Rail transport in China

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chinese railway network
The train station Beijing South
high speed train

The railway in the People's Republic of China is mainly from the China Railway operated (CR), the State Railways of the People's Republic of China .

Traffic geography

Rail transport in China takes place on the longest rail network in Asia and covers all provinces . All cities with more than 200,000 inhabitants are connected to the railway network, 80% of them also to the high-speed network. The Lhasa Railway was the last province to join Tibet in 2006 .

The CR operates the world's longest network of high-speed routes . Others are under construction, as well as railway lines to transport raw materials from the north and west to the economic centers mainly in the east of the country. Bulk goods transports for coal, ore and grain have a high share of rail freight transport. Since 2015, the international transport corridors to Europe via Russia , Mongolia and Kazakhstan have been expanded ( New Silk Road ).

Due to the geographic extent of the country, the railroad has long average transport lengths.

In the metropolitan areas , rail-bound public transport is offered by light rail vehicles , underground trains (2019: approx. 3,000 km) and trams , which are required not least because of environmental problems and the prevalence of private transport . Much remains to be done here. In 2020, the national tram network is only expected to reach a length of 2,000 km.

history

Beginnings from 1876

The Wusung Railway started operating in September 1876

The first Chinese railways were narrow-gauge railways that emerged towards the end of the 19th century. Mineral resources from the interior of the country reached the ports on the coast via these railway lines . The first railway was the Wusung Railway , built by a British company , which began operations in 1876 and connected the port of Shanghai . The Beijing-Zhangjiakou line (later extended as Beijing-Baotou ) was the first railway line built by the Chinese government and was completed in 1909 under the direction of the Chinese engineer Jeme Tien Yow . In 1912 the Tianjin-Pukou line was also completed by a German-British consortium, taking on massive debts by the Chinese government. At the beginning of the 20th century there were 9,000 kilometers of railroad built by France , Great Britain, Germany , Russia and Japan .

Network expansion from 1949

Opening ceremony of a new railway line from Chengdu to Chongqing in 1952

When the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, there was a railway network of 22,000 km in length, which had been badly damaged in the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945: around half of the network could no longer be used. The first five-year plan, which covered the period from 1953 to 1957, therefore included its reconstruction. During this time, numerous new routes were built, the course of which was for the first time not based on the economic interests of colonial powers, but on the country's own transport needs. Steam locomotives were used almost exclusively , and the average travel speed was low at 34.8 km / h for passenger and 25.2 km / h for freight.

In 1968, the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge opened over the Yangtze River

Even after 1957, the railway network continued to grow, but the government's plans for expansion often turned out to be unsuitable in practice. Sometimes, as with the Great Leap Forward , an unrealistically high number of completed route kilometers was spent per year, on the other hand, railway construction was neglected during political campaigns such as the Cultural Revolution . From the 1960s onwards, military lines became increasingly important, and efforts were further intensified to connect the agriculturally dominated, industrially weak west to the coastal region. The subnetworks that emerged during the colonial era were connected, which required complex bridges such as the Wuhan-Yangtze Bridge or the Nanjing-Yangtze Bridge to cross the two largest Chinese rivers, the Yangtze and the Yellow River .

Railway courts were responsible for legal issues from 1954 to 2012 .

Increasing overloading of the rail network from 1978

The economic opening of China in 1978 was followed by twelve years, during which rail traffic increased steadily, driven by continuous economic growth , but investments in the rail network were largely absent. The available capital was invested exclusively with a view to maximizing the return , and the return on railway lines was classified as subordinate to other branches of industry.

However, the consequences of this policy were soon to be felt: transport bottlenecks caused delays in production, and many transports were shifted from rail to road and to inland waterway transport . While the railroad's market share in freight transport by tonne-kilometers was around 63 percent in 1973, it fell to 50 percent by 1983. From the mid-1980s, there were also capacity problems in passenger transport. Especially at the time of Chunyun , the demand for tickets exceeds the supply. Disturbances from local interests and clientelism led to an inefficient rail network with an unfavorable structure between passenger and freight transport. The railway became an obstacle to economic development.

Modernization of the route network from 1991

Length of the Chinese railway network
year 1980 1985 1990 2000 2006 2010 2015 2019
Distance
in 1000 km 		49.9 52.1 53.4 68.6 76.6 91 121 131
of which high-speed routes
in 1000 km 		0 0 0 0 0 0.1 13 30th
electrified lines
in 1000 km 		1.7 4.2 6.9 ? 24.4 42 55 92
Source:
The rail line from Guangzhou to Shenzhen was expanded to four tracks as part of the acceleration programs to separate passenger traffic and freight traffic

In order to modernize the infrastructure, the area "Energy and Transport" was included as a focus in the eighth five-year plan, which came into force in 1991. This instrument made it possible to greatly increase investments in the railroad. Immediate measures were the electrification of main lines in the economically strong regions and the creation of dual tracks in more rural areas. Furthermore, new rail lines for freight traffic were built. Some of the railway lines built in the 1990s are now among the 20 busiest freight corridors. In 1999 there were 67,400 kilometers of rail network, 36 percent of which were double-track and 24 percent were electrified.

The average speed in passenger traffic in 1994 was 48.3 km / h. In 1996, no passenger train reached speeds higher than 120 km / h in scheduled traffic. In order to increase these values, six packages of measures were implemented between 1997 and 2006 under the heading of "acceleration". The first stage came into effect in April 1997: A maximum speed of 140 km / h was made possible on several frequented passenger transport routes leading to the capital Beijing. The second stage raised the maximum speed on these routes in sections to 160 km / h in 1998. The third and fourth stages, which came into force in 2000 and 2001, resulted in a nationwide revision of the timetables and vehicle rotations combined with a nationwide increase in speeds. The fifth stage enabled speeds of 200 km / h on old lines, while the sixth stage enabled multiple units to be used in sections on freight lines and at the same time increased the maximum speed of freight trains to 120 km / h. The average speed in passenger traffic in April 2007 - after the end of the acceleration measures - was 70.18 km / h.

In 1997, the first Lifeline Express, a mobile hospital, was created to treat patients with cataracts in remote areas. Today there are four train sets, each of which remains in one place for several months and at the same time serves as a place of work and overnight accommodation for the treating doctors .

Development of high-speed traffic (from 2004)

High-speed routes in Taiwan and China in 2013
speed train CRH380CL

One focus of the modernization of the rail network was on better connections to the more rural regions of central and western China. 2005 saw the completion of the Lhasa Railway , which connected the Tibet Autonomous Region as the last Chinese administrative unit at provincial level to the rail network. In 2014, another extension to the west was put into operation with the Lhasa – Xigazê railway line . Permafrost soil , heights of over 3,000 meters and mountains make the construction of railway lines in the west difficult and make numerous engineering structures necessary. At 32.6 kilometers, China's longest railway tunnel , the New Guanjiao Tunnel , is located on the Lhasa Railway.

Since, despite the acceleration programs launched in 1997, demand in long-distance passenger transport rose faster than capacity, the Chinese Ministry of Railways presented a plan for the medium and long-term development of the railway network in January 2004 . A network of high-speed routes with a length of 12,000 kilometers was planned. The construction of high-speed lines began in 2005. In 2008, the Beijing – Tianjin high-speed line opened the first line. In 2008 and the following years, further routes were included in the planning. In 2014, 13,000 km of high-speed line were in operation, and at the end of 2018 more than 29,000 km.

Railway infrastructure

The route network covered more than 131,000 km at the end of 2018. It consists largely of systems in standard gauge , but also meter gauge - and even narrower gauges are still in use. Of the normal-gauge lines , almost 30,000 km were high-speed lines. 60% of the lines have two or more tracks , 70% are electrified .

In the case of double-track lines, left-hand operation is generally used. The signal systems are therefore mostly to the left of the track and consist of different systems. The light signals are similar to the Eastern European Hl signals , but without speed information, the shape signals have their origin in Great Britain .

In the case of high-speed traffic, a grid network is sought in which four parallel north-south routes across the country overlap as many east-west routes. The focus for the construction of new conventional railway lines is on the west and the center of the country.

Long-distance passenger transport

In 2018, CR carried 3.3 billion passengers , including 2 billion in high-speed traffic . 1.4 trillion passenger kilometers were achieved. Every day 5.5 million passengers are transported in around 5,200 trains. In the 10 years from 2008 to 2018, the number of travelers increased by a factor of 1.3.

In order to keep up with this rapid development, the timetable is adjusted up to five times a year.

Train types in passenger transport

In China there are a number of train types for long-distance passenger transport, which differ in terms of speed, number of stops and comfort. The trains generally travel very long distances, so sleeping cars are often carried along. The type of train can be recognized by the letter in front of the train number.

High speed traffic

  • G-trains (高 铁, gaotie, high-speed train) are the fastest trains (planned maximum speed: 300-350 km / h) and stop at a few stations. There are only seats that are divided into three classes, as in an airplane. G trains are comparable to the German ICE sprinters and run between Shanghai and Beijing, for example. For routes longer than 2,400 km (e.g. Beijing – Shenzhen), night connections with sleeping cars are also offered in high-speed traffic.
  • D-trains (动 车, dongche, non-stopping train) often run on the same routes as G-trains, travel at a planned maximum speed of 200–250 km / h and stop more often and are comparable to the German ICE.

Other long-distance traffic

There is also long-distance transport on the existing routes, which is divided into four types:

  • Z trains (直 特快, zhitekuai, “Superexpress”) are particularly fast direct trains (160 km / h top speed) for long-distance transport. They run as pure sleeper trains made up of soft and hard sleepers, only run overnight and over medium distances, for example between Beijing and Harbin.
  • T-trains (特快, tekuai, particularly fast train) run at a top speed of 140 km / h. They are comparable to German IC / ECs, and are classified as soft sleepers, hard sleepers, soft seats and hard seats. They often run over very long distances (e.g. Lhasa-Guangzhou).
  • K trains (快速, kuaisu, "express train") run at a maximum speed of 120 km / h.
  • There are also trains without a number (普快, pukuai), which also run at a maximum speed of 120 km / h.

Regional traffic

  • C trains are regional trains with electric traction.

Class system

Car with soft seats
Car with hard seats

The Chinese Railways basically had a two-class system. However, with the introduction of high-speed trains, more classes were added to both sleeper and normal trains. When booking, the general rule is that there is a specific train connection. The tickets are therefore limited. When fully occupied, a limited number of tickets without a seat (无 座, wuzuo) are available, but they are just as expensive as the lowest seat category.

High-speed trains

  • Second class seat (二等 座, erdengzuo) normal seat, which is comparable to economy class in an airplane (2 + 3 seating)
  • First class seat (一等 座, yidengzuo) normal seat, which is roughly comparable to the second class in the German ICE, but with more legroom (2 + 2 seating)
  • Special class (特等 座, tedengzuo), corresponds to business class on an airplane
  • Place of business (商务 座, shangwuzuo) comparable to first class (usually only about 10 places available)

As a rule, the seats are designed in such a way that the complete bench is rotated at the terminus so that all passengers are always seated in the direction of travel. In the high-speed trains there is also an on-seat service with snacks and drinks.

Sleeper trains

Sleeper trains have two categories of seats (intended for shorter distances) and two categories of sleeping places (for long distances). Most trains also have a dining car in which food is freshly prepared. It is also possible to buy a meal of your choice directly at the seat. There are washing facilities at the end of each sleeping car. When you get on you have to exchange your ticket for a coupon with the sleeper car attendant (one per car) and get it back when you get off.

  • Hard seat (硬座, yingzuo): ​​simple 2nd class seat
  • Soft seats (软座, ruanzuo): ​​simple 1st class seat
  • Hard sleeper (硬卧, yingzuo): ​​normal bed in the open plan, 6 beds are combined into one compartment. There is an additional price differentiation depending on whether you choose the upper, middle or lower bed. Only squat toilet.
  • Soft sleeper (软卧, ruanwo): normal bed in a four-person compartment that can be locked with a door. Equipment with seat toilet.
  • Upper class soft sleepers (高级 软卧, gaojiruanwo): Usually only available in Z-trains and sometimes in D-trains. Here there are usually only two beds in one compartment (about twice the price of a hard sleeper).

Night connections with sleeping car compartments are also offered over very long distances in high-speed traffic. These have their own class structure.

High speed traffic

The Dashengguan Bridge near Nanjing

Infrastructure

Standardized prefabricated elements are often used for the construction of high-speed routes. Many sections of the route run over elevated routes, such as the Danyang-Kunshan Great Bridge , which is the longest bridge in the world with a length of 164 kilometers . Some high-speed routes run over engineering structures for 85 percent of their length . At Nanjing and Wuhan , the Dashengguan Bridge and the Tianxingzhou Bridge, two new crossings of the Yangtze River were created. The longest tunnel on a high-speed route is the 27.84-kilometer-long Taihang Mountain Tunnel, which can be driven at 350 km / h . CTCS is used for train protection, technically related to the ETCS system. The high-speed lines usually do not run through city centers, but pass them on the outskirts, where there is space for spacious long-distance train stations such as Beijing South or Zhengzhou East . The long-distance train stations often have a connection to the subway, which connects them with the city center and the airport.

vehicles

The Chinese high-speed trains are based on technology transfer : In 2004 and 2005, two tenders for the production of high-speed trains were published jointly with the Chinese companies CSR Sifang and China CNR Corporation . Four different vehicle series for speeds over 200 km / h resulted from these tenders. The trains carry the designations CRH1 to CRH5 in the country, with the number "4" being left out as the unlucky number. The CRH1 with Bombardier technology is designed for a top speed of 250 km / h. The CRH2 comes from the Shinkansen family from Japan and, depending on the variant, reaches up to 350 km / h, the CRH3 from Siemens reaches up to 350 km / h, the CRH5 from Alstom 250 km / h.

After the delivery of these trains, the Chinese vehicle manufacturers used the knowledge they had acquired through cooperation with foreign manufacturers in order to be able to produce further developments of high-speed trains on their own. One of the results was the development of the CRH 380A . In addition, 380 high-speed trains were acquired from Bombardier Zefiro . The first high-speed trains of the type CRH400AF ( Fuxing ) went into operation on June 26, 2017 . You are traveling on the high-speed line from Beijing to Shanghai. The trains with a speed of 350 kilometers per hour. - the design-related maximum speed of the trains is 400 km / h - are a purely Chinese production.

traffic

In scheduled traffic, speeds of up to 350 km / h are driven.

The increases in passenger numbers are enormous. On the “parade route” Beijing - Shanghai (1318 km), the number of travelers per day increased from 131,000 in 2011, the year it opened, to 533,000 in 2018, thus quadrupling. Here u. a. 10 pairs of trains a day that only make two stops on the way: Jinan and Nanjing South . Compared to conventional traffic, which takes 10 hours to travel, these trains cover the distance in 4:18 hours. For the distance Beijing Guangzhou (2298 km) the corresponding values ​​are 21 hours / 8 hours. More than 70% of the volume of passenger traffic is generated in the high-speed sector. The busiest section of the high-speed network, between Hangzhou and Shenzhen , carries more than a million travelers a day. The railway line from Beijing West to Kunming South is the one with the longest running high-speed trains in China and worldwide (2760 km).

Since the completion of the line to Hong Kong , "cross-border" high-speed traffic has also been offered for the first time. The exit and entry formalities are carried out together at Kowloon West station . 127 trains run here every day with more than 100,000 passengers on peak days.

Conventional passenger train traffic

CR series DF4 with a passenger train in Foshan

General

All Chinese provinces are served by passenger trains today. The average length of travel by rail rose from 102 kilometers in 1963 to 518 kilometers in 2012. Today, cars are generally used for short journeys of around 50 kilometers, while trains are primarily used for travel between different provinces . Since many residents of the western provinces have been working in the economically strong east over the past few decades, there is particularly high demand for the east-west connections. The train with the longest route on the CR network runs 4979 km between Guangzhou and Lhasa .

In conventional traffic, the number of trains in comparison to high-speed traffic has only increased slightly by 2% over the past 10 years.

Conventional passenger transport is offered on favorable terms; a single long-distance journey costs a third of the fare of the CRH high-speed train and around a tenth of a comparable route in France , Germany or Japan . However, the low ticket prices, especially during the Chunyun rush hour, mean that the demand for tickets exceeds the supply. Several officials of the railway ministry have been proven to have taken advantage of this fact by selling large quantities of tickets for an overpriced price on the black market.

The sale of tickets is handled to 80% via the Internet, sold on peak days, 13 million tickets. In areas where there is no siding, “trackless stations” were introduced. There the travelers are handled like in a train station and then taken by bus to the next "real" train station.

vehicles

Different electric locomotives in the Shanghai depot

Different locomotives are available for passenger transport. Diesel locomotives of the DF4 and DF11 series are often used on non-electrified lines ; The BJ series and the SS9 series , among others, are used on electrified lines . The locomotives of the CR series HXD3B , which were originally designed for freight transport, are also often used in passenger transport.

In response to the increasing average travel length, the number of sleeping cars was gradually increased. While around 3,000 sleeping cars were still on the road in China in 1980, the number of sleeping cars rose to around 22,000 by 2013 and thus roughly corresponds to the number of seating cars, of which 24,000 were in traffic in 2013. As a rule, just as many sleeping cars as seating cars are used in passenger trains with a length of 500 kilometers. The Chinese state railway also has around 2,400 dining cars and 2,000 baggage cars .

Freight transport

Structure and traffic performance

Two freight trains on the railway line from Lianyungang to Lanzhou , a busy east-west connection

Freight traffic in China takes place on most rail routes, usually parallel to passenger traffic. In 2012, 3.9 billion tons of goods were transported, the number of tonne kilometers amounted to 2.693 trillion. The average distance in freight transport this year was 835 kilometers. The railroad is mainly used in China to transport raw materials and bulk goods . At 55%, the transport of coal makes up the largest share of Chinese freight traffic. In the province of Shanxi are the largest coal reserves, at the same time there are 15 of the 20 largest Chinese freight yards . The Datong – Qinhuangdao and Datong – Puzhou railway lines are among the busiest routes for freight traffic. Iron ore and steel are represented with a share of 26 percent of rail freight traffic : This is where the ore mining sites in western China are transported to steelworks and then to the seaports. The rest of the freight traffic consists of roughly equal parts of oil , fertilizer , food and container transport . While rail freight transport is growing in absolute terms, its share in total freight transport has continuously decreased since the 1960s. In 1963, 75 percent of goods were still transported by rail; in 1983 it was 50 percent. At this point in time, the share of road traffic was less than 10 percent, road transports were only used for short distances with an average distance of 30 kilometers. By 2012, the share of the railways had fallen to below 20 percent, while road traffic was able to exceed the 30 percent mark. The most widely used mode of transport in freight transport today is inland waterway transport .

Coal trains provide around half of all freight traffic in China

The reason for the shift of goods to other modes of transport is the high utilization of the freight transport routes. Statistically speaking, 1,005.1 tonne-kilometers are transported per kilometer of track every year, which is around four times higher than in Germany , where 231.06 tonne-kilometers are transported per kilometer of track. It is estimated that the railway does not even handle half of the demanded traffic volume. A just-in-time production with container traffic is so difficult. Under the given conditions, reliable container transport by rail is not possible; a container from Hong Kong to Shanghai needs five days by rail. Transport by ship takes a similar amount of time, but is significantly cheaper. This means that the attractiveness of rail transport for containers is limited. As a countermeasure, individual routes are being expanded specifically for container transport and new coal transport corridors are being created to reduce the congestion of the existing routes.

Courier service

A subsidiary of CR, CR-Express , has been working with the high-speed trains since 2011 to set up a courier service that works in a similar way to the IC courier service . Due to the size of the country and to differentiate prices, different categories are offered, ranging from delivery on the same day to delivery within three days. In 2019, 23 cities were connected to the service. The latest generation of high-speed trains, Fuxing (CRH400AF), have their own compartments for the service.

vehicles

Open freight cars are characteristic of Chinese freight transport

Steam locomotives were manufactured in China until the 1980s . In 2003, the CR withdrew its last from scheduled services. From the 1970s onwards, diesel locomotives were increasingly introduced, and electric locomotives from the 1960s onwards. Most of the route electrification did not take place until the 1990s. Today around half of the Chinese rail network is electrified, while the other half is served by diesel locomotives.

The most popular Chinese diesel locomotive is the DF4 series , which has been in service with around 5,000 units since 1969. It still hauls a large part of the freight trains on non-electrified routes. The DF7G series , built from 2003 onwards, is often found in shunting and slow freight train services . For heavy goods traffic on electrified routes, electric locomotives are used that were developed by Chinese manufacturers together with Western vehicle manufacturers. 180 locomotives based on the Siemens ES64F4 , 180 double locomotives based on the Alstom Prima and 500 machines from the CR series HXD3B based on the MTAB IORE operate .

Due to the high utilization of the Chinese freight lines, the capacity of the freight wagons has increased steadily. In 1978 there were 100,000 freight wagons with a capacity of 40 or 50 tons, plus around 75,000 freight wagons with a capacity of 60 tons. Since the early 1990s, almost no wagons with a 40-tonne capacity have been used; instead, the number of 60-tonne wagons peaked in 1996 at 350,000. The modernization of numerous freight transport routes made it possible to use freight wagons with a capacity of over 70 tons from 2004 onwards. In 2010, the total number of freight wagons was 400,000 and consisted in equal parts of freight wagons with a capacity of 60 to 70 tons and freight wagons with a capacity of over 70 tons.

Accidents

In the period from 1948 to the 1980s, there was an information gap with regard to the railway accidents that occurred during this period due to the then largely closed country and a corresponding policy of non-information .

literature

  • Zhang Qun: Plans for the Development of Chinese Railways for the Period of 2016–2020 . In: OSJD Bulletin 4/2018, pp. 12-17.
  • Huang Xin: Developement of Passanger Transport in China . In: OSJD Bulletin 3/2019, pp. 33-43.

Web links

Commons : Rail transport in China  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Remarks

  1. ↑ 2008 figure.
  2. ↑ 2014 figure.
  3. ↑ Sometimes referred to as "Y".
  4. ↑ For the other periods see: Category Railway Accident in China .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Qun, p. 13.
  2. ↑ Qun, p. 13.
  3. ↑ Qun, p. 13.
  4. ^ FC Coleman: The Peking-Kalgan Railway . In: Scientific American . tape 105 , no. 19 , November 4, 1911, ISSN  0036-8733 , p. 409-411 , doi : 10.1038 / scientificamerican11041911-409 ( nature.com [accessed April 25, 2020]).
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 1-7.
  6. ^ A b c Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 12-17.
  7. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 33.
  8. ↑ http://finance.sina.com.cn/china/gncj/2016-01-04/doc-ifxncyar6263873.shtml
  9. ^ John Scales, Jit Sondhi: China's Railway Development Program World Bank, March 2009
  10. ↑ Jianping Zhang: China's Railway Development (New Delhi, March 25, 2009; PDF file; 1.0 MB)
  11. ↑ DWL: China opens new Tibet railway line between Lhasa and Shigatse. Chinareise.com , August 15, 2014, accessed July 9, 2015 .
  12. ^ A b Putzmeister Concrete Pumps GmbH: Concrete wet spraying in 32 km long high mountain tunnels. Putzmeister Concrete Pumps website, accessed on March 11, 2016.
  13. ^ A b Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 49-59.
  14. ^ A b Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 60-104.
  15. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 33.
  16. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 33.
  17. ↑ Qun, p. 13.
  18. ↑ http://www.sh1.org/zhongguo/s.htm Chinese railway signals on sh1.org
  19. ↑ Qun, p. 13.
  20. ^ National Railway Administration of the Peoples Republic of China: 国家 铁路 局 关于 发布 «2018 年 铁道 统计 公报» 的 公告. Retrieved on April 25, 2020 (chin).
  21. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 33.
  22. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 39.
  23. ^ Website of the Chinese State Railways January 26, 2013 .
  24. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  25. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 38.
  26. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  27. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  28. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  29. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  30. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  31. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  32. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 38.
  33. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 33.
  34. ↑ CRH400AF goes into operation [1]
  35. ↑ Xin: Developement , pp. 33f.
  36. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 38.
  37. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 34.
  38. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 35.
  39. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 37.
  40. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 37.
  41. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 38.
  42. ↑ Kai Strittmatter: Half a continent in nine hours . In: sueddeutsche.de . October 9, 2018, ISSN  0174-4917 ( sueddeutsche.de [accessed October 16, 2018]).
  43. ^ A b Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 8-12.
  44. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 37.
  45. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 36.
  46. ^ Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , pp. 114-164.
  47. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 40.
  48. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 42f.
  49. ^ Zhenhua Chen, Kingsley E. Haynes: Chinese Railways in the Era of High-Speed. Emerald Group, Bingley 2015, ISBN 978-1-78441-985-1 , p. 19.
  50. ↑ Logistics in China DHL logbook, 2006 ( Memento of the original from July 23, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.dhl-discoverlogistics.com
  51. ↑ Jianping Zhang: China Railways - Development, Financing and Challenges , Transport Forum, World Bank March 31, 2006 (PDF file; 1.1 MB).
  52. ^ Xin: Developement , p. 43.
  53. ↑ Michael Bleckmann: The steam operation in China is inexorably coming to an end . In: Lok Report 2/2011. Available on the Tanago Railway Travel website, accessed April 6, 2016.
  54. ↑ Klaus Ecker, Torsten Berndt: 1000 Locomotives: History - Classics - Technology , Naumann & Göbel Verlagsgesellschaft, Cologne 2004, ISBN 3-625-10541-1 .
  55. ↑ "Steam out" in China, but full steam ahead for tourism. In: idw-online.de. Retrieved April 6, 2016 .
  56. ^ Siemens Mobility: Locomotives - Reference List. Siemens website , accessed April 6, 2016.
  57. ↑ Alstom + CNR Datong: HXD2. In: www.railcolor.net. Retrieved April 6, 2016 .