Russian military operation in Syria

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Russian military operation in Syria
date September 2015 to date
place Syria
output open
Parties to the conflict

SyriaSyria government

Allies:

Supported by:

Syria 1961Syria Rebel militias

Supported by:

IsraelIsrael Israel (air strikes against government forces and Hezbollah)

Development of the Russian / Syrian military operation in November 2015. Red: area under the control of the Syrian government.

With the Russian military operation - more precisely the combat operation of the Russian armed forces group in Syria - the Russian Federation has been intervening in the Syrian war since September 2015, primarily with air strikes on the part of the Syrian government .

According to Russian information, the target of the air strikes was in particular the terrorist militia Islamic State . The campaign (en. Campaign, ru. Кампания ) of the armed forces grouping of Russia helped the Syrian army to regain large parts of the state territory and thereby stabilize the government of President Assad .

The military operation was also considered politically successful for Russia, because the Russian Federation was able to trade on an equal footing with the USA . The main success of the military intervention by Russia is the retention of power by President Assad's government.

Armed Forces Grouping of Russia in Syria

prehistory

During the war until autumn 2015, Syria's armed forces loyal to the government virtually lost all of their territory. 10 percent of the Syrian state territory remained under government control.

According to the assessment of the Russian General Staff, the Syrian government troops were in fact faced with a regular army with 1,500 tanks and armored vehicles and 1,200 pipe artillery, led by trained commanders, including former Iraqi officers. As of September 30, 2015, there were around 59,000 fighters in all opposing formations in Syria and these were increased by another 10,000 recruits in the following two years. The proportion of people with origin from the Russian Federation is given as more than 2,800 emigrants.

On September 30, 2015, the spokesman for the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation announced that Russia had complied with the Syrian government's request for military assistance. The US was informed in advance of the start of the attack.

On September 30, 2015, the Federation Council , the upper house of Russia, authorized President Vladimir Putin to deploy a Russian armed force grouping in Syria. The use of ground troops was excluded. The aim of the military operation is to support the Syrian government troops.

In a speech televised on Russian television on October 11, 2015, President Putin said that the military operation had been carefully prepared in advance and that the task was to stabilize legitimate power in Syria and create the conditions for a political compromise.

According to the Russian Chief of Staff, “the operation [...] was carefully planned; All questions were taken into account, the necessary forces and resources were determined, including for the composition of the combat inventory and security. But we had practically no experience in carrying out the transfer of troops and forces over such a distance, on the territory of a state that does not border our country. There was only one example in 1962 - Operation Anadyr, when the USSR moved troops to Cuba. "

The level of training of the units had been consolidated in advance during the implementation of surprising inspections, in the course of which the relocation over large distances was practiced using all types of transport (air, rail, sea).

It took about a month to put together the infrastructure and the system of all-round security, including the material-technical, which had to be created on Syrian territory before the operation began.

The development of a component of the land forces (the army) was not considered from the start. Regarding the state of the Syrian land forces, it was estimated that, regardless of the length of the fighting and the losses suffered, individual units of the government troops were capable of performing combat tasks.

The deployment of military advisers to the Syrian government forces has been prepared accordingly. Target reconnaissance, fire fighting and disruption of the enemy command system were identified as the weak points of the Syrian troops at the time. The large number of Syrian units involved in the fighting required, above all, the organization of the cooperation between the various, “motley” Syrian formations, including the “patriotically minded population”.

Development of objectives

According to Russian information, the mission at the beginning of October 2015 was aimed at combating terrorism.

On October 1, 2015, Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov , when asked to specify which groups apart from the “Islamic State” in Syria are considered terrorists, said: “Those who look and act like terrorists. May I remind you that we always said that we would fight against the 'Islamic State' and other groups. "

When asked whether the Free Syrian Army is considered a terrorist group, Lavrov replied: “We do not consider the FSA a terrorist group. We believe that this army should take part in the political process, alongside other armed groups that include representatives of the Syrian patriotic opposition. This is absolutely essential for a stable political process. We consider terrorists to be those who have been recognized as such by the UN Security Council and the Russian judiciary. The al-Nusra Front was recognized as a terrorist group (..). "

Russian officials later admitted that the military operation in Syria is aimed at helping Syrian President Bashar al-Assad to recapture as much land as possible from the opposition fighters.

The commander of Russia's military operation in Syria, Colonel General Andrei Kartapolov, said in October that he had not seen moderate opposition in Syria. Kartapolov asked how moderate could someone be when armed against legitimate authority. According to the President of the Russian Federation Council, Ilyas Uchmanov, only Bashar al-Assad's troops could have counteracted IS.

In light of the US government’s criticism of the Russian air strikes in Syria in 2015, Foreign Ministers Sergei Lavrov and US Secretary of State John Kerry announced in a joint statement that military experts from Russia and the US would coordinate as soon as possible on the air strikes in Syria . Kerry stressed that he had developed ideas with Lavrov as to what a political process could look like to end the war in Syria, and that both sides agreed that "an escalation must be avoided in any case".

Lavrov highlighted the similarities: “We all want Syria to be democratic, united and secular . A Syria that gives all ethnic groups a home and guarantees their rights, but we have a few differences over the details of how we can get there. "

Leadership of the Armed Forces Grouping (2015-2017)

Supreme guidance and information to the public

The President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Russia, determined the strategic goals and tasks, followed the hotspots of the development of the situation and was briefed twice a week on the dynamics of the combat operations by the Defense Minister, Army General Sergei Shoygu or the Chief of Staff.

For the first time, the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia used the newly created National Defense Command Center to conduct the strategic operation. The situation and deployment of the air forces, missile troops and precision weapon systems could be followed in real time on video walls.

The Ministry of Defense's information department and the General Staff provided daily information to the public. The reconciliation center created in Syria by the Russian grouping issues statements and collective reports on the development of the situation.

The management of the operations of the Russian Force Grouping was under the responsibility of the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia - First Deputy Minister of Defense of the RF Army General Army General Valery Vasilievich Gerasimov and the Chief of the Operational Headquarters of the General Staff - First Deputy Chief of Staff Colonel General Rudskoyitsch Sergei Fyodorov (since 2017) Sergei Fyodorov .

The Chief of Staff Valery Gerasimov maintained close contact with the Chief of the General Staff of the Syrian Arab Army, General Ali Abdullah Ayyoub (Syrian Defense Minister since 2018). Both were on the road together in the various directions of operation for reconnaissance (military reconnaissance) of the situation.

The coordination of the General Staff with the military command of Iraq and Iran enabled a functioning, uninterrupted cooperation when the Russian long-distance air forces fly over into the operational zones.

At the insistence of Russia, a memorandum on compliance with flight safety for the aviation forces was agreed and implemented with the US-led military coalition.

High command and command organs of the group

The High Command of the Air-Cosmos Armed Forces of Russia, which provides the majority of the forces and resources involved, was entrusted with the management of the entire grouping of the Armed Forces Russia in Syria.

The tour was carried out from the group's command post in Chmeimim. The five commanders of the military districts of Russia alternated as commanders of the armed forces grouping in Syria. There they worked with the core of their home leadership body.

A center of reconciliation was created from the holdings of the Russian military group in Syria . This coordinates and actually manages the delivery of all humanitarian aid, the humanitarian convoys, both of the Russian and that of the UN aid organizations.

Military advisors and executives

In every division of the Syrian Arab Army - battalion, brigade, regiment, division - the apparatus of military advisers from Russia works. Its stock includes: officers from the operational stock, reconnaissance, artillerymen, pioneers, translators and officers in other functions. In essence, they planned the action. They gave help with the management, in particular with the organization of the interaction between the units, while the tasks were being carried out.

In order to secure personnel, more than 48,000 soldiers and officers from Russia were called in by means of a three-month rotation, among them for the filling of the military advisory functions. The rotation procedure was made effective for all armies, for 90 percent of the divisions and more than 50 percent of the regiments / brigades. The commanding stock received real combat experience.

Combat mission overview

According to its own statements, the international US-led coalition carried out 8 to 10 blows per day on the enemy over the period 2015-2017.

According to Russian information, the target of the air strikes was in particular the terrorist militia Islamic State . This was preceded by the relocation of personnel, aircraft (50 aeronautical units) and other military equipment from Russia to the Ḫumaymīm air base near Latakia and the Russian naval base in Tartus in Syria.

According to Russian data, the air forces carried out 70-80 blows a day on fighters, infrastructure, on the bases of the enemy. During periods of main exertion - about 120 to 140 strokes in 24 hours. It is only through such procedures that it is possible to break the backbone of international terrorism on Syrian territory.

In 2016, critics accused the Russian Air Force of concentrating their attacks on moderate rebel groups.

On October 10, 2015, the Syrian Democratic Forces were founded in response to the Russian air strikes . For this amalgamation of the separate oppositional combat groups of the YPG / YPJ , MFS and Army of the Revolutionaries, a founding manifesto was drawn up, which contains the political definition and the political goals. The Syrian Democratic Forces were thus legitimized as a political party in accordance with the Syrian constitution of 2012. A press conference useful for media purposes was held on the same day.

Fighter planes bombed not only positions of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria ISIS , but also all irregular armed combat groups that do not belong to the political system according to the Syrian constitution. According to an evaluation by the Reuters news agency , 80 percent of the targets of Russian air strikes were in non-IS areas.

Russia first used cruise missiles against targets in Syria in October 2015. After the crash of Kogalymavia Flight 9268 in November 2015, Russia used Tu-160 and Tu-95 bombers in attacks for the first time . On November 24, 2015, the Turkish armed forces fired a Russian Sukhoi Su-24 from .

The losses of Russian soldiers were officially given as 20 in August 2016, but the main losses of Russian citizens in Syria were private mercenary companies, the Wagner group was mentioned ; Russia Beyond the Headlines translated an article by RBK with: "Russia's main losses in Syria were sustained by PMCs."

After careful preparation and provision of the necessary forces and resources to ensure security on the ground, in the air and on water, President Putin made a visit to Syria on December 11, 2017. There he announced the withdrawal of the Russian armed forces group specially created for this operation.

The bases in Chmeimim (air forces) and in Tartus (navy) will continue to be manned by armed forces from Russia.

Conclusion of the General Staff of Russia

Russia's view of the campaign by its armed forces grouping in Syria in 2015–2017 does not have to be shared, but it should be known in order to arrive at an objective and balanced assessment.

Under the headline “We broke the backbone of the shock forces of terrorism”, the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia's Army General Valery Gerasimov said in an interview with Komsomolskaya Pravda on December 26, 2017. The published text gives a comprehensive insight into the complex battle operations against the terrorist groups in Syria. In addition, surprising details of the military probation for the armed forces grouping of Russia can be learned, which so far received little attention in the media, e.g. B .:

  • Relocation and base of the Russian group,
  • Opponent assessment, jihad mobile in local combat,
  • Planning the operation, supporting the armed forces of Syria,
  • Aviation forces. Dangerous flight maneuvers on the Euphrates,
  • Use of drones and special forces,
  • Russian military advisers and leaders in Syria,
  • American bases and collusion,
  • Supreme leadership in Moscow, presidential visit to Syria,
  • Center of reconciliation,
  • Russian armament and technology in probation,
  • Possible developments in the situation, evaluation of the deployment in Syria.

Noteworthy for the outside observer are the statements on new tactical procedures and methods and the evaluation of the combat experience of the military, armament and technology.

Medial reflection of the combat mission

In 2016, analysts in Russia and Western countries viewed the Russian military operation in Syria as an attempt to present Russia as a world power and to confront the West with a fait accompli and to end Russia's political isolation due to the Crimean crisis and the Ukraine war .

Some Western observers cited Russia's interest in the future use of the Tartus naval base . Contrasting views on the shaping of the international order and Russia's claim to help determine this order were emphasized. The Russian government wanted to see the responsibility to protect ( R2P ) of other states vis-à-vis Syria limited to the protection of the civilian population, without the aim of a regime change from outside.

In March 2018, Russian analyst Vladimir Frolov rated President Putin's actions in Syria as problematic because Russia lacks an exit strategy. Russia allowed itself to be dragged deeper and deeper into the war by Assad. It was Assad who consciously and actively thwarted the Russian strategy of "de-escalation zones" because he was betting that Putin would continue to follow him in order to prevent the loss of what had been achieved so far. The gains made militarily by Russia would have to be saved above all in an internationally recognized post-war order for Syria so that the operation pays off. At the moment, however, Syria is ungovernably split into various fiefs that are ruled by regional actors with their interests.

Composition of the armed forces grouping of Russia

The Russian military contingent consisted of an unknown number of special forces and, in November 2015, 34 aircraft, including 12 Su-24M2, 12 Su-25, 4 Su-30SM and 6 Su-34. In addition, Mi-24 helicopter gunships used. In addition, there were Mi-28 and Ka-52 combat helicopters , some battle tanks and self-propelled guns, a contingent of marine infantry and various air defense equipment, such as the 96K6 Panzir systems and - since November 26, 2015 - S-400 Triumf for self-protection of the base in Latakia. Russian activities were also reported at Homs. The estimated total strength of the expeditionary force in October 2015 was around 2000 men.

On March 17, 2016, Russian President Putin said the operation had so far cost 33 billion rubles (then 420.65 million euros).

In August 2016 it became known that Russia wanted to expand the Ḫumaymīm base into a fully-fledged base.

According to documentation published by the Russian Defense Ministry at the end of August 2018, a total of 63,012 military personnel had served in Syria since mid-September 2015. There was no information on losses, only information on successes, including the fact that thousands of fighters from the former Soviet Union had been killed.

In several cases in spring 2019, SOHR activists documented the deployment of a unit of Russian ground troops made up of former rebels who had defected in the Darʿā governorate after the rebels stopped fighting there. From the SOHR activists as “5. Corps ”, the troops went against checkpoints of the allied Syrian troops and relieved local militias from their duties under threat of violence. The suspected reasons were negligence on the part of the militia in their control tasks or poor treatment of travelers passing through. In April 2019, the unit also arrested a jihadist militia worker who was collecting money for his group in areas under government control.

Material testing

The Russian military leadership organized early on activities to test the weapon systems, military technology and equipment under combat conditions during the operation. Engineers, designers, military scientists and producers worked in Syria to investigate and assess the combat deployment.

In addition to the tried and tested Russian military equipment of the armed forces involved, Russia is also testing newly developed weapons technology in Syria. According to the Defense Ministry, more than 200 different "samples of Russian military technology" have been tested. In 2017, Russian Deputy Defense Minister Yuri Borisov said there had been over 600 tests on weapon systems.

Prototypes of the Su-57 stealth fighter jets were stationed on the Syrian Hmeimim base. According to the Ministry of Defense, the machines should fly tests "that come close to combat conditions".

losses

On the one hand, a distinction must be made between the official Russian representation, which only takes active soldiers into account, and the losses of Russian mercenaries, who also act on behalf of the state. When the attack on Palmyra in 2017, the official side of five victims was mentioned, while Reuters counted 21 Russians killed for the period from January to March 2017.

Official losses

According to official Russian information, by the end of 2017, 41 Russian military personnel were killed in the military operation in Syria; by September 2018 there were 112.

until 2017
  • one death under unclear circumstances at the air force base in Latakia
  • Oleg Peschkow and the marine soldier Alexander Pozynicha of the rescue team were killed in the course of the shooting down of a Sukhoi Su-24 of the Russian Air Force in November 2015.
  • Two days later, reports about Fedor Zhuravlev became known.
  • two dead (including Ivan Cheremisina) from mortar fire.
  • Alexander Prochorenko was killed on March 17, 2016 in the fighting for Palmyra .
  • two dead in a helicopter crash in April 2016.
  • The flight instructors Ryafagatj Khabibulin and Yevgeny Dolgin died on July 9, 2016 when their Mi-25 or Mi-35 attack helicopter was shot down near Palmyra .
  • Five soldiers died on August 1, 2016 when their Mi-8 helicopter used near Aleppo was shot down .
  • two deaths from mortar fire December 5, 2016
  • a death after a mortar fire on December 7, 2016
  • one death from shelling on December 8, 2016
  • Four soldiers died on February 20, 2017 in an explosion caused by a remote-controlled mine.
  • Two soldiers were killed by mortar fire on April 11, 2017.
  • On August 2, the GRU officer Kurban Kasumow died.
  • Two soldiers died at Deir ez-Zor on September 4th.
  • Lieutenant General Valery Assapov died at Deir ez-Zor in September 2017 .
  • Colonel Valery Fedyanin died from his injuries at the end of September.
  • Two pilots died on October 10 while taking off with a Su-24 at the Hmeimim Air Force Base .
2018
  • Roman Nikolayevich Filipov
  • 39 military personnel died on March 6 when an An-26 crashed while approaching the Hmeimim military airfield .
  • Four pilots were killed in two crashes of a Su-30 and a Ka-52 in May.
  • On the night of September 18, 2018, the command of the Russian armed forces in Syria lost contact with an Il-20 over the eastern Mediterranean. The machine was accidentally shot down by Syrian air defenses while Israeli F-16s were operating over Syria. The 15 crew members were killed.
2020

At the beginning of February 2020, 4 FSB officials, presumably snipers, were killed, who were probably on site to protect a meeting of politicians with an unknown purpose and location. According to Novaya Gazeta, the information from the Syrian media about the circumstances of their deaths was incredible.

Wagner group

According to the daily Die Welt , the losses among Russian mercenaries of the Wagner group , whose activities in Syria are state-sanctioned by activists and oriented towards the Russian military operation, will amount to between 72 and 101 fighters by the end of 2017, according to researchers. Mark Galeotti of the Institute of International Affairs in Prague speculates that the use of the mercenaries could be used by the Russian government to cover up the actual losses.

In February 2018, a large number of Wagner mercenaries died in an attack beyond a demarcation line agreed with the USA. The right-wing populist presidential candidate Zhirinovsky even spoke of 300 Russians killed. The relative calm on social media channels, which in other cases was considered an indicator of the number of deaths, spoke against such a number. Much in the incident indicated an attempted ingestion of an oil well.

Assessment under international law and international reactions

According to the scientific service of the German Bundestag, Russia's military presence in Syria is in accordance with international law, as it is “based on the explicit approval of the Syrian government” and “is therefore a so-called intervention by invitation”.

According to human rights organizations, the Russian military also attacked civilians. According to an assessment by the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights in February 2016, Russian air strikes killed 1,700 civilians. The Russian government claimed to have only dropped bombs on terrorist targets.

Amnesty International (AI) investigated 25 Russian air strikes in Syria between September and November 2015. According to AI, based on testimony, image and video material and weapons experts, at least 250 civilians and a dozen fighters were killed in six of the attacks, damage was done in residential areas and medical infrastructure was destroyed. In one of the most casualty attacks on a market in the center of Ariha in Idlib Governorate, 49 civilians were killed. In addition, aerosol bombs were used in an attack on residential buildings on October 15, 2015 in the small town of al-Ghantu in Homs Governorate, killing 46 people, including 32 children. In March 2016, AI expanded the allegations. Attacks on hospitals have become part of the military strategy of the Russian and Syrian armies.

Human Rights Watch said it recorded at least 14 cluster bombing incidents between January 26, 2016 and early February 2016, killing 37 civilians and injuring dozens. The use of cluster munitions is denied by the Russian side. Russia is also accused of using unguided and incendiary bombs .

Doctors Without Borders , the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, and the United States and Turkey also allege Russia that the Russian Air Force is apparently attacking medical facilities, schools and markets in Syria. Representatives of the United States describe the increase in civilian casualties as "disturbing". Foreign Office spokesman Mark Toner in Washington claims that doing so undermines the search for a political solution.

Critics such as Foreign Ministers John Kerry and Laurent Fabius also attributed the suspension of peace talks in Geneva in early February 2016 to Russian military support during the government troops' offensive against Aleppo.

The Russian air strikes on Aleppo in February 2016 forced tens of thousands of civilians to flee towards Turkey. Russia has been accused by various observers and politicians of triggering new waves of refugees and thus exacerbating the refugee crisis in Europe through military operations. Chancellor Angela Merkel said in February 2016 that she was "not only frightened, but also appalled by the human suffering caused by the bombing of tens of thousands of people, primarily from the Russian side". Russia is violating a UN resolution against attacks on the civilian population, Merkel said. Russia denied responsibility for the mass exodus from Aleppo and the humanitarian crisis in northern Syria.

Media reports on the course

2015 and 2016

September 2015

On September 7, 2015, the Air Force's transport fleet began to move troops and materials to Syria. At least four Antonov An-124-100 Ruslan wide-body transport aircraft of the 566th Air Transport Regiment from the 6957th Air Force Base in Setscha near Bryansk , six Ilyushin IL-76MD and several Tupolev Tu-154 from Mozdok and Sochi flew several times to the Hmeimim military airfield in Latakia .

The NATO states Bulgaria and Greece closed the airspace to Russian military transports on September 8 and 24, 2015, respectively. This was followed by the relocation of the transport flights over Azerbaijan , Iran and Iraq .

In September 2015, Russian President Putin announced at the 70th UN General Assembly that Syria, Russia, Iran and Iraq had agreed to exchange security information in a joint analysis center in the Iraqi capital, Baghdad . The joint facility will be used to exchange security information and coordinate joint combat operations.

On September 30, 2015, President Putin received the unanimous mandate from the Federation Council (the upper house of parliament) for an air force deployment in Syria. A few hours later, they attacked targets in Syria for the first time with fighter planes. Before the vote, Russia had already relocated Su-30 fighters, Su-24 bombers, Su-34 fighter - bombers, Su-25 ground attack aircraft and reconnaissance drones to Syria. According to Russian information, positions of the IS were attacked, according to other information, positions of a moderate group allegedly supported by the USA called "Tajammuʿ al-ʿizza" near Homs were hit by the attack. From other sources, however, the affected group was assigned to the Free Syrian Army. According to US Senator John McCain , " CIA- backed rebels" were attacked. According to information from local activists and local officials, targets in areas controlled by various rebel groups in Homs Governorate , including the towns of Rastan and Talbisa, were bombed. At least 33 civilians were killed.

Russian President Putin rejected reports of civilian casualties in the September 30, 2015 attacks. Reports of civilian victims of the attacks were made when the air strikes had not even started. The Syrian opposition representative Chaled Khodscha in New York announced on September 30, 2015 that 36 civilians, including five children, had been killed in Russian attacks.

October 2015
A Russian Su-34 when a KAB-500 S precision bomb was dropped on October 9, 2015 during the deployment in Syria

On the night of October 1, 2015, Russian forces carried out a second wave of air strikes. According to the Moscow Defense Ministry, an IS command post was completely destroyed by a direct hit. The Ministry of Defense stated that pilots of the Russian air force had "completely destroyed the headquarters and coordination centers of IS troops in the mountains," and that eight facilities were targeted, including ammunition, weapons and fuel stores, as well as military vehicles, command and control centers Communication points have been taken. Opposition activists claimed that the air strikes took place over areas where the moderate rebels are in positions, not ISIS. According to Lebanon-based Al Mayadeen TV news channel, on October 1, 2015, Russian fighter planes bombed insurgent positions, including rural areas near the northwestern city of Jisr el-Shughur , where around 30 targets of the Islamist militia Jaish al-Fatah were attacked should be, it said in a short message. The attacks near Jisr el-Shughur were discussed with the Syrian military and targeted several well-known terrorist groups, a spokesman for the Kremlin announced.

According to the Russian Defense Ministry, Russian fighter jets flew ten missions on October 2, 2015, during which, according to reports, they also hit ISIS targets, including a training camp and a command center in ar-Raqqa . The IS-held Karjatain south of Homs was also hit, according to observers. Other targets were hit in areas not held by IS.

Following the Russian air strikes, 7 countries issued a joint statement on October 2, 2015, expressing concern that they led to civilian casualties rather than hitting ISIS targets. The declaration was signed by the governments of the United States of America , France , Great Britain , Germany , Qatar , Saudi Arabia and Turkey . Saudi Arabia threatened that under no circumstances would Russian engagement with the aim of keeping President Bashar al-Assad in power be accepted.

On October 3, 2015, Russian air forces reportedly flew 20 missions in which ten ISIS targets were attacked in the provinces of ar-Raqqa and Idlib . Turkey complained to Russia that Russia violated Turkey's airspace. The Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation announced in this connection that a Su-30 fighter entered the airspace of Turkey for a few seconds when approaching due to unfavorable weather conditions over Latakia.

Guided missile cruiser Moskva of the Black Sea Fleet

The Russian Navy introduced, according to a Russian news agency the missile cruiser Moskva off to the Russian contingent in Syria from the Mediterranean to secure ago.

With the support of Russian air strikes, Syrian government troops launched a ground offensive against rebels north of the city of Hama on October 7. The objective was to extend control of the central traffic axis between Damascus and Aleppo from Hama to the Idlib governorate held by the rebels. The area is held by Jaish al-Fatah , a local alliance of the Islamists of Ahrar al-Sham and the al-Qaeda branch of al-Nusra. President Putin confirmed his support for the offensive. On the same day, Russia fired at IS positions from the Caspian Sea for the first time , and four warships from the Caspian Flotilla fired a total of 26 calibration- type cruise missiles at IS positions in Syria over a distance of 1,500 kilometers . On October 8th and 9th, the air strikes intensified.

Night operation of a Su-34

On October 10, the Iraqi air force bombed a convoy of IS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi , but al-Baghdadi was not among the dead. The convoy was traveling in the Iraqi governorate of al-Anbar near the Syrian border and it had wanted to attend a meeting of IS commanders in Karbala . The attack took place in consultation between the Iraqi secret service and the joint operations center, which also includes employees of the US-led coalition against ISIS.

On October 11, Syria's official news agency SANA reported fierce fighting by government forces against rebels, preceded by Russian air strikes. At least 50 government opponents were killed. As the news agency RIA Novosti reported on site, the terrorist organization al-Nusra was ousted from the villages of Atshan, Tel Skek and Imkhareint, among others. Fighters from the Islamist Lebanese Hezbollah militia, whose military arm is classified as a terrorist organization by the European Union , also helped . The capture of the cities is important for the government troops as it brings them closer to the city of Khan Shaykhun , a stronghold of the al-Nusra Front in the Idlib governorate. Chan Shaykhun was captured by the al-Nusra Front in 2014, which gave the terrorist militia control of part of an expressway that connects the capital Damascus with the center and north of the country. According to the Syrian government, Russian bombs destroyed at least 40 percent of the IS infrastructure in the first few days. On the same day, Putin met with the Saudi Arabian Defense Minister and Second Deputy Prime Minister, Vice-Crown Prince Mohammed ibn Salman . Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov stated after the meeting that both countries were ready to cooperate in the Syrian conflict and wanted to prevent the establishment of a “terrorist caliphate”.

On October 16, according to the Iranian news agency Fars , the Saudi Arabian Abdul-Mohsen Abdullah Ibrahim Al-Sharekh became the leader of the al-Nusra Front, the al-Qaeda branch in Syria, in a Russian air strike in Aleppo province (known as Sanafi al-Nasr), killed. Sanafi al-Nasr is said to have belonged to the leadership of the Islamist Khorasan network . Along with him, two other high-ranking members of the al-Nusra Front were killed, the Saudi Arabian Abdul Malik al-Jazrawi and the Moroccan Abu Yasir al-Maghrebi.

On October 31, 2015, a plane on Kogalymavia flight 9268 crashed , presumably as a result of an IS bomb attack.

November 2015
Russian Tu-160 when a cruise missile was dropped on November 20, 2015 during the deployment in Syria

On November 17, 2015, in addition to the planes already stationed in Ḫumaymīm , Russia moved another 37 combat aircraft to Syria, including Sukhoi Su-27 and Su-34. Strategic long-distance airmen have now also participated in the attacks. They flew their missions with Tupolew Tu-95 MS, Tu-22M3 and Tu-160 from Russian soil, reaching the operational area of Olenegorsk in northern Russia via the Strait of Gibraltar . The Tu-95 and Tu-160 launched 34 airborne cruise missiles of the type Ch-555 and Ch-101 . The Tu-22M3 attacked targets in northern Syria with OFAB-250-270 free-fall bombs . The guided missile cruiser Moskva , which had been off the Syrian coast since the start of the operation, was supposed to establish contact with the shortly expected carrier group of the French Navy and serve as a coordination center for the operations of French and Russian military units.

On November 18, 2015, it became known that the Russian Air Force had destroyed around 500 IS tanker trucks and attacked oil refineries, as oil sales were one of the IS’s main sources of income. The USA followed suit on November 24, 2015 with the destruction of 283 tank trucks. On November 25, 2015, this was suspected to be a cause of the rise in the oil price .

On November 20, 2015, Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu announced that 600 rebels had been killed in an attack with 18 cruise missiles in Deir al-Zor province .

The Turkish government summoned the Russian ambassador on November 20, 2015 to complain about Russian air strikes on settlements in Syria where Turkmens are believed to live, and called for an end to the attacks, which would not hit terrorists, only civilians. In a statement by the Foreign Ministry, Turkey threatened "serious consequences" if the attacks were to continue.

The various representations of the shooting down of the Russian Sukhoi Su-24 by the Turkish Air Force on November 24, 2015. According to the Russian representation, the aircraft did not violate Turkish airspace. The Turkish side spoke of two aircraft that had crossed Turkish airspace.

On November 24, 2015, a Sukhoi Su-24 was shot down by F-16s of the Turkish Air Force over the Syrian province of Latakia . Turkish authorities said that the aircraft had previously violated Turkish airspace and maintained its course despite multiple warnings. Putin's confidante Vladimir Yakunin later admitted that the Russian fighter plane had been in Turkish airspace for at least 17 seconds. The weapons systems officer survived and was saved; the pilot was parachuted to death by rebels. Turkey later released alleged recordings of radio messages allegedly sent as a warning during the incident; the rescued navigator of the Su-24, however, confirmed that no warning had been received and that the Russian aircraft had not crossed the border between Turkey and Syria . At the same time it was reported that a Russian Mi-8 helicopter had been shot down over Syrian territory.

The Russian government reacted to the shooting down on several levels. In the military sector was on 25 November 2015 missile cruiser Moskva moved closer to the coast of Latakia, S-400 long-range air defense missiles stationed in the region around the air base Ḫumaymīm and the Russian fighter-bombers flying since 25 November 2015 fighter escort . The Moskva , equipped with the naval variant of the S-300P anti-aircraft complex , received orders to combat all potential threats to Russian aircraft.

According to Putin, on November 26, Putin and Hollande agreed to avoid attacks on armed groups fighting terrorism.

In late November, Russian planes flew attacks on Ariha , Dana , Aʿzāz and other targets near the Turkish border, according to residents . The al-Nusra Front is one of the rebel groups in the region.

On November 30, 2015, President Putin stated that Turkey was believed to have shot down the Russian jet on November 24, 2015 in order to cover supply lines that would smuggle oil into Turkey from IS and other terrorist organizations in Syria before Russian air strikes protect.

December 2015
A Russian anti-aircraft battery in December 2015. A Panzir S1 short-range air system and two launch vehicles for S-400 long -range anti-aircraft missiles at Latakia

According to observers, the Russian landing ship Zesar Kunikow ( Project 775 ) was on its way to Syria when it passed the Bosphorus Strait on December 5 . On deck was a soldier with an igla - MANPADS . The Turkish Foreign Minister Çavuşoğlu described the performance as a "provocation". The Turkish government appointed the Russian ambassador to deal with the incident.

After Tu-22M bombers have flown 60 combat missions in the past three days, the Rostov-na-Donu submarine launched several calibrate cruise missiles against IS targets in Syria on December 8th from the eastern Mediterranean .

The leader of the of Saudi Arabia supported Islamist rebel group Army of Islam (Syria) , Zahran Alloush and five other leaders of the organization, died on December 25, 2015, near the village Otaya south of Duma by a Russian air attack. Alloush was also the military chief of the Islamic Front and was released from Sednaya prison near Damascus in 2011 under an amnesty by the Syrian government.

January 2016

The guided missile cruiser Moskva, dispatched to the Syrian coast in October 2015, returned to Sevastopol.

At the end of January 2016, Russian bombers flew numerous missions north of the metropolis of Aleppo to provide tactical support to advancing Syrian ground troops, which are said to consist mainly of Shiite militias from Iraq and Afghanistan and were set up by Iran.

February 2016

The towns of Nubul and al-Zahraa, which have been enclosed since the beginning of the war, were liberated from the enclosure of various rebel groups at the beginning of February; this movement meant that the rebel forces (and the civilians in their areas) in Aleppo itself were imminent on February 4, 2016. According to Turkish information, this triggered thousands of people to flee to Turkey.

March 2016

On March 15, 2016, the Russian armed forces began the partial withdrawal of troops announced by President Putin the day before. Russia wants to continue the fight against terrorism. According to Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu , the Russian military operation had destroyed around 2000 Islamist fighters from Russia alone, destroyed 209 oil industry facilities and 2912 oil tankers. In addition, the Russian air strikes made it possible for the Syrian army to reestablish a land connection to Aleppo , to liberate 400 towns and an area of ​​around 10,000 square kilometers (especially in the provinces of Homs , Hama and Latakia ) and to interrupt important supply lines for fighters from Turkey .

At least 18 fighters were killed in Russian air strikes on IS positions near the Syrian city of Palmyra in support of the Syrian ground offensive on March 19.

April 2016

The air and sea supplies from the Russian Federation for the contingent in Syria have continued unabated since the beginning of the year, according to observers from April 15. The number of attack helicopters at the Hmeimim air force base increased significantly from seven to 14, including the Ka-52 and Mi-28N types since February , and only seven of 29 aircraft have so far been withdrawn. The observers viewed the changes as adapting to the needs of the Syrian ground forces, which needed more direct support. The conquest of Palmyra was supported by Russian attack helicopters.

May 2016

According to their own statements, IS fighters destroyed four attack helicopters and around 20 Russian Federation trucks in an explosion on an airfield near Tiyas that had previously been taken from IS by government troops. US analysts confirmed the destruction with the help of aerial photographs; Representatives of the Federation denied losses.

Panzir-S1 and other Russian systems were stationed in several locations within Syria, including Palmyra, the number of associated troops is unknown.

June 2016

On June 20, Russian planes are said to have attacked a New Syrian Army base near Al-Tanf in Deir ez-Zor governorate . The US allegedly launched two F / A-18 fighter-bombers that drove away the Russian planes. When the Americans turned to refuel, the Russian bombers are said to have attacked the base again. According to the NSA, 2 fighters were killed and 18 others were wounded by the dropped cluster bombs . The Russian side later stated that the location of their bombing was 300 kilometers from the position previously communicated by the Americans as the location of the moderate rebels.

A month later, on July 22nd, media reports revealed that US and UK special forces were stationed at the base and that SAS personnel had only left the facility 20 minutes before the air strike.

According to Sputnik , press spokesman Dmitri Peskov said on June 22 that he was unaware of a Russian attack on a US base and that one should contact the Russian Defense Ministry.

July 2016

On the morning of July 14, 2016, six Tu-22M3 bombers bombed various targets east of Palmyra . The goals were a command post, a training camp and two IS oil loading stations.

August 2016

On the afternoon of August 1, a Russian Mi-8AMTSch helicopter was shot down in the greater Aleppo area. The aircraft was on its way to the Hmeimim Air Force Base near Latakia . All five inmates were killed. According to Russian sources, the Mi-8 was on a humanitarian mission. A B-8W20 rocket launch container can be seen next to the wreck on video recordings of the launch site.

According to press reports, Sunni Islamist groups succeeded in breaking the ring of siege around Aleppo from outside at the beginning of August with increased aid from Qatar and Saudi Arabia . Russian authorities announced on August 10 that they would suspend their air strikes in the region between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m. daily in order to enable aid transports for the civilian population to the city.

On August 8, Tu-22M3 bombers bombed various targets near Aleppo and east of Palmyra.

On August 16, the Russian Defense Ministry announced that the first Russian Su-34 and Tu-22M3 bombers were taking off from the Hamadan military airfield in Iran to attack various Sunni Islamist groups near Aleppo and Idlib Province in Syria. After a few days, these missions were stopped and the aircraft were relocated from Iran to Russia.

On August 19, 2016, warships fired cruise missiles at command posts, ammunition depots and weapons factories on the Al-Nusra Front in the eastern Mediterranean .

November 2016

The Russian military began an offensive in Idlib and Homs on November 15, 2016 . Several cruise missiles were shot down by the frigate Admiral Grigorowitsch , and several Sukhoi Su-33 fighter jets were launched from the aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov . After taking off from the aircraft carrier, the carrier-supported combat aircraft were transferred to the Hmeimim military airfield for further missions.

December 2016
Russian soldiers at Aleppo airport in December 2016.

On December 22, 2016, the Syrian leadership announced the final "liberation" of Aleppo, and Russian President Putin congratulated the Syrian ruler, Bashar al-Assad, over the phone. Armed fighters continue to control areas on the western outskirts of Aleppo, which they use for rocket attacks on western districts of Aleppo. According to the Syrian agency Sana, several civilians were killed and others injured.

At the end of the Battle of Aleppo in December, Russian ground troops began arriving in the city to help clear mines and booby traps.

2017 and 2018

January 2017

On January 17, 2017, six Tu-22M3 bombers attacked ISIS targets in the Deir ez-Zor area . Each aircraft dropped twelve OFAB-250-270 high explosive bombs . During the mission, the bombers were escorted by Su-30 and Su-35 fighter planes which had previously taken off from the Hmeimim military airfield.

May 2017

In May 2017, the Russian military police moved into an opposition district in Homs, which, depending on one's point of view, had been evacuated or evacuated.

June 2017

Because of the downing of a Syrian Su-22 fighter-bomber on June 18 by a US F / A-18, Russia terminated security cooperation with the United States in Syrian airspace the following day . It was also announced that all aircraft in Syrian airspace west of the Euphrates would be treated as targets in the future.

July 2017

According to Russian state media , Russian long-range bombers Tupolev Tu-95MS attacked targets of the terrorist militia IS on the border of the Syrian provinces of Hama and Homs with Ch-101 cruise missiles on July 5 . As a result of the air strike, three large arsenals and an IS command post near the Syrian city of Akerbat were destroyed.

On July 9, Russian state media announced that the 18th Armored Division of the Syrian Army and the People's Militia had regained control of the city of Jibab Hamad and the Al Hail gas field in the east of Homs Province after an attack on IS terrorist militia positions .

October 2017

On October 10th, Russian authorities announced the loss of a Su-24 fighter-bomber. The machine crashed after taking off in Hmeimim and the crew were able to save themselves.

On October 14, the Syrian army announced the capture of the city of al-Mayadin in Deir ez-Zor governorate . Their approach had been supported by the Russian Air Force.

On October 22, it became known that the Syrian Army and Tiger Forces had captured the village of Mahkan and the city of al-Quriya south of al-Mayadin. It was also confirmed that the city of Chisham east of Deir ez-Zor was also recaptured by the IS terrorist group.

November 2017

On November 23, the Russian Defense Ministry reported another massive air strike against the IS terrorist group in Deir ez-Zor governorate. Tupolev Tu-22M 3 bombers reportedly attacked jihadist targets near the city of Abu Kamal. Terrorist fighters were killed and their equipment destroyed. In addition, Su-24 fighter bombers from the Russian military airfield Hmeimim took part with precise individual attacks. The destruction of all specified targets was then confirmed. Su-30SM and Su-35S fighter jets, also stationed at the Hmeimim military airfield, escorted the bombers during their attacks.

December 2017

On December 27, pro-government agencies in Syria reported that at least two 122 mm rockets (of the BM-21 series ) were launched by extremists in the direction of the Russian military airfield and intercepted by the Panzir-S1 anti-aircraft missile system stationed at the base . As a result, at least ten retaliatory strikes by Russian fighter jets were recorded in the area from which the missiles were launched.

February 2018

On February 3, a Russian Su-25 ground attack aircraft was shot down over Syria, according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights near Sarakeb . The pilot Roman Nikolajewitsch Filipow was initially able to save himself by parachute, but was then killed on the ground during a firefight (possibly by himself).

May 2018

At the beginning of May a Su-30 crashed into the sea without being shot after taking off from the Hmeimim military airfield , killing both pilots. On May 7, two pilots died in the crash of a Ka-52 attack helicopter , which may have been shot at. However, the official Russian authorities spoke of technical reasons.

September 2018

At the beginning of September 2018, Russian aircraft took part in heavy bombing in the region of Idlib, which was defined as the "de-escalation zone" in 2017.

On the night of September 18, 2018, the command lost contact with an Il-20 . The machine was accidentally shot down by the Syrian air defense.

November 2018

A convoy to the al-Rukban refugee camp was escorted by units of the Russian military police and Russian helicopters at the request of the United Nations Chief Security Advisor in Syria, Robert Marinovic.

Syrian offensive since April 2019

The military offensive by the Syrian government troops in the Idlib governorate is supported by the deployment of Russian fighter planes. When the Syrian advance on the ground stalled and losses began to pile up, the Russian leadership, according to various reports, was forced to have its own ground troops support the Syrian troops in battle. Without official confirmation, however, it was unclear at the end of August 2019 whether active soldiers from Russian special forces or just Russian mercenaries intervened in the fighting.

At the end of September 2019, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights reported that 19,000 people (including 8,300 civilians) had died as a result of the Russian military operation in Syria (since September 2015). The remaining number of victims is distributed among around 5240 IS terrorists and 5485 fighters from all other groups that are hostile to the Russian armed forces. At the end of August 2019, the Russian military declared a unilateral ceasefire in Idlib governorate. Fighting with the rebels broke out again in late November, causing the Syrian and Russian air forces to launch hundreds of attacks in the month that followed. In December 2019, activists reported that several people were killed in a Russian air strike, including allegedly six children.

From December of the same year, the Russian and Syrian armed forces intensified the offensive that began in April in the south and east of Idlib Governorate by increasing air strikes on extremist rebels, the Haiat Tahrir al-Sham . With regard to the flight and migration across the Mediterranean Sea to the EU and the refugee agreement between the EU and Turkey , the President of Turkey warned of a new wave of refugees for the international community.

At the end of January 2020, the UN reported that around 520,000 people in Idlib had fled since December 2019. In December, more than 235,000 people fled south of the city of Idlib to the north of the governorate, to the cities of Ariha , Idlib and Saraqib or to already overcrowded refugee camps on the border with Turkey. According to a report by Amnesty International , the Russian and Syrian armed forces carried out at least 18 attacks on hospitals and schools in Syria between May 2019 and February 2020. As a result, five clinics had to close.

See also

literature

  • Conclusion of the Russian Army's campaign in Syria (2015–2017) . "We broke the backbone of the forces of terrorism." - Interview by Komsomolskaya Pravda with the Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces on December 26, 2017, in connection with the start of the withdrawal of the Russian armed forces group from Syria. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, 20 p. Access under URL: urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841 .

Web links

Commons : Russian Armed Forces in the Syrian Civil War  - Pictures and Videos Collection

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Insight: Battered by war, Syrian army creates its own replacement , Reuters April 21, 2013
  2. ↑ Dietrich Alexander: Video material: Iran's soldiers fight for Assad in Syria - DIE WELT . In: THE WORLD . September 13, 2013. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
  3. ^ Dardanelles Strait: Arms ship from North Korea for Syria stopped - DIE WELT . In: THE WORLD . August 27, 2013. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
  4. ↑ Bill Roggio: Chechen al Qaeda commander, popular Saudi cleric, and an Ahrar al Sham leader spotted on front lines in Latakia. In: The Long War Journal , March 27, 2014.
  5. ↑ a b c In Russia, the use of the words Russian - русский (meaning: linguistic ethnicity) versus Russian, Russia - российский, Россия (meaning: Russia as a multi-ethnic state) leads to a clear semantic distinction. In addition, the slang spelling should be avoided if possible.
  6. ↑ Patrick J. McDonnell, WJ Hennigan, Nabih Bulos: Russia launches airstrikes in Syria amid US concern about targets. In: Los Angeles Times. latimes.com, September 30, 2015, accessed February 3, 2016 .
  7. ↑ Russian Intervention in Syrian War Has Sharply Reduced US Options . February 10, 2016. 
  8. ↑ Putin left important military tasks 'unfinished' in Syria, and it shows that he is 'at the top of his game' . March 21, 2016. "" Analysts have been scrambling to make sense of Putin's curveball, particularly in light of how effective Russia's campaign has been in bolstering Assad's Syrian Arab Army and regaining territory from rebels on behalf of the regime. "" 
  9. ↑ What interests is Russia pursuing in Syria? - Moscow's support for Bashar Al-Assad is a clear cost-benefit calculation , DGAP, September 14, 2015
  10. ↑ a b Washingtonpost.com February 3, 2016: Andrew Roth: After four months, Russia's campaign in Syria is proving successful for Moscow. .
  11. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's Campaign in Syria (2015-2017). DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p. 6 f. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841
  12. ↑ USA informed in advance: Russia flies first air strikes in Syria. In: n-tv.de. September 30, 2015, accessed September 30, 2015 .
  13. ↑ War in Syria: Putin receives permission for military operations against IS. In: faz.net. September 30, 2015, accessed September 30, 2015 .
  14. ↑ "IS has no presence in the bombed areas". In: welt.de. October 1, 2015, accessed October 1, 2015 .
  15. ↑ Путин назвал основную задачу российских военных в Сирии. In: Interfax , October 11, 2015. Putin quote: «Наша задача заключается в том, чтобы стабилизировать законную влассукь ик созлать законную влассукиокос созлать власуть сок созлать власутьсок созлати власуть сок созлать.
  16. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's Campaign in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p. 4. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841 .
  17. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's campaign in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p. 12 f. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841
  18. ↑ a b Sergei Lavrov: Speech and answers to press questions from the Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Lavrov, at a press conference on the conclusion of the Russian presidency of the UN Security Council on October 1, 2015 in New York. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, October 1, 2015, accessed on October 24, 2015 : "Those who look and act like terrorists."
  19. ↑ a b Ilya Arkhipov, Stepan Kravchenko, Henry Meyer: Putin Officials Said to Admit Real Syria Goal Is Far Broader . In: Bloomberg Business , October 19, 2015.
  20. ^ Air strikes in Syria: Russia and the USA want to coordinate. In: tagesschau.de. October 1, 2015, archived from the original on October 2, 2015 ; accessed on October 24, 2015 .
  21. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's campaign in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p. 14 f. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841
  22. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the campaign of the Russian army in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p 5. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14 qucosa2-210841
  23. ↑ Russia and the war in Syria: ground troops not excluded. In: taz.de. September 19, 2015, accessed September 30, 2015 .
  24. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's campaign in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, p. 7. urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841
  25. ↑ Video of the press conference
  26. ^ Ministry of Defense of Russia: Russian planes strike against IS positions in Syria. In: de.sputniknews.com. September 30, 2015, accessed September 30, 2015 .
  27. ↑ Four-fifths of Russia's Syria strikes don't target Islamic State: Reuters analysis Reuters, October 21, 2015
  28. ↑ Russian private military company 'spotted' in Syria on Russia Beyond on August 26, 2016
  29. ↑ See Vladimir Putin visited the Khmejmim air base in Syria. (Russian) Владимир Путин посетил авиабазу Хмеймим в Сирии. In: URL: ( [1] ), accessed on August 27, 2019.
  30. ↑ See interview with Valery Gerasimov. Translation from Russian by Rainer Böhme. In: Conclusion of the Russian Army's Campaign in Syria (2015-2017), DGKSP discussion papers, (Ed.) Rainer Böhme, Dresden 2018, February, 20 pp. Urn : nbn: de: bsz: 14-qucosa2-210841
  31. ^ Zita Affentranger: Putin on course for victory. In: Tagesanzeiger , February 13, 2016.
  32. ↑ Павел Аптекарь, Андрей Синицын: Ввяжемся в бой, а там смотрите сами. In: Ведомости , October 15, 2015.
  33. ^ Neil MacFarquhar and Andrew E. Kramer: Putin Sees Path to Diplomacy Through Syria. In: The New York Times , September 16, 2015.
  34. ^ Gesine Dornblüth: Putin's military interest in Syria. The Russian naval base in Tartus. Deutschlandfunk, January 4, 2013, accessed on September 2, 2017 .
  35. ^ A b Margarete Klein: Analysis: Russia's Syria Policy. Interests, (failure) successes, chances for a mutual conflict resolution. Federal Agency for Civic Education, March 25, 2013, accessed on September 2, 2017 .
  36. ↑ Vladimir Frolov: "For Russia, There's No Way Out of Syria (Op-ed)" The Moscow Times, March 5, 2018
  37. ↑ Russian General: “Our special forces are active in Syria” , RBTH, March 25, 2016
  38. ^ Syria: What can Russia's military do? In: BBC News. bbc.com, October 7, 2015, accessed November 28, 2015 .
  39. ↑ Jeffrey Schogol: Air Force commander: Russian S-400 missiles 'complicate' Syria airstrikes. In: Air Force Times. airforcetimes.com, November 25, 2015, accessed November 28, 2015 .
  40. ↑ Russia lines up strike planes and military helicopters in Syria. In: The Australian. theaustralian.com.au, accessed November 28, 2015 .
  41. ↑ Welt.de December 1, 2015: Russian soldiers in Homs, Hama and Aleppo.
  42. ^ New military base for Russia , NZZ, December 4, 2015
  43. ↑ 'We'll be here until the end', Russian troops in Syria say. In: France 24. france24.com, October 22, 2015, accessed on November 28, 2015 (English).
  44. ↑ Putin threatens further military actions after partial withdrawal from Syria
  45. ↑ Syria mission: Putin estimates costs at 33 billion rubles , RBTH, March 17, 2016
  46. ↑ Russia will expand the Hmeymim air base , Izvestia, August 11, 2016
  47. ↑ Russia praises its services in Syria , NZZ, August 29, 2018, front page
  48. ↑ "The 5th Corps which was formed by Russia, attacks checkpoints of the regime forces and gunmen loyal to them in Daraa countryside and the Russian police insult members of one of the checkpoints of those which were attacked" syriahr.com from March 31, 2019
  49. ↑ "After the regime forces released him earlier, the Russian-backed 5th Corps arrests a person in charge of“ cooperating with Jaysh Khalid Ibn al-Walid ”in the western countryside of Daraa" syriahr.com of April 23, 2019
  50. ↑ a b Seven Years of War: How Russia is testing new weapons in Syria. In: tagesspiegel.de. February 27, 2018, accessed May 30, 2018 .
  51. ↑ Two other Russian contract soldiers were killed in Syria , Echo Moscow, April 19, 2017
  52. ↑ a b Natalja Vasiljewa: "Russian mercenaries conquer oil fields - and a company earns from it" Welt / N24 of December 13, 2017
  53. ↑ 112 Russian soldiers were killed in Syria within three years , Interfax, September 30, 2018
  54. ↑ a b c d e Lizzie Dearden: Body of Russian special forces officer who 'ordered air strike on himself' to kill Isis militants returned home. The Independent dated April 30, 2016
  55. ↑ Putin in Syria: Russia Steps Up Military Deployment In Syria , interpretermag.com, November 26, 2015
  56. ↑ Five of the victims of the Syrian campaign , gazeta.ru, March 17, 2016
  57. ↑ Downing in Syria: Moscow's masking. FAZ.NET , July 11, 2016, accessed on July 11, 2016 .
  58. ^ ZEIT ONLINE, AFP, dpa, sk: "Russian helicopter shot down in Syria" The time of August 1, 2016
  59. ↑ rt.com: Russian military adviser dies after 'opposition' shelling in Aleppo - MoD
  60. ↑ en-news.com:Major Sanchirov from Kalmykia were killed in Syria during the defense of Palmyra from the militants ( Memento from August 3, 2017 in the Internet Archive )
  61. ↑ Four Russian soldiers killed in a mine explosion in Syria. ( Memento from February 22, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) zeit.de
  62. ↑ Two Russian servicemen killed in Syria shelling, one injured - MoD . In: RT International . ( rt.com [accessed April 11, 2017]).
  63. ↑ CIT: The captain of the GRU died in Syria. Novaya Gazeta, September 22, 2017.
  64. ↑ a b Russian colonel dies in Moscow as a result of injuries in Syria , Novaya Gazeta, October 1, 2017
  65. ^ Andreas Rüesch: Russian general killed in Syria. Neue Zürcher Zeitung from September 25, 2017.
  66. ↑ A Russian Su-24 crashed in Syria , RIA, October 10, 2017 (Russian)
  67. ^ A b Ministry of Defense: The Syrian Air Defense shot down Russian Il-20s because of "irresponsible actions" by Israel , Novaya Gazeta, September 18, 2018
  68. ↑ They were massacred at close range , Novaya Gazeta, February 5, 2020
  69. ↑ Oliver Carroll: "Kremlin distances itself from captured 'Russian soldiers' shown in Isis propaganda video" The Independent of October 4, 2017
  70. ↑ Don't save the private Wagner , Novaya Gazeta, February 17, 2018
  71. ^ Scientific Services - German Bundestag; Document name WD 2 - 029/18, Assessment of Russian, American and Israeli Participation in the Syrian Conflict under International Law. In: https://www.bundestag.de/analysen , June 28, 2018
  72. ↑ Russia committing war crimes by deliberately bombing civilians and aid workers, says Amnesty International . In: The Independent , February 21, 2016.
  73. ↑ Human Rights groups accuse Russia of targeting Syria's Civilians . In: CBS News , December 23, 2015.
  74. ↑ Bombing hospitals in Syria 'an actual strategy of war,' human rights group says . In: CBC News , March 14, 2016.
  75. ↑ Many dead in attacks on hospitals . In: Deutschlandfunk , February 15, 2016.
  76. ↑ Russian airstrikes in Syria killed 2,000 civilians in six months . In: The Guardian , March 15, 2016.
  77. ↑ Syria: Hundreds of civilians killed in Russian air strikes. amnesty.de of December 23, 2015
  78. ↑ Russia shamelessly denies the civilian victims of its air strikes
  79. ↑ Amnesty accuses Russia of systematic bombing of clinics
  80. ↑ The Russian bomb carpet. In: Tagesanzeiger , February 12, 2016.
  81. ^ Paul-Anton Krüger: Syria: Hunger, Torture, Murder. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung , February 9, 2016.
  82. ↑ Russia 'caught out' using incendiary weapons in Syria by its own channel Russia Today . In: The Telegraph , June 22, 2016.
    Russian cluster munitions: Now you see them, now you don't? . In: BBC , June 20, 2016.
    Russia-backed broadcaster RT cuts footage proving use of incendiary 'cluster bombs' in Syria . In: The Independent , June 21, 2016.
  83. ↑ Russia unleashes lethal aerial arsenal on Aleppo . In: The Times , June 22, 2016.
  84. ↑ Russia / Syria: Extensive Recent Use of Cluster Munitions . Human Rights Watch, December 20, 2015.
  85. ↑ Syria: Hundreds of civilians killed in Russian air strikes . Amnesty International, December 23, 2015.
  86. ^ Attacks in Syria: Bombs on the lifesavers . In: Spiegel Online , February 15, 2016.
    Syria: Many dead in attacks on hospitals . In: Deutschlandfunk , February 15, 2016.
  87. ↑ USA accuses Russia of shelling civilians. N24 of December 30, 2015
  88. ↑ "West blames Assad and Russia for failure" Der Tagesspiegel
  89. ^ After Russian air strikes: 50,000 Syrians flee Aleppo. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , February 10, 2016
    Aleppo: An "extreme humanitarian emergency". In: Zeit Online , February 8, 2016.
    Civil war in Syria: Tens of thousands of Syrians are fleeing towards Turkey. In: Wirtschaftswoche , February 5, 2016.
    Civil war in Syria: tens of thousands are fleeing from Russian bombs on Aleppo. In: Spiegel Online , February 4, 2016.
  90. ↑ Tim Hume: McCain slams Russia: "Mr. Putin is not interested in being our partner ”. In: CNN , February 15, 2016.
    Norbert Röttgen: The humanitarian catastrophe in Syria is already here. In: Deutschlandfunk , February 10, 2016.
    Markus Wehner: Russia's mission in Syria: Foreign politicians complain about Moscow's “brutal cynicism”. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , February 6, 2016.
    Ludwig Greven: Syrian War: "Russia bears co-responsibility". In: Zeit Online , February 9, 2016.
    Ron Ben-Yishai : Russia's new Syrian strategy: Ethnic cleansing. In: Ynetnews , February 12, 2016.
    Erler: Fighting without consideration for civilians and refugees. In: Osnabrücker Zeitung , February 9, 2016.
    Bernard-Henri Levy: Putin's strategy is the worst of all bad. In: Die Welt , October 18, 2015.
    Zita Affentranger: Putin on course for victory. In: Tages-Anzeiger , February 13, 2016.
  91. ↑ Bombing raids on Aleppo: Merkel and Davutoglu condemn Russia. In: Bayerischer Rundfunk , February 8, 2016.
  92. ↑ Syrian War: Russia denies responsibility for mass exodus from Aleppo. In: Spiegel Online , February 10, 2016.
  93. ↑ sueddeutsche.de September 9, 2015: Russia confirms the presence of its own soldiers in Syria
  94. ^ Debate about the Syria conflict. General Assembly of the United Nations. In: daserste.de. September 28, 2015, archived from the original on October 9, 2015 ; accessed on October 9, 2015 .
  95. ↑ Putin has military operations abroad approved. The world of September 30, 2015, viewed on September 30, 2015
  96. ↑ a b The Latest: Russia says not invited to strike in Iraq. In: chicagotribune.com. October 1, 2015, accessed November 24, 2016 .
  97. ↑ Russia carries out first air strikes in Syria - Al Jazeera English. In: aljazeera.com. Retrieved November 24, 2016 .
  98. ↑ Andrew Roth, Brian Murphy, Missy Ryan: Russia begins airstrikes in Syria; US warns of new concerns in conflict , Washington Post September 30, 2015, viewed September 30, 2015
  99. ↑ Shaun Walker, Kareem Shaheen, Martin Chulov, Spencer Ackerman and Julian Borger: Russia launches first airstrikes against targets in Syria , The Guardian of September 30, 2015, sighted on September 30, 2015
  100. ↑ Tom LoBianco: McCain: Russian airstrikes target CIA-backed rebels. In: edition.cnn.com. CNN, accessed on October 1, 2015 (English): "Their initial strikes were against the individuals and the groups that have been funded and trained by our CIA, in a credible flaunting of any kind of cooperation or effort to conceal what (Russian President Vladimir) Putin's priority is - and that is, of course, to prop up (Syrian President) Bashar Assad "
  101. ↑ Russian air strikes unleash new devastation in Syrian region, say residents . In: Reuters . Retrieved November 25, 2015.
  102. ↑ Video shows Putin's bombs hit . In: 20min.ch , October 1, 2015.
  103. ↑ Kim Segupta: Russia begins second wave of air strikes in Syria as non-Isis rebels say Putin is trying to elimate Assad opposition. The Independent, October 1, 2015, accessed October 1, 2015
  104. ↑ Syria: Lavrov rejects criticism of Russian air strikes . In: spiegel.de , October 1, 2015, accessed October 1, 2015.
  105. ↑ Ankara: Seven countries expressed concern about Russian air strikes in Syria , RIA Novosti, October 2, 2015
  106. ^ Joint declaration by the governments of France, Germany, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America on the military operation of Russia in Syria ( memento of November 18, 2015 in the Internet Archive ), Federal Foreign Office on October 2, 2015
  107. ↑ Helene Cooper and Michael R. Gordon: Russia Buildup Seen as Fanning Flames in Syria. NYT September 29, 2015, viewed September 29, 2015
  108. ↑ Polina Devitt and Andrew Osborn: UPDATE 1-Russia says its planes struck 10 Islamic State targets in Syria . In: reuters.com , October 4, 2015, accessed October 4, 2015.
  109. ↑ Syria announces ground offensive. ntv.de, October 6, 2015, accessed October 6, 2015 .
  110. ↑ Neil MacFarquhar and Somini Sengupta: Russia Strikes in ISIS Territory in Syria but Ignores Demands Western . New York Times, October 2, 2015, accessed October 2, 2015.
  111. ^ War in Syria. Asad regime dares offensive against rebels. In: nzz.ch. October 7, 2015, accessed October 10, 2015 .
  112. ^ ZEIT ONLINE, dpa, Reuters, sk: "Opposition reports Assad's ground offensive" Zeit.de of October 7, 2015, viewed on October 7, 2015
  113. ↑ Abroad: Attack on IS chief in Iraq? - badische-zeitung.de. October 11, 2015, accessed October 11, 2015 .
  114. ↑ Fighting in Syria: Russia helps Assad - army advances. In: tagesschau.de. October 11, 2015, accessed October 11, 2015 .
  115. ^ War in Syria: Army drives out rebels. In: taz.de. October 11, 2015, accessed October 11, 2015 .
  116. ↑ Russia continues to get serious in Syria. Deutsche Welle, October 11, 2015, accessed on October 11, 2015 .
  117. ↑ Syria: Barack W. Bush and Evil. In: Der Spiegel 40/2014. September 29, 2014, accessed October 18, 2015 .
  118. ^ Al-Qaeda leader Sanafi al-Nasr reportedly killed by Russian forces in Syria airstrike. October 17, 2015, accessed October 18, 2015 .
  119. ^ Jihadists Report Death of Wanted Saudi in Airstrike in Aleppo. In: Jihadist News. October 16, 2015, accessed October 18, 2015 .
  120. ↑ Russian bombers fly around Europe to strike Syria in 8,000 mile show of strength
  121. ↑ Nicholas de Larrinaga: Russia launches long-range air sorties into Syria. In: janes.com. November 17, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  122. ↑ Pavel Podvig: Tu-95MS and Tu-160 strategic bombers used in Syria strikes. russianforces.org, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  123. ^ Long-range bombers to fly anti-ISIS missions from Russia, Putin orders Navy to work with France. In: RT News. November 17, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  124. ↑ Russia bombs IS refineries and oil tankers. In: derStandard.at. November 18, 2015, accessed December 4, 2017 .
  125. ↑ dpa / rct: Fight against terror: Russia destroys IS tankers during air strikes. In: welt.de . November 19, 2015, accessed October 7, 2018 .
  126. ↑ welt.de
  127. ↑ FAZ.net
  128. ↑ Russia: Over 600 rebels killed in attack in Syria . In: news.ORF.at . Retrieved November 25, 2015.
  129. ↑ Ercan Gurses: Turkey summons Russian envoy over bombing of Turkmens in Syria: PM. Reuters of November 20, 2015
  130. ↑ Military Plane Shot Down Near Syria Border, Turkey Says. New York Times (Ceylan Yeginsu / Ivan Nechepurenko) November 24, 2015
  131. ↑ FAZ.net November 24, 2015: Turkey shoots down Russian fighter aircraft.
  132. ↑ Welt.de of January 2, 2016
  133. ↑ On the Syrian border: After a fighter jet crash: Lavrov cancels visit to Turkey - Turkey shoots down fighter jet. In: Focus Online. November 24, 2015, accessed November 25, 2015 .
  134. ↑ Isabelle Fraser, Raziye Akkoc: "Turkey shooting down plane was 'planned provocation' says Russia, as rescued pilot claims he had no warning - latest". The Telegraph, November 26, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  135. ↑ Germany is apparently planning military operations in Syria. In: tagesanzeiger.ch. November 26, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  136. ↑ David Cenciotti: The Aviationist "Russia deploys S-400 and moves guided-missile cruiser off Latakia to protect its jets near Turkish border. In: theaviationist.com. November 26, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  137. ↑ Russia: Bombers are escorted by fighter jets. In: spiegel.de. November 25, 2015, accessed March 10, 2016 .
  138. ↑ Hollande with Putin in the Kremlin. Russians want to spare Syria's moderates. n-tv, November 26, 2015, accessed November 26, 2015 .
  139. ↑ Suleiman Al-Khalidi: Russian air strikes kill at least 30 in stepped up raids in northwest Syria. Reuters of November 29, 2015
  140. ↑ Putin accuses Turkey of oil deals with ISIS. FAZ of November 30, 2015
  141. ↑ Reuters: Turkey angered by serviceman brandishing rocket launcher on Russian ship passing through Istanbul. telegraph.co.uk of December 7, 2015
  142. ↑ APA: Turkey cited Russian ambassador to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. standard.at of December 7, 2015
  143. ↑ Russia fires submarine missiles against IS. In: 20min.ch. December 9, 2015, accessed December 9, 2015 .
  144. ↑ Syria: Russia uses submarines for the first time in the fight against IS. In: Spiegel Online . December 9, 2015, accessed December 9, 2015 .
  145. ↑ stern.de: Several important rebel leaders killed in an air strike in Syria
  146. ↑ Top Syrian rebel commander killed in airstrike near Damascus. The Globe and Mail , December 25, 2015, accessed December 25, 2015 .
  147. ↑ The missile cruiser "Moskwa" returned to Sevastopol from the Mediterranean , Interfax, January 9, 2016
  148. ↑ Liz Sly and Zakaria Zakaria: Syrian rebels are losing Aleppo and perhaps also the war. Washington Post February 4, 2016
  149. ^ Alfred Hackensberger: Saudi Arabia's ground troop plans threaten the entire region. In: welt online. February 5, 2016, accessed February 5, 2016 .
  150. ↑ Syria: Russia on the retreat. In: Deutschlandfunk , March 15, 2016.
  151. ↑ Shorthand of the working session of President Putin, Defense Minister Shoigu and Foreign Minister Lavrov on March 14, 2016 (ru)
  152. ↑ zeit.de: 18 dead in Russian air raids on Palmyra.
  153. ↑ Jack Stubbs and Maria Tsvetkova: On ground in Syria, scant evidence of draw down trumpeted by Kremlin. Reuters April 15, 2016.
  154. ^ "Russian helicopters and military vehicles 'destroyed by Islamic State'" Telegraph of May 24, 2016
  155. ↑ Russia's military in Syria: Bigger than you think and not going anywhere , CNN, May 9, 2016
  156. ↑ Louisa Loveluck and Josie Ensor: "US jets in showdown with Russian warplanes over Syria after bombing of Pentagon-backed rebels" Telegraph of June 20, 2016
  157. ↑ Ben Farmer: “SAS outpost in Syria 'bombed by Russians just hours after troops left'” The Telegraph of July 22, 2016
  158. ↑ The Kremlin is unaware of a "Russian attack" on the US base in Syria. In: de.sputniknews.com. Retrieved July 23, 2016 .
  159. ↑ Tu-22M3 bombers hit newly detected objects of ISIS to the east from Palmyra. In: Минобороны России. youtube.com, July 14, 2015, accessed July 14, 2015 .
  160. ↑ Military operation in Syria: Russian helicopter shot down. In: tagesschau.de. August 1, 2016, accessed August 2, 2016 .
  161. ↑ Jeremy Binnie: Russian Mi-8AMTSh downed in Syria. In: janes.com. August 2, 2016, archived from the original on August 1, 2016 ; accessed on August 2, 2016 .
  162. ↑ Angela Dewan: Russian helicopter shot down in Syria, 5 killed on board - CNN.com. In: edition.cnn.com. August 1, 2016, accessed on August 2, 2016 .
  163. ↑ Christian Weisflog: "The double siege" NZZ of August 10, 2016
  164. ↑ Комоедов объяснил необходимости новых ударов Ту-22М3 по целям в Сирии. In: Минобороны России. youtube.com, August 8, 2016, accessed August 11, 2016 (Russian).
  165. ↑ Associated Press: "Russia uses Iranian airbase for first time in Syria campaign" The Guardian of August 16, 2016
  166. ↑ Russia fires cruise missiles at Syrian rebels. Südtirol Online , August 19, 2016, accessed on August 20, 2016 .
  167. ↑ Russia Asserts Its Military Might in Syria. New York Times , August 19, 2016, accessed August 21, 2016 .
  168. ↑ n-tv news television: cruise missiles and fighter jets: Russia starts major offensive in Syria . In: n-tv.de . ( n-tv.de [accessed on November 15, 2016]).
  169. ↑ Sean O'Connor, Jeremy Binnie, Tim Ripley: Russian carrier jets flying from Syria, not Kuznetsov. In: Janes.com. IHS Jane's 360, November 25, 2016, archived from the original on November 27, 2016 ; accessed on November 28, 2016 (English).
  170. ↑ RP Online. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
  171. ↑ Russian army engineers to de-mine Syria's Aleppo: Interfax. Reuters December 2, 2016.
  172. ^ Samuel Osborne: "Mass graves found in eastern Aleppo, Russia claims" The Independent of December 26, 2016
  173. ↑ Бомбардировщики Ту-22М3 нанесли удары по целям ИГ в Сирии. In: interfax.ru. Interfax, January 23, 2017, accessed January 24, 2017 (Russian).
  174. ↑ «Звезда» публикует новые кадры боевого вылета Ту-22М3. In: Телеканал ЗВЕЗДА. youtube.com, January 23, 2017, accessed January 24, 2017 .
  175. ^ Rebels withdraw from Homs , taz, May 23, 2017
  176. ^ War in Syria: American forces want a new line to Russia. In: FAZ. June 20, 2017. Retrieved June 20, 2017 .
  177. ↑ Strategic Tu-95MS bombers destroyed the ISIS militants' command post and storages in Syria with a missile attack
  178. ^ Assad troops liberate Al Hail gas field
  179. ↑ "Russian fighter jet crashes over Syrian village" Welt / N24 of October 10, 2017
  180. ↑ Syrian government reports recapture of IS bastion Majadin ( memento of October 14, 2017 in the Internet Archive ), Zeit Online, October 14, 2017
  181. ^ Syrian Army Captures Al-Quriyah Town South Of Mayadin City
  182. ^ Tu-22M3 long-range bombers hit ISIS objects in Syria
  183. ↑ Russian Pantsir-S1 Air-Defense System Intercepted Grad Rockets Over Khmeimim Air Base (Photos)
  184. ↑ Russians pound jihadist Jisr al-Shughour stronghold in response to rocket attack on Hmeimim
  185. ↑ Tom Barnes: "Syria: Russian warplane shot down and pilot killed on ground by rebels in Sarqeb" The Independent of February 3, 2018
  186. ↑ Russian pilot downed in Syria "detonated grenade" to avoid capture by jihadists , The Independent, February 5, 2018
  187. ↑ NZZ, May 4, 2018, page 2
  188. ↑ An "alligator" didn't return to base , Kommersant
  189. ^ Heavy Russian and Syrian air strikes on Idlib , NZZ, September 9, 2018
  190. ↑ Russian soldiers guard UN aid convoy for refugee camp al-Rukban in Syria , Sputnik
  191. ↑ Anton Mardasov: "What are Russian special operations forces in Idlib doing?" aljazeera.com from August 29, 2019
  192. ↑ More than 19000 people including about 8300 civilians killed by Russian warplanes since their military participation began on the Syrian territory at the end of September 2015 • The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights. In: The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights. September 30, 2019. Retrieved September 30, 2019 (American English).
  193. ↑ tagesschau.de: Syria: Reports of dozens of dead in fighting in Idlib. Retrieved December 23, 2019 .
  194. ↑ tagesschau.de: UN: Russia and China block aid program. Retrieved December 23, 2019 .
  195. ↑ Syria: Russian fighter jets apparently bomb school - six children killed. In: focus.de. December 25, 2019, accessed December 24, 2019 .
  196. ↑ tagesschau.de: Syria: Reports of dozens of dead in fighting in Idlib. Retrieved December 23, 2019 .
  197. ↑ tagesschau.de: UN: Russia and China block aid program. Retrieved December 23, 2019 .
  198. ↑ a b Air strikes in northern Syria: Erdogan warns of "new wave of migration" . In: Spiegel Online . December 23, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed December 23, 2019]).
  199. ↑ Dominik Peters, Maximilian Popp: Fight for the Syrian province of Idlib: Escape from the inferno . In: Spiegel Online . December 27, 2019 ( spiegel.de [accessed December 28, 2019]).
  200. ↑ tagesschau.de: Offensive in Syria: Hundreds of thousands flee from fighting. Retrieved February 5, 2020 .
  201. ↑ Susanne Koelbl, DER SPIEGEL: Idlib: A refugee reports on the civil war in Syria - DER SPIEGEL - Politics. Retrieved February 5, 2020 .
  202. ↑ tagesschau.de: 235,000 people flee after attacks in northern Syria. Retrieved February 5, 2020 .
  203. ↑ tagesschau.de: Attacks on Idlib: Warning of "humanitarian catastrophe". Retrieved February 5, 2020 .
  204. ↑ DER SPIEGEL: Syria and Russia should target schools and hospitals - DER SPIEGEL - politics. Retrieved May 18, 2020 .