was kept, was converted into a seminary. That is why the Hungarians called him the "King with the Hat".
- In 1790 Leopold II was again crowned with the St. Stephen's Crown in the old rite in Pressburg. After his untimely death, the same ceremony took place again in 1792. His son Franz II was crowned King of Hungary, this time in oven. The crown of St. Stephen was to be kept there in the castle palace in the future.
- In 1805 the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte marched with his army as far as Vienna in the Third Coalition War . Hungary also seemed threatened. The Crown of St. Stephen was therefore brought to safety in the east of the Hungarian kingdom, to Mukachevo in today's Ukraine .
- In 1809 Napoleon was again at the gates of Vienna in the fifth coalition war . This time the crown of St. Stephen was brought to safety in Erlau , where the imperial family also fled. At the end of the year, however, the crown will return to Ofen (ung .: Buda ).
- On March 15, 1848, the revolution broke out in Hungary . The revolutionaries under Lajos Kossuth seized St. Stephen's crown, which had the highest symbolic significance for the national uprising of the Hungarians. In a requisitioned railway wagon, the crown was brought to safety from the Habsburg troops to the east over the chain bridge , which was still under construction, but was already temporarily navigable . This was the first train to ever cross the Chain Bridge. First it went by train to Szolnok, then on in a horse-drawn carriage to Debrezin . After she was brought back to Budapest for a short time , another escape followed. This time the Crown of St. Stephen was first brought to Szegedin , then via Großwardein to Arad . There the Prime Minister Bertalan Szemere wanted to make sure that the St. Stephen's Crown was actually in the transport box. Similar to the Sultan Suleiman before him, he put the crown on his head as a test. Shortly afterwards, however, the revolutionaries had to flee further and came to Orschowa in the far south-east of the Banat , in today's Romania. There they first buried the box in a house. However, when they realized that this had not gone unnoticed, they looked for a new hiding place and buried the crown in a forest near the border with Wallachia .
- After the revolution of 1848/49 was suppressed, the Stephanskrone continued to disappear. Although the new Emperor Franz Joseph made no move to be crowned King of Hungary, the court in Vienna still wanted to get possession of the St. Stephen's Crown at all costs. By chance, a spy sent to London was able to provide the crucial information. In the Hungarian circles in exile there , he was able to find someone who knew the location of the hiding place. For 6000 guineas he agreed to reveal the secret. On September 8, 1853, the crown was finally found and excavated. With great pomp it was brought up the Danube on the steamer " Archduke Albrecht " to Promontor (Hungarian: Budafok). There she was received by a delegation of the Hungarian nobility and clergy under the sounds of God received and brought to the castle of Ofen via Pest and the now completed Chain Bridge with gun salutes. After a week, the crown was transported to Vienna by train. Emperor Franz Joseph came hastily from Olomouc , and an official tour took place on September 19, 1853. The emperor then had the crown brought to the treasury of the Vienna Hofburg, where it had already been under Joseph II. After a short time, however, he revised his decision and sent it back to the oven. However, because of the deep political tensions that had persisted since the revolution and its suppression, he was reluctant to be crowned King of Hungary. The Kron-March , composed by Johann Strauss for the occasion, was performed on October 9th.
- In 1867 the Austro-Hungarian settlement finally came about , which was supposed to pacify the situation and solve the national question of Hungary. Now Emperor Franz Joseph dared to put on the crown of St. Stephen. On June 8, 1867, he and his wife Elisabeth (" Sissi ") were first crowned in a magnificent ceremony in the Matthiaskirche in Ofen. He then took the oath on the constitution in front of the Pest parish church, for the first time since the coronation of Johann Zápolya 341 years earlier in Hungarian. In the course of this coronation, the Stephanskrone, which had been badly damaged by the hiding place in the ground, was galvanically re- gold plated .
- In 1900 a separate, armored vault was built in the Budapest Castle, in which the St. Stephen's Crown was then stored.
- In 1916, on December 30th, in the middle of World War I , a Hungarian king was crowned with the St. Stephen's crown for the last time. Emperor Karl was crowned as Charles IV of Hungary together with his wife Zita in the Matthias Church. The oath was taken at the Holy Trinity Column next to the Matthias Church. The ride to the coronation hill took place in the Oven Castle, on a hill built for the ceremony on Szent György tér in front of the main entrance of the Honved Ministry .
- In 1919, after the fall of the monarchy and the end of the Habsburg Empire , Hungary was a communist soviet republic under Béla Kun from March 21 to August 1, 1919 . Then the conservative forces fought their way back to power and entered Budapest on November 16, 1919. The monarchy was officially restored, but no king was elected. Instead, on March 1, 1920, Miklós Horthy was elected imperial administrator. An attempt at restoration by the former King Karl at Easter 1921 failed and he returned to exile in Switzerland . But already in October 1921 he made another attempt to regain the Hungarian crown. He flew by plane to Ödenburg, where legitimist irregulars were supposed to gather. However, after a skirmish at Budaörs , Karl gave up. He was interned in Tihany on Lake Balaton. With British mediation, an exit for the former monarch was organized. A Danube steamer took him to the Black Sea , then a British ship via Gibraltar to the island of Madeira , where he died in April 1922.
- In 1944, after the Red Army had advanced further and further west during World War II and German troops had occupied the country in March 1944, the two crown guards decided to bury St. Stephen's Crown near the Budapest Castle for safety. The commandant of the castle guards, Colonel Ernő Pajtás, was privy to the plan and made sure that his guards did not become suspicious.
- On October 15, 1944, there was a coup in Hungary. Miklós Horthy was ousted, and the Arrow Cross under Ferenc Szálasi took over power. He had the Stephanskrone dug up again and took his oath on the crown on November 4, 1944 in the Budapest parliament . But just a month later he had the crown of St. Stephen and the crown insignia brought to Güns in western Hungary, bypassing the crown guards , and from there on to Velem , directly on the border with the former East Mark , while the battle of Budapest was raging further east . In consultation with Hitler, the Hungarian crown insignia was brought to the bunker of the former imperial hunting lodge in Mürzsteg in Styria on March 18, 1945 . It was hoped that the Soviet army could still be stopped at the so-called southeast wall in Burgenland. When this turned out to be a fallacy and the Soviets were already marching on Vienna, Szalasi fled from his seat in Ödenburg to a hotel in Salzburg, while the St. Stephen's Crown was brought by truck via Mariazell to Mattsee in the Salzburg district. On April 28, 1945, Ferenc Szálasi married in the parish church of Mattsee, one day later he handed over the Hungarian coronation regalia to the local priest Anton Strasser, who kept it in the rectory. The coronation sword was hidden in the Zellhof belonging to the Mattsee monastery , while the crown of St. Stephen, the scepter and the imperial orb were sunk in a barrel in the Mattsee by the six-person crown guard. In the meantime, Szálasi fled to Munich with the empty coronation chest. On May 5, 1945, he and his group were captured by the United States near Augsburg. The Arrow Cross refused to the Americans to reveal the real hiding place of the crown insignia. Thereupon the adjutant Szálasis, Ernő Gömbös, who was also arrested, was taken out of prison and questioned. However, he only testified that the group had sworn not to reveal the hiding place for five years and then only to report it to the National Socialists in Germany or the government in Hungary. Colonel Pajtas, the former commandant of the castle guard, finally revealed the location of the hiding place to the American military secret service, the CIC . The barrel was recovered from the Mattsee. But now the question arose what should be done with the crown treasure. The Americans planned to hand over the Crown of St. Stephen to the new Hungarian government in a ceremonial act by American soldiers in Budapest. On August 20, 1945, the relic, the hand of St. Stephen, which had also previously been hidden in Hungary, was brought back to Budapest in a procession, which aroused national hopes among Hungarians and great suspicion among the Soviets. They therefore feared pro-Western demonstrations in the event of the return of the St. Stephen's Crown and turned down the offer. In 1947, therefore, the Hungarian Cardinal József Mindszenty suggested that the Americans give the crown insignia to the Vatican instead , from where, according to the Catholic tradition, the St. Stephen's crown had come in the year 1000. Instead, the Americans brought the entire Hungarian crown insignia to the United States from West Germany . In Hungary it was not until July 27, 1951 that the US State Department officially found out that the Hungarian crown insignia was in US hands. Later on, the Hungarian communists also tried to get the crown back and in return offered the release of Robert A. Vogeler, a US citizen convicted of espionage in Budapest in 1950. The US refused to do so. After they had been kept in the safe of the former Deutsche Reichsbank in Frankfurt from 1945 to 1951 and in the European command center of the US Army in Friedberg from 1951 to 1953, the insignia including the St. Stephen's Crown were brought to Fort Knox in 1953 . After the Hungarian uprising in 1956 , relations between Hungary and the USA deteriorated dramatically. It was not until 1966 that full diplomatic relations were resumed and the USA viewed the Hungarian regime as largely illegitimate. But they couldn't agree on a return.
- In 1978, as part of US President Jimmy Carter's détente , the crown insignia was returned to Hungary. Hungarian-exiled associations in the United States had expressed criticism of a return to the Hungarian communist regime . The United States set two conditions for the return: the crown should be returned "to the Hungarian people" in an official ceremony and Prime Minister János Kádár should be absent at the handover ceremony, and second, the crown should in future be kept in a publicly accessible location become. On January 6, 1978, a delegation from the US Congress with Foreign Minister Cyrus Vance in Budapest presented the Crown of St. Stephen and the other insignia to the Hungarian people. From now on it was kept in the Hungarian National Museum , where it could also be viewed.
- 2000: Since this year it has been kept together with the imperial orb and the scepter in the dome of the Hungarian parliament building in Budapest.
Trivia
The Stephanskrone is the central object in the crime novel Totentanz around a royal crown (org. Canto for a Gypsy) by Martin Smith alias Martin Cruz Smith . An interesting genesis for the crown is also given in the novel. The Stephanskrone in the parliament building may not be photographed and is heavily guarded. A copy of the Holy Crown with the imperial orb and scepter is in the church museum of the Matthias Church .
See also
- List of rulers of Hungary - winners of the St. Stephen's crown since 1000
- Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen - territories and rulers associated with the coronation
- List of Croatian noble families
literature
- Eva Kovács, Zsuzsa Lovag: A Magyar Koronázási Jelvények. Corvina Kiadó, Budapest 1980, ISBN 963-13-0758-1 (German: The Hungarian Coronation Insignia. Ibid 1988, ISBN 963-13-2314-5 ).
- Endre Tóth , Károly Szelényi: The Holy Crown of Hungary. Kings and Coronations. 2nd Edition. Kossuth-Verlag, Budapest 2000, ISBN 963-09-4169-4 .
- H. v. C .: A crowning glory by the people . In: The Gazebo . Issue 30, 1867, pp. 476–479 ( full text [ Wikisource ] - illustrated).
- Franz Bock : The Hungarian Imperial Insignia . In: Mittheilungen der kk Central-Commission for the research and preservation of architectural monuments . Volume 2, 1857, p. 20 ( Wikisource ).
Web links
Individual evidence
- ↑ Insignia . (Philosophical Faculty of the University of Passau). As of February 23, 2009.
- ↑ Gàbor Pap: Angyali korona, szent csillag (German angelic crown, holy stars) . 2006.
- ^ Scent corona . - Complete text of Pap's treatise with numerous illustrations (Hungarian). As of February 23, 2009.
- ↑ zeno.org Herders Conversations-Lexikon, 1st edition. (Full text) at zeno.org
- ↑ Stricter criminal law in Hungary: To protect St. Stephen's crown. In: taz. June 30, 2012.
- ↑ Peter Diem: The Holy Crown of Hungary and the Coronation Insignia . austria-lexikon.at
- ^ Gertrud Gerhartl : Wiener Neustadt. History, art, culture, economy. Braumüller Verlag, Vienna 1978, ISBN 3-7003-0159-6 ., Supplemented and expanded edition, 1993, ISBN 3-7003-1032-3 .
- ↑ a b c Márta Fata (University of Tübingen): The return of the St. Stephen's crown to Hungary: symbol of the nation . In: Back then . No. 1 , 2008, p. 8–11 ( uni-tuebingen.de [PDF]).
- ^ Hungary / Stephanskrone - Three keys . In: Der Spiegel . No. 34 , 1970 ( online ).
- ↑ Martin Mevius: A Crown for Rákosi: The Vogeler Case, the Holy Crown of St Stephen, and the (Inter) national Legitimacy of the Hungarian Communist Regime, 1945–1978 . In: The Slavonic and East European Review . tape 89 , no. 1 . The Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, January 2011, p. 76-107 , JSTOR : 10.5699 / slaveasteurorev2.89.1.0076 (English).