European Union

"EU" redirects here. For other uses, see EU (disambiguation).

European Union Template:Bg icon [Европейски съюз] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Cs icon [Evropská unie] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Da icon [Den Europæiske Union] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Nl icon [Europese Unie] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Et icon [Euroopa Liit] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Fi icon [Euroopan unioni] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Fr icon [Union européenne] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:De icon [Europäische Union] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:El icon [Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Hu icon [Európai Unió] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Ga icon [An tAontas Eorpach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:It icon [Unione Europea] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Lv icon [Eiropas Savienība] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Lt icon [Europos Sąjunga] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Mt icon [L-Unjoni Ewropea] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Pl icon [Unia Europejska] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Pt icon [União Europeia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Ro icon [Uniunea Europeană] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Sk icon [Európska únia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Sl icon [Evropska unija] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Es icon [Unión Europea] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Sv icon [Europeiska unionen] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)
Flag Presidency insignia of the European Union Presidency insignia
Motto: [In varietate concordia] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)  (Latin) "United in diversity"
Anthem: Ode to Joy  (orchestral)
Commission seat	Brussels
Official languages	23 Bulgarian Czech Danish Dutch English Estonian Finnish French German Greek Hungarian Irish Italian Latvian Lithuanian Maltese Polish Portuguese Romanian Slovak Slovenian Spanish Swedish
Member states	27 Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom
Government	Sui generis supranationalism
• Commission	José Manuel Barroso (EPP)
• Parliament	Hans-Gert Pöttering (EPP)
• Council	Portugal
• European Council	José Sócrates
Formation
• Treaty of Rome	25 March 1957
• Maastricht Treaty	7 February 1992
• Water (%)	3,08
Population
• 2007 estimate	494,070,000 (3rd1)
GDP (PPP)	2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total	$14,518 billion (1st1)
• Per capita	$28,213 (14th1)
GDP (nominal)	2007 (IMF) estimate
• Total	$15,849 billion (1st1)
• Per capita	$29,476 (13th1)
Currency	15 Euro (€) (EUR) (de jure) British pound Bulgarian lev Cypriot pound Czech koruna Danish krone Estonian kroon Hungarian forint Latvian lats Lithuanian litas Maltese lira Polish złoty Romanian leu Slovak koruna Swedish krona
Time zone	UTC0 to +2
• Summer (DST)	UTC+1 to +3
Internet TLD	.eu
If considered as a single entity.

The European Union (EU) is a sui generis supranational union, made up of twenty-seven member states. It was established as the European Economic Community in 1957 by the Treaty of Rome and has undergone many changes since, most notably in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty. Since 1957 new accessions have raised the number of member states, and powers have expanded. As a result, the EU can be described as both a supranational and an intergovernmental body.

The combined economy of the EU is the largest in the world with a nominal GDP of €11.6 (US$15.7) trillion in 2007. The EU has a single market between member states with a common trade policy, a Common Agricultural/Fisheries Policy, and a regional development policy. It introduced a common currency, the euro, which has been adopted by thirteen member states. Since 1993, the EU has developed a limited Common Foreign and Security Policy, and co-operation in police and judicial matters.

Important EU institutions and bodies include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central Bank; as well as a number of specialised agencies working in varied fields. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens. EU citizens directly elect the European Parliament every five years. EU citizens can freely invest, live, travel, and work in other member states (with some temporary restrictions on new member states). Passport control and customs checks between most member states were abolished in the Schengen Agreement.

History

Main article: History of the European Union

In 1945, at the end of the Second World War, Europe was marked by unprecedented devastation and human suffering. It faced new political challenges, in particular reconciliation among the peoples of Europe and the growing political division between the USA and the USSR, two ideologically-opposed superpowers. This situation favoured a long held idea of European unification through the creation of common institutions.

File:Rometreaty.jpg

The founding nations signing the Treaty of Rome in 1957

In a speech at the University of Zurich in 1946, Winston Churchill called for a United States of Europe and the creation of a Council of Europe. The latter was established in Strasbourg on 5 May 1949 as the first European institution. The Schuman Declaration, based on a plan by Jean Monnet and signed 9 May 1950, gave rise to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The aim of the ECSC was to integrate the markets for the industrial resources necessary for reconstruction of Europe, and the production of weapons of war. The founding members of the community, who signed the Treaty of Paris (1951), were Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg (who already co-operated as the Benelux countries), France, Italy and West Germany.

Two additional communities were created by the Treaties of Rome in 1957; the European Economic Community (EEC), establishing a Customs Union and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) for cooperation in nuclear energy. The ECSC and Euratom were merged into the EEC in 1967 with the signing of the Merger Treaty. They had a single membership with a combined set of treaties and institutions, and the collective was referred to as the European Communities (now, the European Community, within the EU).

Enlargement, 1957 to 2007

  European Communities

  European Union

In 1973 the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom.In 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s. In 1985 the Schengen Agreement was developed among European states to allow for the abolition of systematic border controls between the participating countries. It also included provisions for common policy on the temporary entry of persons (including the Schengen Visa), the harmonisation of external border controls, and cross-border police co-operation. The agreement has been subsequently signed by 30 states, including most EU member states and three non-EU members (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). By 2007 15 member states had implemented the agreement. The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom take part only in the police co-operation measures and not in common border control and visa provisions. Later in 1985, Jacques Delors became President of the European Commission. Serving until 1995, his commission is the longest serving and is considered by some as the most successful, a gold standard by which future Commissions are judged in giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism.

In 1986 the European flag was adopted and leaders signed the Single European Act. In 1989, Germany reunified after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the former East Germany joined the enlarged Germany in EU membership. With enlargement toward eastern Europe on the agenda, the Copenhagen Criteria were agreed and the Maastricht Treaty formally established the EU on 1 November 1993. With that treaty, the European Community became one of three pillars of the EU, alongside new areas of integration: foreign policy and interior affairs.

The fall of the Iron Curtain marked a new era in Eastern Europe and layed the foundations of further enlargement

In 1994 the European Economic Area was established, allowing the non-members Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway access to the EU's single market. In 1995 Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the EU. The Amsterdam Treaty was signed in 1999, shortly after the resignation of the Santer Commission. In the same year the euro was introduced for bank transfers, and euro coins and banknotes replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states in 2002. In 2003 the Nice Treaty came into force, followed a year later by the accession of ten countries (eight central and eastern European countries plus Malta and Cyprus).

Later in 2004, the European Constitution was signed in Rome, though it was never fully ratified after rejection by French and Dutch voters in referendums. In 2007, it was agreed to replace that proposal with a new Reform Treaty (or "Lisbon Treaty") that would not have constitutional elements but would reform existing treaties. At the start of that year Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU and the euro was adopted by Slovenia. It was agreed to allow Cyprus and Malta to adopt the euro at the start of 2008.

Member states

Main articles: European Union member state and Enlargement of the European Union

The European Coal and Steel Community was founded in 1952 by six countries. Between 1973 and 2007 there have been six waves of enlargement bringing the current membership up to 27. The largest enlargement occurred in 2004 when 10 members joined at the same time. There are currently three official candidate countries, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. In addition the western Balkan countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia are officially recognised as potential candidates. The Copenhagen criteria allow any European country to apply. While Croatia's accession is moving along relatively smoothly, Turkey is facing strong opposition from some quarters, notably from the French President, Nicolas Sarkozy. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially states that it is expecting to join the EU in a few years. However, for its accession a number of obstacles must be overcome, including the dispute with Greece over its very name.

To join the EU, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These require a stable democracy respecting human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy capable of competition within the EU and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU laws. Evaluation of a country's fulfilment of the criteria rests with the European Council. Enlargement has been seen as a positive force by many, for example in democratising Eastern Europe and causing war crimes suspects in the former Yugoslavia to be brought to the ICTY.

Albania

Austria

Belarus

Belgium

Bosnia

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czech
Rep.

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Malta→

Moldova

Mont.

Netherlands

N. Mac.

Norway

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Russia

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

 Switz-
erland

Turkey

Ukraine

United
Kingdom

The member states of the European Union (European Communities pre-1993), animated in order of accession. Only territories in and around Europe are shown.

Year History of EEC/EU membership Total 1957 Belgium France Germany Italy Luxembourg Netherlands 6 1973 Denmark Ireland United Kingdom 9 1981 Greece 10 1986 Portugal Spain 12 1995 Austria Finland Sweden 15 2004 Cyprus Czech Republic Estonia Hungary Latvia Lithuania Malta Poland Slovakia Slovenia 25 2007 Bulgaria Romania 27

Geography

Main article: Geography of the European Union

The 66,000 km of coastline, such as this in Greece, influences 22 states

The territory of the EU consists of the combined territories of its 27 member states with significant exceptions outlined below. The territory of the EU is not the same as that of Europe, as significant parts of the continent, such as Switzerland, Norway and European Russia, are outside the EU, and some overseas territories are part of the EU while not being geographically part of Europe. The EU's member countries cover a combined area of 4,422,773 square kilometres (1,707,642 sq mi). The total territory of the EU is the seventh largest territory in the world by area. The landscape, climate and economy of the EU are heavily influenced by its long coastline, which is 65,992.9 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. It is the second longest coastline, after Canada. The combined member states of the EU share land borders with 21 EU non-member states which total 12,440.8 kilometres (7,730 mi), the fifth longest border in the world.

Some parts of member countries are not part of the EU, although they are part of the European continent. Examples include the Channel Islands and Faroe Islands. Several territories associated with member states that are outside geographic Europe are also not part of the EU (such as Greenland, Aruba, the Netherlands Antilles and all the non-European territories associated with the United Kingdom). On the other hand, some overseas territories are formally part of the EU even if they are not geographically part of Europe, such as the Azores, the Canary Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Madeira, Martinique and Réunion.

Including overseas territories of member states, the EU includes most types of climate from Arctic to tropical, rendering meaningless meteorological averages for the EU as a whole. The majority of the population lives either in areas with a Mediterranean climate (southern Europe), a temperate maritime climate (Western Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (in eastern member states).

Governance

Main article: Institutions of the European Union

File:Institutions europeennes IMG 4307.jpg

The Parliament in Strasbourg is a legislative chamber of the EU

The EU is governed by a number of institutions, primarily the Commission, Council and Parliament. The European Commission acts as the executive branch. It is currently composed of 27 commissioners, one from each member state. The commission is responsible for drafting all proposed rules in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the EU. The president of the commission is nominated by the European Council, and confirmed by the Parliament.

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the EU's legislative branch, the other being the Parliament. It is composed of the national ministers responsible for the area of EU law being addressed. For example, European legislation regarding agriculture would be treated by a Council composed of the national ministers for agriculture. The body's presidency rotates between the member states every six months. To increase stability the current president member state co-operates with both the previous and the next president member state. It should not be confused with the European Council, which is not an official institution (although the European Council is an important body and shares its presidency with that of the Council of the EU). It is composed of the heads of government and the President of the European Commission. The European Council meets four times a year.

Brussels hosts many institutions, such as the Council and Commission

The other half of the legislative branch is the European Parliament and is the only EU body composed of representatives directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states. Every five years citizens in all member states elect 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) who form the second half of the EU's legislative branch. Although the elections are for national candidates, the members of the parliament have seats according to political ideals rather than nationality. The chair of the parliament is elected by its members.

The Parliament is the only institution to have its official seat in the city of Strasbourg. Brussels plays host to the Commission, Council and some meetings of the Parliament. Hence the latter is often considered the de facto capital of the EU. However the Courts, and some meetings and departments of the other institutions, are in Luxembourg.

Judiciary and law

Further information: European Court of Justice, Law of the European Union, and Treaties of the European Union

File:EUCoJ.jpg

The Court of Justice in Luxembourg is the highest authority for EU law

The Judicial branch of the EU consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of 27 judges, one judge being nominated by each member-state. The president is elected from the judges. The Court has is the highest court on matters of European law, that which is proposed by the Commission rather than national governments. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to reduce the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors, which monitors the EU's accounts.

EU law is the first and only example of a supranational legal framework. The European Court of Justice ruled in one of its earliest cases that EU law constitutes "a new legal order of international law". By becoming EU members, sovereign nation states cede authority to the EU for the mutual social and economic benefit of their people. EU law follows the principle of subsidiarity, which means that laws are only passed at the European level when these are more effective compared to legislation of member states themselves, while EU law is supreme in specific fields (which were extended to encompass criminal law in 2005).

EU law covers a broad range of topics, often as broad as the legislation of the member states. Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence. Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have "direct effect" horizontally. This means that private citizens can call upon the rights granted to them (and the duties created for them) by EU legislation. For instance, an air hostess could sue her employer for sexual discrimination based on legislation provided in EU treaties. The other legal instrument of the EU, called "directives", also have a direct effect but only "vertically". This means that private citizens cannot call upon their rights based upon EU directives, but that directives can only be addressed through the member state.

The Commission President José Manuel Barroso proposes legislation

Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on that national law or if the national law does not reflect the EU directive, they may sue the national government ("vertically") for the failure in implementing a directive correctly. An example of a directive is the EU Copyright directive (2001/29/EC), which harmonises the different national copyright laws across the EU. In 2007, the Court of Justice ruled that the Community has powers to propose legislation for criminal law and the criminal penalties have started to be proposed by the Commission, albeit rarely.

The EU is founded upon a number of treaties. In 1951 the Treaty of Paris created the ECSC. This was followed in 1957 by the Treaties of Rome which created Euratom and the European Economic Community (Treaty of the European Community). The latter of these is today the core document of the European Community pillar of the EU. A number of further treaties merged the communities and added competencies which laid the foundations for the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on the European Union). Maastricht created three pillars of the European Union. The first would be the former Community. It would be joined by the Common Foreign and Security Policy and Justice and Home Affairs. These were based more on intergovernmental decision making, rather than the supranational system of the European Community. The Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice saw a number of changes. The Parliament's power increased with the extension of codecision procedure and powers were transferred from Justice and Home Affairs to the European Community (the former now renamed Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters. The Proposed Reform Treaty would abolish the pillar system, although the intergovernmental style in those areas will largely remain.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the European Union

The President-in-Office of the European Council, José Sócrates, helps guide the direction of the EU

The politics of the EU primarily cover the economy, which is reminiscent of its history originating in a series of economic communities after the Second World War. When the Maastricht Treaty established the EU, the scope was expanded to the pillar system whereby foreign and home affairs were added to the intergovernmental domain of the EU. Political direction in the EU is given by the European Council, headed by the rotating presidency. Citizens participate through the European Parliament which is elected every five years.

Integration

Main articles: European integration and Enlargement of the European Union

The expansion of the EU has been seen as a means for promoting and reinforcing peace and democracy on the European continent following the Second World War and later after the decline of the Soviet Union. Another aim of the EU has always been to increase its economic prosperity. There is disagreement on how far the EU should expand however. Some favour further enlargement to continue using the positive influence membership prospects have on neighbouring countries, while others fear "over-stretch". Some believe the European public in particular are suffering from "enlargement fatigue" following the accession of 10 members in 2004. Turkey is a particularly controversial topic, considering its large population, low standard of living, Muslim culture, geographical position and ongoing disagreements over Cyprus. The country began negotiations to join in 2005.

Accession to the European treaties necessarily means to give over some powers from the national government to an international organisation (as is the case for all international treaties). The powers that passed from national governments to the EU are large compared to most international treaties. The ongoing integration of Europe is becoming contested on the grounds that it reduces members' national sovereignty too much. Enlargement together with integration (new treaties) are seen by some as parallel processes, vital to the EU or it will fail: this is known as the "bicycle theory".

Reform

Main article: Reform Treaty

To govern and guide the ongoing integration and the larger number of member states the European Constitution was proposed. However ratification of this treaty was rejected by Dutch and French voters.

The Constitution was rejected by voters in two states (red)

By the end of 2007, a new "Reform Treaty" should agreed upon by the leaders to come into force in 2009. The new treaty would carry out most of the reforms envisaged in the Constitutions but without the constitutional elements and would add to, not replace, the existing treaties.

In discussions on reform, there has been a desire to address the democratic deficit of the EU through the development of citizenship of the EU. Citizens have a number or rights including the right to vote and to stand as candidates in local government and European Parliament elections in any member state. However there has been falling turnout at elections, with few political structures at EU level and no cohesive European civil society. Commissioner for Communication Strategy, Margot Wallström, has been one notable figure attempting to correct this situation. Her plans allow European political parties, instead of national parties running for EU parliament, to campaign in the different countries and thus give these supranational parties greater ability to run with candidates for Commission President.

Budget

Main article: Budget of the European Union

Further important political issues concern the EU budget. The Financial Perspective for 2007–2013 was defined in 2005 when EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European GDP. However there are long running disputes over the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK rebate. The UK rebate is a special discount on the UK contributions to the EU budget. The rebate was allowed as the UK was receiving relatively little agricultural support compared to other countries. The agricultural policy has historically dominated much of the EU's spending. Reduction of the agricultural spending and abolition of the UK rebate are listed as important reforms of the system by various groups. This is however problematic as unanimity is required to change these agreements, meaning that both the gross receivers from agricultural policies and the UK have to give up a privileged position. So far no agreement has been reached.

Justice, freedom and security

Main articles: Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters and European Commissioner for Justice, Freedom & Security

Schengen opened borders between its members (blue) prompting cross border police cooperation

There are a number of fields of co-operation concerning matters of policing and justice. The stated idea of such cooperation is to create an "area of Justice, Freedom and Security" in Europe. These areas are largely in the domain of the third of the EU's three pillars, meaning it is dealt with primarily between states rather than through the Commission and Parliament. This would remain the case even with the proposal for abolition of the pillar system under the Reform Treaty. However there is still Community involvement over matters such as the Schengen Agreement and human rights. Community powers had previously been extended by the Amsterdam Treaty.

The Schengen area has opened borders between its member states (some EU members, and some outside the EU), and has hence led to greater cross-border cooperation. This is conducted through bodies such as the Europol (a police agency), Eurojust (justice cooperation) and Frontex (border control). Furthermore, the Schengen Information System provides a common police database and the European Arrest Warrant allows a faster extradition to another EU state.

In addition to criminal cooperation, the EU also deals with human rights. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union was proclaimed in 2000 to ensure citizens rights were protected. The charter is to be made legally binding on the EU and its members (except the United Kingdom) as part of the Reform Treaty. The European Fundamental Rights Agency is the EU's research body in this field. Due to the portfolio including human rights, it has become a sensitive position; in 2004 Rocco Buttiglione was first proposed as Commissioner for Justice, Freedom and Security. Due to Buttiglione's conservative views on homosexuality and women, the Parliament rejected him and he had to be withdrawn in favour of the present commissioner: Franco Frattini.

Foreign relations

Main articles: Foreign relations of the European Union and Common Foreign and Security Policy

The High Representative, Javier Solana, is the EU's spokesperson on foreign policy

The foreign relations of the EU are primarily dealt with through the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The CFSP has its origins in the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 where foreign policy was established as the second of three pillars in the EU. The CFSP were further defined and broadened in the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997. The Amsterdam treaty defined five objectives for the CFSP: to safeguard the common values, fundamental interests, independence and integrity of the EU in conformity with the principles of the United Nations Charter; to strengthen the security of the EU in all ways; to preserve peace and strengthen international security, in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter, as well as the principles of the Helsinki Final Act and the objectives of the Paris Charter, including those on external borders; to promote international co-operation; and to develop and consolidate democracy and the rule of law, and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The foreign and security policy is coordinated by the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, currently Javier Solana. When policy is agreed, the High Representative can speak for the EU, for example at the United Nations (UN). This is some times together with the current Presidency: in the first half of 2007, the German Presidency addressed the United Nations Security Council eight times, representing the unified EU position.

Trade Commissioner, Peter Mandelson, represents the bloc and its single market in the WTO

Foreign policy is agreed upon on an inter-governmental basis. This can lead to differing national policies, for example regarding the war in Iraq. Besides emerging international policy, the international effect of the EU is felt through enlargement. The potential benefits of becoming a member are considered a major factor contributing to the reform and stabilisation of the former Communist countries in Eastern Europe. These factors influencing other countries are generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power". Finnish Prime Minister, Matti Vanhanen, cited the common foreign policy as a factor as to why Finland is no longer a neutral country – despite what it may be considered. It is not known if this view is shared by the leaders of the other neutral countries in the EU.

Along side its foreign and security policy, the Commission is gaining greater representation in international bodies such as the UN, where it has influence over areas such as aid due to its large contributions in that field (see below), and the G8, in which the Commission and Council Presidents have non-voting representation. Generic representation is primarily through the European Commissioner for External Relations, who works along side the High Representative. However in the World Trade Organization (WTO), where all 27 member states are represented, the EU as a body is represented by Trade Commissioner Peter Mandelson.

Humanitarian aid

Further information: ECHO (European Commission)

The EU is the largest contributor of aid in the world

The European Community humanitarian aid office, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to third world countries. In 2006 its aid budget amounted to 671 million euro, 48% of which went to the ACP countries. Together with the aid given by member states individually, the EU is the largest aid donor in the world.

The current commissioner for aid, Louis Michel, has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly, to greater effect and on humanitarian principles. EU aid has previously been criticised by the think tank Open Europe for being inefficient, mis-targeted and linked to economic objectives. Further more, some charities have claimed European governments have inflated the amount they have spent on aid by incorrectly including money spent on debt relief, foreign students and refugees. Under the de-inflated figures, the EU did not reach its internal aid target in 2006 while under official figures, the EU would not reach the accepted international target of 0.7% of GNP until 2015. However only a few countries have reached that target and in 2005, EU aid was 0.34% of GNP which was higher than the United States and Japan.

Military and defence

Main articles: European Security and Defence Policy and Military of the European Union

The EU itself has limited military capability of its own. Member states are responsible for their own territorial defence, alongside NATO which provides common military capabilities and assurances. However the membership of NATO and the EU are not identical. Furthermore, the Western European Union (WEU) is a separate European security organisation related to the EU. In 1992, the WEU's relationship to the EU was defined, with the EU giving it the "Petersberg tasks" (humanitarian missions such as peacekeeping and crisis management). The tasks were later transferred from the WEU to the EU by the Amsterdam Treaty; they formed part of the new CFSP and the European Security and Defence Policy. Elements of the WEU are currently being merged into the EU's CFSP; the President of the WEU is currently CFSP High Representative.

File:Eufor222.jpg

EU forces are peacekeeping in areas such as the Balkans

Following the Kosovo war in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO." To that end, a number of independent forces have been created, answerable to the European Council rather than NATO or member states. These include a 60,000-member European Rapid Reaction Force and EU Battlegroups of 15,000 men. Forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the middle east. These are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, satellite centre and the military staff.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the European Union

The euro has been adopted by 13 EU states, and other third states

The EU was created first and foremost as an economic union. The first, oldest and largest pillar, the European Community, was founded as the European Economic Community. Creating and maintaining the EU's single market has been a prominent goal of the Community, ensuring free movement of people, goods, services and capital.

Its combined single market is notionally the largest economy in the world, with an estimated nominal GDP of 11.6 euro (USD14.5) trillion in 2006 (compared to the second largest economy, the United States, with a GDP of $13.2 trillion). The EU is the largest exporter in the world, and the second largest importer. It is the biggest trading partner to many countries, such as China and India. In 2007, the headquarters of 163 companies listed on the Fortune Global 500 are within the EU, including half of the top twenty. The most profitable EU based company listed is Royal Dutch Shell, an Anglo-Dutch oil company.

Within the EU's market, which extends to Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway via the European Economic Area, four freedoms are guaranteed: free movement of goods, services, capital and persons. To aid this, 13 members of the EU have adopted a common currency, the euro. Together they are called the eurozone and they have a common European Central Bank, although the currency is used by a number of other countries outside of the EU. The OECD has projected that in 2007 the eurozone will grow by 2.7%, faster than the projected 2.1% growth in the United States.In 2006, 2 million of the 3 million jobs created in the EU were in the eurozone, although the eurozone economy is set to grow 2.4%, slightly slower than the EU as a whole, at 2.7%.

Royal Dutch Shell is the most profitable of the 163 Fortune Global 500 companies headquartered in the EU

Legislation over the years has harmonised standards and liberalised markets. However, not all changes have been equally welcomed, for example the Bolkestein directive faced protests over its liberalisation of services. The single market is extended to non-EU members through the European Economic Area (EEA) treaties. Through this treaty Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway accept certain elements of EU law. There have been a number of high profile cases where the Competition Commissioner has fined or rejected mergers of major corporations. The current commissioner, Neelie Kroes, has dealt with a long dispute with Microsoft, after the corporation was fined 497 million euro in 2004 for anti-competitive behaviour. Mario Monti was the first to block the merger between two US companies, which has been approved by US authorities. Since the founding treaty of the Community, the treaties have included the objective to establish a market of "free and undistorted competition". However the deletion of this phrase was secured by Nicolas Sarkozy in talks on the proposed Reform Treaty. It is not expected to have any major impact on competition policy.

Regional development

Main article: Regional policy of the European Union

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EU funds finance infrastructure such as this motorway in Katowice

There are substantial economic disparities across the EU, reflecting the different economies of its member states. Even corrected for purchasing power, the difference between the richest and poorest regions (NUTS-2 & 3) is about a factor of ten – Frankfurt has €68,751 PPP per capita, Paris €67,980, and Inner London €65,138, while Romania's Nord-Est has €5,070 PPP per capita and Bulgaria's Severozapaden has €5,502 PPP per capita. By comparison, United States GDP per capita is 35% higher than the EU average and the Japanese GDP per capita is approximately 15% higher.

To tackle this, there are a number of Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds aimed at promoting the development of the poorer regions of the EU. These regions are primarily located in the new member states of eastern Europe. The EU sponsors research through its Framework Programmes, to deal with research and technological development to work towards a European Research Area. Other funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to EU standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the commonwealth of independent states (TACIS).

Agriculture

Main article: Common Agricultural Policy

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) provides state subsidies to farmers within the EU. It is designed to ensure there is enough food on the market by guaranteeing minimum levels of productions. It began in 1962, after being included in the Treaty of Rome, to reduce dependence on food imports. It is also intended to stabilise markets, reduce prices and ensure a fair standard of living for those dependent upon the agriculture industry. The policy is the largest single expenditure from the EU budget.

EU farms are supported by the CAP, the largest budgetary expenditure (Burgas, Bulgaria)

The level of expenditure has been criticised over time as disproportionate, producing over production of goods (dubbed "butter mountains" and "wine lakes"), which are sold in developing markets, undercutting local producers. It has been stated that an average European cow is given more income than that of half the world's human population. These criticisms come particularly from the developing world where farm subsidies in developed countries have been a hot topic. There has also been criticism that funds go to the larger, richer farms instead of smaller farmers. Some also question as to whether such a large portion of the EU budget goes to supporting an industry that generates just 1.6% of the EU's GDP; the number of people working in agriculture halved between 1980 and 2003 to just 5% of the population.

There has been many attempts at reform, such as decoupling payments from production, and even paying farmers to maintain rural landscapes rather than overproduce. Many farms depend upon the subsidies, and would be unprofitable without the CAP. The policy has been defended most notably by France, the biggest beneficiary of the policy. The UK, receiving little from the policy, pays a reduced amount into the CAP. It has been called to surrender it, particularly as a number of poorer countries have entered the EU, but has refused to do so until the CAP is reformed (see Budget above).

Energy

Main article: Energy policy of the European Union

Pipelines from Russia to Europe

The EU has been a legislative power in the area of energy policy for many years. This involvement evolved from of the European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.

The EU currently imports 82% of its oil and 57% of its gas, making it the world's leading importer of these fuels. In 2007, member states legally bound the EU to use 20% renewable energy and cut carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020. In 2020, one-tenth of all cars and trucks in EU 27 are agreed to be running on biofuels. This is considered to be one of the most ambitious moves by large industrialised regions to fight global warming.

Despite this, there are still concerns that the EU is largely dependent upon Russia for its energy. This concern has grown particularly acute following a series of clashes between Russia and its neighbours as Russia rose the price of its exports. As a result the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply.

Infrastructure

Further information: European Commissioner for Transport and European Commissioner for Enterprise and Industry

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, TGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Oresund bridge and the Brenner Base Tunnel. In 2001 it was estimated that by 2010 the network would cover: 75,200 km of roads; 78,00 km of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.

Infrastructure, such as the Oresund bridge between Denmark and Sweden, is a priority to increase trade and mobility

In developing European transport policy, there are environmental pressures on proposals to increase the transport network. With enlargement, a problem policy has had to tackle is the differences between the older and newer member states. In the EU 15, there is a major problem with congestion and pollution, while in the states that joined since 2004, the problem is accessibility. The Polish road network in particular was in poor condition. From accession, 4,600 roads needed to be upgraded to EU standards with an approximate expenditure of 17 billion euro.

Another project is the Galileo positioning system. Galileo is a proposed Global Navigation Satellite System, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Galileo was launched to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System. Galileo extends its cooperation to other nations outside the EU and is to be operational by 2010. It has been criticised by some due to costs, delays, and a perception of it being redundant due to the existing GPS system.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the European Union

File:European Union Population Density.png

With 114 people per km² the EU is one of the most densely populated regions in the world

The combined population of all 27 member countries was approximately 492.9 million in 2006. Between 2004 and 2025 the population of the EU 25 is expected increase by approximately 13 million. This increase be will primarily be due to net immigration, which is present in most European countries.

The EU's population is 7.3% of all humans, yet the EU covers just 3% of the earth's land. That is a population density of 114/km² making the EU is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. Eighty percent live in an urban area and a third live in cities of over a million people. The EU is home to more global cities than any other region in the world and 16 cities with populations of over one million (using city proper figures). The four largest cities are Berlin, London, Madrid and Paris.

Densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cites and are now encompassing large metropolitan areas are Rhine-Ruhr having approximately 10.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad approx. 7 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine Main Area approx. 4 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.) and the Upper Silesian Industry Area approx. 3.5 million. (Katowice, Sosnowiec et al.).

L. City proper (2005)	mill.	L. Urban area (2005)	mill.	L. Urban zone (2001)	mill.
London	7.5	Paris	10.1	London	11.6
Berlin	3.4	London	8.5	Paris	11.0
Madrid	3.1	Madrid	5.5	Madrid	5.6
Rome	2.7	Ruhr	5.3	Ruhr	5.4	Barcelona	Berlin	London
Paris	2.2	Barcelona	4.5	Berlin	4.9
Bucharest	1.9	Milan	3.8	Barcelona	4.8
Hamburg	1.8	Berlin	3.7	Milan	3.9
Warsaw	1.7	Randstad	3.3	Athens	3.9
Budapest	1.7	Athens	3.2	Rome	3.7
Vienna	1.7	Naples	2.9	Hamburg	3.1	Madrid	Milan	Paris

Languages

Main article: Languages of the European Union

The EU has 23 official and working languages: Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish. Translation of important documents, such as legislation, takes place in every official language, however some institutions choose only a handful of languages as internal working languages. The European Parliament however provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions. Language policy is the responsibility of member states, but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages.

Languages (2006)
	First Language	Language Total
English	13%	51%
German	18%	32%
French	12%	26%
Italian	13%	16%
Spanish	9%	15%
Polish	9%	10%
Dutch	5%	6%
Swedish	2%	3%
Greek	2%	2%
Portuguese	2%	2%
Other EU Languages		~6%
Minority Languages		~16%

German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (about 88,7 million people, as of 2006) followed by English, French, and Italian. English is by far the most spoken foreign language, while German and French follow. 56% of EU citizens are able to hold a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue. Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo-European language family, except Estonian, Finnish, and Hungarian, which belong to the Uralic language family, and Maltese, which is a Semitic language. EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian, written in Cyrillic, and Greek, written in the Greek alphabet.

There are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people. Of these, only the Spanish regional languages: Catalan, Galician, and Basque can be used in the communication of the citizens with the Council of the European Union, the Commission, the Economic and Social Committee, the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman, as well as in the workings of the Committee of the Regions. Though regional and minority languages can benefit from EU programmes, protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states. A wide variety of languages from other parts of the world are spoken by immigrant communities in EU countries. Turkish, Maghreb Arabic, Russian, Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Tamil, Ukrainian, and Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU. Many older immigrant communities are bilingual in the local language and in that of their community. Migrant languages are not given formal status or recognition in the EU or in the EU countries, although since 2007 they have been eligible for support from the language teaching section of the EU's Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013

Religion

Further information: Religion in the European Union

Percentage of Europeans in each state who believe in a god

The EU is a secular body, with no formal connections to any religion and no mention of religion in any current or proposed treaty. Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Reform Treaty have included proposals to mention Christianity and/or God in the preamble of the text. However this idea has faced opposition and has thus been dropped. The desire for a reference stems from Christianity being the dominant religion in Europe. European Christianity can be roughly divided into Roman Catholicism, a wide range of Protestant churches (especially in northern Europe) and Eastern Orthodoxy (in south eastern Europe). Other religions such as Judaism and Islam are also present. In 2002 the EU had an estimated Jewish population of roughly over a million and a Muslim population in 2006 of 16 million people.

Despite the majority of citizens having some form of belief system only 21% see it as important. There is increasing atheism or agnosticism among the general population in Europe, with falling attendance and membership in many countries. In 2005, a survey of the EU's members at that time found that of the EU citizens, 52% believe in a god, 27% in some sort of spirit or life force and 18% had no form of belief. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were the Czech Republic (19%) and Estonia (16%). In such countries, even those who have a faith can be disdainful of organized religion. The most religious societies are those in Malta with 95% (predominantly Roman Catholic), and Cyprus and Romania both with about 90% of citizens believing in a god. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, increased with age, those with religious upbringing, those with the lowest levels of formal education, those leaning towards right-wing politics, and those reflecting more upon philosophical and ethical issues.

Society

Education and research

Further information: Education in the European Union and Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development

File:Windkraftanlagen Dänemark.jpg

Renewable energy is one priority in transnational research activities such as the (FP7)

Education and science are areas where the EU's role is limited in its support. In education, policy mainly developed in the 1980s with programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the ERASMUS programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and become a symbol of Europe and student life. In France, where 217,000 students have participated, the programme became the subject of a film in 2002, L'Auberge espagnole. There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-2013. They are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields.

Scientific support is offered through the EU's Framework Programmes, the first of which was in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to coordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects. Since January 2000 the European Commission has set its sights on a wider objective, known as the European Research Area. This has the support of all member states, and extends the existing financing structure of the frameworks. It aims to focus on coordination, sharing knowledge, ensuring mobility of researchers around Europe, improving conditions for researchers and encouraging links with business and industry as well as removing any legal and administrative barriers.

The College of Europe (based in Bruges and Natolin) was the first European educational establishment, being founded in 1949. It is financially supported by the EU and many students go on to work with the European institutions. Student's places are allocated according to the size of the member state, so it is seen as a reproduction of European society. In further effort to build a European science base, and to improve the competitive edge of the EU in the area of innovation and technology, the commission has proposed the foundation of a European Institute of Innovation and Technology. It has not been decided whether this plan will include its own campus, or will be mainly a network of existing research facilities in the EU.

Culture

Further information: Culture of Europe and Cultural policies of the European Union

The EU has no specific culture or cultural history, other than those of its member states, so EU culture is intertwined with the culture of Europe. Within the EU, supporters of European integration often appeal to a shared European historical/cultural heritage, typically including Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the feudalism of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, 19th century Liberalism and (sometimes) negative elements such as the World Wars. European values are assumed to be grounded in this shared heritage. This heritage can often be invoked to encourage a sense of shared heritage and pride in it: in March 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Treaties of Rome, a piece of art from each state was sent to Rome for a special exhibition. Such art varied from historical pieces such as Auguste Rodin's The Thinker to modern works such as Per Kirkeby's Prophecy on Venice. Displays of such artwork can also be see on euro coins, where countries choose to depict a symbol of national pride such as a building or artist, for example France Prešeren or the Vitruvian Man.

File:800px-Sb-kl-ring.jpg

Sibiu is one of the two European Capitals of Culture for 2007

There is some EU cultural cooperation. Cultural cooperation between member states has become a community competency since its inclusion in 1992 in the Maastricht Treaty. Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7-year programme, the European Cultural Month event, the Media Plus programme, orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra and the European Capital of Culture programme — where one or more cities in the EU are selected for one year to assist the cultural development of the city. In addition, the EU gives grants to cultural projects (totalling 233 in 2004) and has launched a Web portal dedicated to Europe and culture, responding to the European Council's expressed desire to see the Commission and the member states "promote the networking of cultural information to enable all citizens to access European cultural content by the most advanced technological means."

Sports

Main article: Sport policies of the European Union

File:Oldtraffordpitch.jpg

Old Trafford stadium saw a European team compete in football, a popular sport across the EU

Sport policy is largely the domain of the member states, with the EU mostly playing an indirect role. The role of the EU might increase in the future, if (for example) the Reform Treaty were to be ratified by all member states. Recently the EU launched an anti-doping convention. Other policies of the EU have had an impact on sports, such as the freedom of employment which was at the core of the Bosman ruling, which prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with EU nationality.

Various spectator sports are popular throughout Europe, such as football. In the same manner that artistic heritage is drawn on by the EU, football has also been drawn on. On 9 February 2007, for the 50th anniversary of the Rome Treaty, a European football team was formed to take on Manchester United Football Club in a friendly match. It was also the 50th anniversary of Manchester's first participation in the UEFA cup. The "Europe XI" team coach described the importance of the game to Europe in the following terms: "Football brings people together. In a continent so proud of its cultural diversity, football offers a common language. It helps to integrate different communities. At its best, our sport conveys some of Europe’s basic values: the rule of law, respect for others, freedom of expression, teamwork and solidarity." Although the combined team was a one off for that event, Commission President Romano Prodi proposed that the national teams entering the 2008 Olympics in Beijing carry the European flag in addition to their national flag as a show of unity. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, EU teams won 280 medals.

Environment

Main article: European Commissioner for the Environment

The first European environmental policy was launched in 1972. Since then it has addressed issues such as acid rain, the thinning of the ozone layer, air quality, noise pollution, waste and water pollution. The Water framework directive is an example of the water policy; the aim is for rivers, lake, ground and coastal waters to be of "good quality" by 2015. Wildlife is protected through the Natura 2000 programme and covers 30,000 sites throughout Europe. In 2007, the Polish government sought to build a motorway through the Rospuda valley, but the Commission has been blocking construction as the valley is a wildlife area covered by the programme.

The Commission is trying to protect the Rospuda vally in Poland from motorway construction

The REACH directive was a large piece of legislation passed in 2006 which is designed to ensure 30,000 chemicals which are in daily use are tested for their safety. Earlier in 2006, an toxic waste spill off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, from a European ship, prompted the Commission to look into legislation against toxic waste. With states such as Spain now even having a crime against shipping toxic waste, the Commission proposed to create criminal sentences for "ecological crimes". Although the Commission's right to propose criminal law was contested, it won the right in the Court of Justice.

The EU was involved in the development of the Kyoto protocol and signed up to it along side its member states. One way it has sought to tackle climate change was by creating the Emissions Trading Scheme, the worlds biggest multinational environmental trading scheme. The EU is also involved in trying to secure a post-Kyoto deal. In 2007, the EU agreed to an energy policy binding members to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% from 1990 levels, by 2020. If an international deal is reached, emissions would be cut further. The use of renewable energy in the EU would also be increased to 20%. It is also planned that by 2020, 10% of all automobiles would run on biofuels.

Further reading

• EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials, by Paul Craig and Grainne De Burca, 3rd ed., (Oxford University Press 2003) ISBN 0198765096
• The Economist Guide to the European Union (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 978-1-86197-930-8
• Access to European Union: law, economics, policies by Nicholas Moussis (European Study Service, 2007 — 16th ed.) ISBN 978-2-930119-43-4
• Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6
• Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1
• The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0198700520
• The Government and Politics of the European Union by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 978-0-333-98461-1
• The European Union: A Very Short Introduction by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 978-0-19-285375-2
• The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 978-1-59420-033-5
• This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair by Hugo Young (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 978-0-333-57992-3
• The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3
• The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group — Academi, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8264-7105-5
• Template:PDFlink by Hans Köchler, Singapore Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 9 (2005), Accessed January 25, 2007

External links

• EUROPA — the official EU web portal

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